PRINCETON,  N.  J. 


Shelf.. 


BR  145  .B7813  1889  v. 2 
Brueck,  Heinrich,  1831-1903 
History  of  the  Catholic 
Church 


HISTORY 


OF 

THE   CATHOLIC   CHURCH. 

FOR    USE    IN    SEMINARIES   AND    COLLEGES. 
By    DR.    HEINRICH    BRUECK, 

PROFESSOR   OF   THEOLOGY    IN    THE    ECCLESIASTICAL   SEMINARY   OF    SIENTZ. 

TOtt!)  atJtiitiong   from  tfje  ^SSrittngs 

OF 

HIS    EMINENCE    CARDINAL    HERGENROTHER. 

TRANSLATED 

By     REV.     E.     PRUENTE. 

JKEitb    an  Jlntrotiuction 
By  right  rev.  MGR.   JAMES   A.   CORCORAN,    S.T.D., 

PROFESSOR   OF    SACRED    SCRIPTURE,    MORAL   THEOLOGY,    ETC.,    ETC. 

Vol.  II. 

SECOND,    REVISED,   EDITION. 

BEI^ZIGEE      BEOTHERS, 

PrINTEKS  TO   THE    HOLY    APOSTOLlC   SeE. 

1889. 


Imvrimatur, 

^    PETRUS  KICARDUS  KENRICK, 

Archiep.  S.  Ltul 
S.  LuDOVici,  die  5  Julii,  A.  D.  1884. 


Copyright,  1SS5, 
By  Bexzigeb  Brothers. 


SJnfbersftii  iSress: 
John  Wilson  and  Son,  Cambridge. 


CONTENTS   OF  VOL.   11. 


^eCOntJ   CpOCij.  —  continued. 

PERIOD   II. 

FROM  GREGORY  VII.    TO  THE  SO-CALLED  REFORMATION. 

A.    HISTORY  OF  THE   EXTERIOR  CONDITION   OF  THE  CHURCH. 

II.    CHURCH  AND   STATE. 

2.  Prom  the  Death  of  Boniface  VIII.  to  the  Beginning  of  the 
Sixteenth  Century. 

PAGE 

§  124.  The  Exile  of  the  Popes  at  Avignon.  —  Popes  Benedict  XI.  to 
Gregory  XI.,  and  the  Relations  they  bore  to  the  several  States 
of  Europe 12 

125.  The  Western  Schism 24 

126.  The  Council  ot  Pisa 28 

127.  The  Council  of  Constance 29 

128.  Tlie  Popes  Martin  V.  and  Eugene  IV.,  and  the  Councils  of  Siena 

and  Basle 33 

129.  The  last  Popes  of  this  Epoch.  —  Nicholas  V.  to  Leo  X 40 

B  .    HISTORY  OF  THE  INTERIOR   AFFAIRS  OF  THE  CHURCH. 

I.    CONSTITUTION  OF   THE   CHURCH. 

1.    Ecclesiastical  Hierarchy. 

130.  The  Primacy 47 

131.  The  other  Members  of  the  Hierarcliy 54 


iv  CONTENTS   OF   VOL.   II. 

2.    Religious  Orders. 

PAGE 

§  132.     Religious  Orders  of  Kuights  (Military  Orders) 56 

133.     The  New  Monastic  Orders  founded  on  the  Rule  of  St.  Benedict  and 

St.  Augustine 60 

ISi.     The  Orders  devoted  to  the  Special  Veneration  of  Mary     ....  62 

135.  Orders  founded  expressly  for  taking  Care  of  the  Sick,  and  for  other 

Objects  of  Charity 63 

136.  The  two  great  Mendicant  Orders 65 

137.  Efficiency  of  these  Orders.  —  Tlie  Enmity  they  excited.  —  Disputes 

and  Party-Divisions  among  themselves 67 

II.    DEVELOPMENT  OF  DOCTRINE. 
1.   The  Achievements  of  Learning  during  this  Epoch. 

138.  The  Universities.  — Scholasticism  and  Mysticism 73 

139.  The  first  Times  of  Scholasticism 76 

140.  Flourishing  Period  of  Scholasticism 79 

141.  The  Mystics 84 

142.  The  Scholastics  and  Mystics  towards  the  End  of  the  Middle  Ages. 

—  The  several  Branches  of  Learning 85 

143.  Studies  of  the  Humanists ...  89 

2.  Heresies  and  Schisms. 

144.  Attempts  to  unite  the  Schismatic  Greeks.  — The  Smaller  Sects  of 

the  East   .     o     . 93 

145.  The  Smaller  Sects  of  the  West 98 

146.  The  Cathari  (Albigenses  and  Waldenses) 99 

147.  Ecclesiastical  and  Spanish  Inquisition 103 

148.  John  Wycliffe  and  his  Heresy 107 

149.  The  Heresy  of  John  Huss  .  " Ill 

III.    WORSHIP  AND  DISCIPLINE. 

150.  The  Holy  Eucharist.  —  Penance 119 

151.  Churches  and  tlieir  Ornamentation.  —  Religious  Art 121 

152.  Church  Hymns  and  Canticles.  —  Veneration  of  Saints      ....  124 

153.  Various  Forms  of  Superstition 126 

154.  Christian  Instruction 127 

155.  Moral  and  Religious  Life 129 

156.  Retrospect  concerning  the  Influence  exercised  by  the  Church  in 

the  Middle  Ages    .     .     .     . 133 


CONTENTS   OF   VOL.   II.  V 

Cbird  epoci). 

PERIOD   I. 

FROM    THE  SO-CALLED    REFORMATION  TO   THE  FRENCH 

REVOLUTION. 

A.     EXTERIOR   HISTORY   OF  THE   CHURCH. 
I.    SPREAD  OF   CHRISTIANITY. 

PAGE 

§  157.     Missions  in  India,  Cochin  China,  Tonquin,  Siam,  Thibet,  etc.      .     .     135 

158.  Christianity  in  China  and  Japan,  and  in  Africa 137 

159.  Christian  Missions  in  America 141 

II.    CHURCH  AND   STATE. 

160.  Outbreak  of  the  Schism  in  Germany.  —  Stand  taken  by  Luther 

ao-ainst  Indulgences.  —  Measures  taken  by  the  Apostolic  See  .     .     153 

161.  Disputation  at  Leipsic  and  its  Results 157 

;  62.     The  Diet  of  Worms.  —  Luther's  Sojourn  on  the  Wartburg.  —  The 

Prophets  of  Zwickau.  —  Luther's  Contest  with  them      ....  159 

163.  Popes  Adrian  VI.  and  Clement  VII.  —  The  two  Diets  at  Nuremberg  161 

164.  Tlie  Peasants'  War 162 

165.  Introduction  of  the  Lutheran  Heresy  by  several  Princes  of  the 

Empire.  —  Luther's  Organization  of  Divine  Service.  —  His  Con- 
test with  Erasmus 163 

166.  The  Treaty  of  Torgau.  —  The  two  Diets  at  Spire,  in  1526  and  1529     165 

167.  The   Diet  at  Augsburg,   1530.  —  "  Confessio  Augustana."  —  Col- 

loquies       166 

168.  The  League  of  Schmalkald 168 

169.  Further  Progress   of  Protestantism. — Attempts   at  Reunion. — 

Bigamy  of  Philip  of  Hesse.  —  Acts  of  Violence.  —  Diets  at 
Spire,  1542,  1544,  and  at  Ratisbon,  1546.  —  Luther's  Death. 
—  His  Character         169 

170.  The  Schmalkaldic  War.  —  Treaty  of  Passau.  —  Peace  of  Augsburg     174 

171.  The  Reformation  (so-called)  in  Switzerland.  —  Ulrich  Zwingli   .     .     176 

172.  The  so-called  Reformation  in  French  Switzerland.  —  John  Calvin  .     178 

173.  Protestantism  in  France < •     182 

174.  Protestantism   in   France   (continued) .— The  Night  of  St.   Bar- 

tholomew. —  The  League.  —  The  Edict  of  Nantes.—  Its  Repeal 
under  Louis  XIV 1^' 

175.  Protestantism  in  the  Netherlands 1^2 

176.  Apostasy  of  England  from  the  Church 194 

177.  The  so-called  Rpformation  in  Scotland 201 


vi  CONTENTS   OF    VOL.    II. 

PAGE 

§  178.     The  Catholic  Church  iu  Great  Britain  under  the  Stuarts   ....  203 

179.     The  Sufleriugs  of  the  Catholics  iu  Irelaud 207 

ISO.     Apostasy  iu  Scandinavia 213 

181.  Protestantism  iu  Livonia,  Courland,  Poland,  and  Silesia    ....  215 

182.  Protestantism  iu  Hungary  and  Transylvania 217 

183.  Relation  between  the  Catholics  aud  Protestants  iu  Germany.  —  The 

Thirty  Years' War.  — The  Peace  of  Westphalia 219 

184.  General  Remarks  on  the  Propagation,  Nature,  aud  Effects  of  the 

Reformatriou 223 


B.     HISTORY   OF    THE    INTERIOR   CONDITION    OF  THE   CHURCH. 

r.    CONSTITUTION   OF  THE  CHURCH. 

185.  The  Council  of  Trent -  ....  226 

186.  Carrying  into  Effect  the  Reforma-tory  Decrees  of  the  Council  of 

Trent 231 

187.  The  Jesuits  and  the  Order  of  Capuchins 234 

188.  Other  Orders  and  Congregations  of  this  Era 237 

189.  Exertions  of,  aud  Enmity  towards,  the  Holy  See 240 

190.  The  so-called  Gallican  Liberties 245 

191.  The  Popes  of  the  Eighteenth  Century.  —  Febronius 247 

192.  Josephism 251 

193.  Contest  concerning  the  Nunciature.  —The  Congress  of  Ems      .     .  253 

194.  Italy.  —  The  Syuod  of  Pistoja 254 


II.    DEVELOPMENT  OF  DOCTRINE. 

1.  Ecclesiastical  Leakning. 

195.  The  Theological  Studies  of  this  Period  . 256 

2.  Heresies  and  Schisms. 

196.  The  Errors  of  the  so-called  Reformers 260 

197.  Contentious  among  the  Protestants 264 

198.  The  Smaller  Protestant  Sects 269 

199.  Controversies  on  the  Relation  which  Grace  bears  to  Free- Will  .     .  276 

200.  Jansenism 278 

201.  Jansenism  (continued).  —  Quesnel 281 

202.  The  Schism  of  Utrecht 283 

203.  Quietism 284 

204.  The  Religious  Condition  of  Germany  after  the  P-eace  of  Westphalia. 

—  Several  Attempts  at  Union 285 

205.  The  Grpeco-Russiau   Church.  —  Attempts  at  Union.  —  The  Older 

Sects  of  the  East 289 


CONTENTS   OF    VOL.    II.  Vli 

PAGE 

206.  Attacks   upon   Christianity.  —  English   Deists.  —  Freemasons.  — 

Pliilosophers  in  France 291 

207.  Protestant  Rationalism 297 

208.  Rationalism  in  Catholic  Circles 300 

209.  Hostility  to  the  Jesuits  and  Suppression  of  their  Order    ....  303 

III.    WORSHIP  AND  DISCIPLINE. 

210.  The  Celebration  of  Divine  Worship.  —  Christian  Art.  —  Religious 

Life 307 


PERIOD    II. 

FROM  THE  FRENCH  REVOLUTION  DOWN  TO   OUR    OWN 

DAY. 

A.     EXTERIOR    HISTORY  OF  THE  CHURCH. 
I.    SPREAD  OF   CHRISTIANITY. 

PAGE 

§  211.     Missions  in  the  East  Indies,  China,  Japan,  etc 310 

212.  Th«  Catholic  Church  in  the  United  States 312 

213.  Missions  in  Central  America,  the  West  Indies,  and  South  America, 

in  Africa  and  Oceanica 328 

214.  Missions  in  Turkey  and  Persia 331 

II.    CHURCH  AND   STATE. 

215.  Influence  of  the  French  Revolution  on  Ecclesiastical  Affairs  .     .     .     334 

216.  Restoration  of  Ecclesiastical  Order  in  France.  —  Concordat  of  1801. 

—  Napoleon  and  Pope  Pius  VII 338 

217.  The  Catholic  Church  in  Germany.  —  Secularization 342 

218.  The  Catholic  Church  in  Bavaria  under  Maximilian  Joseph  I.  and 

Louis  1 345 

219.  Ecclesiastical  Affairs  in  Prussia.  —  Troubles  in  Cologne     ....  347 

220.  The  Ecclesiastical  Provinces  of  the  Upper  Rhine 350 

221.  The  Condition  of  Ecclesiastical  Affairs  in  Austria  under  Francis  II. 

and  Ferdinand  1 353 

222.  The  Catholic  Church  in  the  States  of  the  German  Alliance  since  the 

Year  1818 .356 

223.  The  Restoration.  —  France  under  the  Bourbons.  —  Louis  Philippe. 

—  Emperor  Napoleon  III.  —  Tlie  Republic 365 

224.  The  Catholic  Church  in  Spain  and  Portugal 370 

225.  The  Catholic  Church  in  the  Italian  States 374 


vm  CONTENTS   OF    VOL.    11. 

PAGE 

§  226.     Ecclesiastical  Affairs  iu  Switzerland 376 

227.  The  Condition  of  the  Catholic  Church  in  the  Netherlands     ...  380 

228.  Persecutions  of  the  Catholic  Cliurch  in  Poland  and  Russia    .     .     .  384 

229.  Catholicity  hi  Ireland 388 

230.  Revival  of  Catholicity  iu  England  and  Scotland.  —  Restoration  of 

the  Hierarchy  iu  both  Countries 393 


B.     HISTORY   OF  THE    INTERIOR    CONDITION   OF  THE  CHURCH. 
I.    CONSTITUTION   OF  THE  CHURCH. 

PAGE 

231.  The  Popes  of  the  Nineteenth  Century 400 

232.  The  (Ecumenical  Council  of  the  Vatican 405 

II.    DEVELOPMENT  OP  DOCTRINE. 
1.  Scientific  Studies. 

233.  Theological  Science  in  the  Nineteenth  Century 407 

2.   Heresies  and  Schisms. 

234.  Theological  Tendencies  among  Protestants 412 

235.  The  Protestant  Union  and  its  Results.  —  Several  Shades  in  Protes- 

tantism        415 

236.  Interior  State  of  Protestantism  —  Sects 418 

237.  The  Sect  of  tlie  Rongeans  and  of  the  so-called  Old  Catholics     .     .  423 

238.  The  Schismatic  Churches  of  the  East 425 

III.    WORSHIP  AND  DISCIPLINE. 

239.  Divine  Service. — Christian  Life 426 

240.  Coucludiusr  Remarks 430 


Chronological  List  of  Popes  from  Benedict  XL  to  Leo  XIII 432 

Clironological  List  of  (Ecumenical  Councils  from  the  Council  of  Vieuue  to 

tliat  of  the  Vatican 433 

Chronological  Table  of  Popes,  Emperors,  Kings,  and   Important  Events, 

from  Benedict  XL  to  the  dissolution  of  the  German  Empire  in  1806.  .    434 


Index 455 


HISTORY  OF  THE  CATHOLIC  CHURCH. 


econli    €poc|). 


PERIOD   II. 

FR03I    GREGORY    VII.     TO     THE    SO-CALLED 
REFORMATION. 


A.    HISTORY  OF  THE   EXTERIOR  CONDITION   OF  THE  CHURCH. 
II,    CHURCH   AND   STATE. 

2.    From  the  Death  of  Boniface  VIII.  to  the  Beginning  of  the 
Sixteenth  Century. 

Introductory  Remarks. 

THE  era  from  the  pontificate  of  Boniface  VIII.  forms  the  tran- 
sition period  to  that  of  modern  times.  It  shows  us,  first, 
the  decrease  of  papal  power.  Imperialism  had  been  weakened  in 
its  authority  and  influence  by  the  contests  in  which  it  had  been 
involved  through  the  fault  of  those  who  wore  the  imperial  crown, 
and  those  contests  had  also  so  injured  the  papacy  as  to  compel  it 
to  have  recourse  to  France.  France,  in  virtue  of  its  ancient  and 
intimate  relations  to  the  Holy  See,  arrogated  to  itself  claims  far 
too  high.  It  was  the  dependence  of  the  Popes  on  French  policy 
that  had  induced  them  to  transfer  their  residence  to  Avignon  ;  and 
the  endeavor,  on  the  one  hand,  of  the  Popes  to  free  themselves  from 
this  yoke  by  returning  to  Rome,  and  on  the  other  the  efforts  made 
by  France  to  secure  the  advantages  it  had  gained,  led  to  the  forty 
years'  schism.  Naturally,  these  circumstances  weakened  the  influence 
and  authority  of  the  Holy  See ;  they  engendered  in  the  very  bosom 
of  the  Church  itself  a  many-sided  opposition,  which  called  into  exist- 
ence new  doctrines  respecting  the  nature  of  the  ecclesiastical  con- 
stitution, and  new  reformatory  experiments,  which,  not  being  guided 


10  HISTORY  OF   THE    CATHOLIC   CHURCH. 

by  clear  views  as  to  their  tendency,  not  being  founded  on  any  solid 
basis,  but  being  simply  the  result  of  the  excitement  under  which 
the  spirits  of  the  age  acted,  were  far  more  successful  in  tearing  down 
than  in  building  up.  Nor  at  that  period  did  so  many  able  and  noble 
minds  succeed  each  other  in  St.  Peter's  seat,  as  had  in  the  past  ages 
ruled  the  storm.  Not  every  one  yf  the  Popes  was  able  to  take  a  right 
view  of  his  position  under  the  ever-varying  relationships  by  which 
he  was  surrounded.  Not  all  of  them  were  able  to  cope  with  the 
exigencies  of  the  age;  some  few  of  them  were  not  worthy  of  the 
hio-h  dignity  to  which  they  were  called.  The  ecclesiastical  opposition 
took  advantage  of  their  short-comings,  even  as  the  politico-demo- 
cratic party  ever  availed  themselves  of  the  weak  side  of  monarchy. 
Reverence  for  authority,  and  with  it  that  willing  obedience  which 
springs  from  such  reverence,  was  vanishing  more  and  more  ;  as  the 
bishops  wished  to  coerce  the  Pope,  the  priests  also  wished  to  coerce 
the  bishops,  and  the  laity  to  coerce  the  clergy.  The  weakening  of 
the  Church  in  its  centre  led  to  the  weakening  of  every  part  of  her 
periphery. 

Secondly,  this  period  shows  the  rise  of  a  self-conscious  temporal 
State  liollc/ij  hostile  to  the  Church;  entailing  an  excessive  increase 
of  State  encroachments  on  the  domain  of  the  Church.  Kings  with- 
drew themselves  more  and  more  from  the  guidance  of  the  ecclesias- 
tical law.  The  State,  instead  of  recognizing  the  supreme  authority 
of  the  Church,  strove  more  and  more  to  subordinate  spiritual  authority 
to  the  temporal,  to  sever  political  relationships  from  the  domain  of 
religion  and  morality.  As  a  consequence,  the  sentiment  of  unity 
and  of  family  alliance  among  Christian  nations  gave  way  more  and 
more  to  national  jealousy  and  egotism.  The  Pope  being  no  longer 
arbiter  between  princes,  the  sword  alone  could  decide  their  disputes. 
Such  a  change  of  spirit  could  not  fail  to  bring  with  it  new  and  grave 
dangers  even  to  the  temporal  power. 

Therefore  this  age  shows,  thirdly,  the  presumptuous  iyisolence 
which,  as  the  bonds  of  authority  became  loosened,  seized  on  the 
unfettered  spirit.  It  shows,  also,  the  strong  tendency  to  revolution 
which  everywhere  appears  when  the  higher  sustaining  powers  are 
arrested  in  the  performance  of  their  duty,  and  not  able  to  correspond 
to  the  most  urgent  demands  of  the  soul ;  then  the  spirit  of  unity 
gives  way  to  the  egoistic  selfishness  of  individuals,  and,  in  the  place 
of  the  high  ideal,  the  rude  craving  after  material  gain,  the  selfish 
desire  of  individual  advantage,  predominates.  Therefore  it  was 
that  a  gross  materialism,  promoted  by  new  inventions  and  new  dis- 


INTRODUCTORY  REMARKS.  11 

coveries,  set  in  ;  this  was  fostered,  also,  by  the  more  commou  exten- 
sion of  classical  studies,  combined  with  a  reawakening  of  a  pagan 
spirit,  which  aspired  only  at  realizing  earthly  treasures  and  tempo- 
ral enjoyments,  forgetting  heaven  in  its  attachment  to  the  world. 

To  this  was  united,  fourthly,  on  the  one  hand,  a  degeneracy  of 
science,  as  of  theology  and  jurisprudence ;  and  on  the  other,  a  tvider 
expansion  of  some  scientific  branches,  as  in  historical  criticism,  in 
linguistic  studies,  and  in  empiricism.  The  representatives  of  the 
newly  cultivated  fields  of  material  science  lost  sight  of  tradition 
and  authority,  and  attached  themselves  in  great  measure  to  the  new 
heretics,  many  of  whom  used  religion  only  as  a  joretext  for  political 
innovations. 

Fifthly,  heresy  at  this  period  bears  a  much  more  general  character 
than  it  formerly  did,  —  embraces  a  much  wider  scope.  Up  to  that 
time  the  Church  had  found  no  adequate  opponent  in  the  sects  that 
had  arisen  ;  now  new  ones  came  forth,  who  assailed  her  not  merely 
in  her  separate  dogmas  but  in  her  very  roots,  availing  themselves 
of  real  or  pretended  abuses  in  clerical  life  to  justify  their  negation, 
and  using  the  cry  that  had  become  the  watchword,  "  Reformation 
of  the  Church  in  her  Head  and  members,"  to  foster  discontent  and 
to  deceive  the  masses.  Thus  by  degrees  everything  became  un- 
certain, —  everything  became  a  doubt,  a  question.  Individualism 
pressed  itself  forward :  revolt  and  warfare  followed.  The  false 
systems  organized  with  the  view  of  limiting  the  power  alike  of  the 
spiritual  and  of  the  temporal  order,  with  the  view  of  contenting  the 
spiritual  and  bodily  requirements  of  the  age,  sought  to  find  reali- 
zation in  actual  life.  Some  sparks  were  emitted,  from  which  was 
soon  to  arise  a  brightly  glowing  flame. 

Yet  amid  storms  such  as  these,  amid  the  veriest  perversities  of 
schism,  the  apostolic  seat  of  St.  Peter  still  maintained  its  ground. 
Fiercely  shaken  it  was,  biit  never  destroyed,  being  upheld  by  the 
divine  protection.  Even  the  temporary  predominance  of  a  false 
ecclesiastical  constitutionalism,  even  the  councils  that  were  held  in 
opposition  to  it,  could  not  undermine  its  authority,  although  such 
means  partially  succeeded  in  obscuring  it  in  the  eyes  of  many  con- 
temporaries and  of  some  of  those  who  came  after.  Even  those  who 
were  unworthy  to  wear  the  tiara  have  in  several  instances  done 
much  for  the  promotion  of  knowledge,  for  the  furtherance  of  mis- 
sions, and  for  the  maintenance  of  ecclesiastical  order  and  discipline. 
Also,  throughout  this  period  there  never  failed  a  time  in  which  great 
saints,  doctors,  and  princes  did  not  appear,  nor  any  in  which  religious 


12  HISTORY  OF   THE    CATHOLIC   CHURCH. 

enthusiasm  did  not  give  birth  to  noble  deeds.  This  enthusiasm  dis- 
played itself  in  the  most  brilliant  manner  in  Spain,  when  it  came 
out  victorious  from  its  contests  with  the  Moors,  and  was  united  into 
a  mighty  kingdom  which  formed  the  first  great  power. 

Islam,  succumbing  in  the  west,  yet  making  mighty  strides  in  the 
southeast  of  Europe,  owing  to  the  disunion  among  Christian  princes, 
called  forth  the  energy  of  some  distinguished  men,  and  to  some 
extent  obviated  the  torpidity,  the  intellectual  and  moral  laxity,  to 
which  otherwise  Hungary,  Poland,  and  Germany  would  have  been 
entirely  sacrificed. 

The  mighty  tide-wave  which  had  seized  upon  the  nations,  while  it 
promoted  much  that  was  bad,  also  brought  to  light  much  that  was 
good.  It  served  to  the  further  spreading  of  the  kingdom  of  Christ, 
which  in  the  remotest  east,  south,  and  west  was  to  find  compensa- 
tion for  the  losses  it  had  sustained  in  the  north. 

Good  elements  existed  yet,  struggling  with  the  bad,  —  elements 
fraught  with  desire  for  the  welfare  of  the  Church  and  endowed 
with  zeal  and  strength.  But  it  was  through  these  mighty  storms 
that  the  air  of  the  Church  was  to  be  purified ;  it  was  through  these 
hard  contests  that  a  new  victory  was  to  be  gained.  The  renovation 
of  the  Church  was  to  take  place  from  zvithin,  after  the  whole  edifice 
had  been  shaken  from  without  to  its  very  centre,  to  its  very  base. 

§  124.  The  Exile  of  the  Popes  at  Avignon.  —  Popes  Benedict  XL 
to  Gregory  XI.^  and  the  Relations  they  bore  to  the  several  States 
of  Europe. 

Ten  days  after  the  death  of  Boniface  VIII.,  Benedict  XI. ^  was 
unanimously  elected  at  Rome  (Oct.  22, 1303).  He  sought  to  restore 
peace  with  the  French  court  without  violating  justice. 

By  the  advice  of  Nogaret,  Philip  IV.  had  sent  an  embassy  to 
Rome.  The  Pope  received  the  members  of  it  kindly,  and  without 
being  again  requested,  removed  the  censures  which  had  been  passed 
upon  the  king.  Subsequently  he  issued  several  decrees  by  which 
the  punishments  which  had  been  inflicted  by  Boniface  on  France 
were  revoked,  and  several  far  from  insignificant  favors  were  granted 

1  Nicholas  Boccasini,  General  of  the  Dominicans,  Cardinal  Bishop  of  Ostia.  He 
was  properly  the  tenth  of  the  name,  since  Benedict  X.  was  an  anti-Pope  (see  §  90). 
Concerning  Benedict  XI.  and  the  following  Popes,  see  Christophe,  Hist,  of  the  Papacy 
in  the  Fourteenth  Century.  Hefcle,  Hist  of  the  Councils,  vi.  344  sqq.  Baluze,  Vitae 
pap.  Aveuion.,  torn,  ii.,  Paris. 


POPES  BENEDICT  XI.    TO   GREGORY  XI.  13 

to  the  kiiig.i  Benedict  also  partly  withdrew  the  penalties  imposed 
on  the  Colonnas,-  and  he  absolved  from  excommunication  all  the 
Frenchmen  who  were  implicated  in  the  outrage  at  Anagni,  with 
the  exception  of  Nogaret;  but  Philip  IV.  was  by  no  means  satis- 
fied with  these  concessions.  He  demanded  of  Benedict  the  con- 
vocation of  a  general  council  to  pass  judgment  on  Pope  Boniface 
VIII.,  whom  he  accused  of  heresy ;  his  object  being  to  gratify  his 
hate  and  to  justify  his  own  conduct  before  Christendom. 

Benedict  evaded  a  definite  answer,  and  put  off  his  decision  to  a 
later  day.  But  he  died  at  Perugia,  after  a  brief  pontificate  of  eight 
months,  and  after  having  expressed  in  no  measured  terms  his  ab- 
horrence of  the  outrage  committed  at  Anagni.^  His  death  was  not 
without  suspicion  of  poison. 

A  division  in  the  college  of  cardinals  as  to  the  position  which 
the  future  Pope  should  hold  relatively  to  France  delayed  the  papal 
election,  so  that  it  was  the  5th  of  June,  1305,  in  the  eleventh 
month  of  the  conclave,  before  Bertrand  de  Got  (Clement  V.,  1305- 
1314)  was  proclaimed  supreme  head  of  the  Church. 

The  rumor  that  this  Pope  had  made  six  concessions  to  the  King 
of  France  before  his  election  is  false,  though  it  is  patent  that  his 
connivance  with  the  French  court  after  he  became  Pope  gave  coun- 
tenance to  the  report. 

This  Pope  withdrew  the  bull  "  Clericis  laicos,"  and  made  the  dec- 
laration that  the  operation  of  the  bull  "  Uuam  sanctam  "  should  not 
prejudice  France.*  He  restored  the  Colonnas  to  their  honors  and 
dignities,  gave  an  unheard-of  preference  to  the  French  in  his  pro- 
motions to  the  cardinalate,  as  well  as  in  the  decree  which  granted 
to  the  avarice  of  the  king  the  tithes  of  the  Church  for  five  years. 
He  raised  the  candidates  nominated  by  the  king  to  the  most  influ- 
ential episcopal  sees  of  France,  suppressing  or  ignoring  by  that 
act  the  right  of  election  inherent  in  the  cathedral  chapter ;  and 
even  then  Philip  was  not  satisfied.  He  had  not  lost  sight  of 
Nogaret's  design,  and  demanded  of  Clement,  immediately  after  his 
coronation,  that  he  should  commence  a  process  against  Boniface, 
whom  he  charged  with  heresy. 

Philip  had  yet  another  object  in  view  ;  namely,  the  suppression 

1  Hcfele,  Hist,  of  the  Councils,  vi.  345  sqq. 

2  Hcfele,  Hist  of  the  Councils,  vi.  345,  n.  2. 

3  Bull  "Flagitiosum  scelus."     Tosti,  ii.  313,  14. 

*  C.  2  Meruit  V.  7  Extravag.  comm.  de  privileg.  Cf.  Bianchi  della  Podest^,  etc., 
I,  §  10,  p.  98  sqq.     Phillips,  Ec.  Rec.  iii.  266. 


14  HISTORY   OF   THE    CATHOLIC   CHURCH. 

of  the  Order  of  Knights  Templars,  to  effect  which  he  desired  the 
co-operation  of  the  Pope. 

Clement  hesitated  to  comply  with  the  demands  of  the  king,  who 
in  May,  1307,  and  subsequently,  reiterated  his  propositions  respect- 
ing the  heresy  of  Boniface,  and  was  most  urgent  in  his  endeavors 
to  induce  the  Pope  to  comply  with  his  wishes  respecting  the  Order 
of  the  Templars.  The  Pope  yielded  at  length  to  the  second  point, 
and  even  expressed  his  willingness  to  hear  the  accusers  of  liis  illus- 
trious predecessor,  of  whose  innocence  he  declared  his  personal 
conviction. 

The  judicial  examination  took  place  on  the  16th  of  March,  1310, 
in  a  consistory  at  Avignon,  at  which  place  Clement  had  resided 
since  1309.  The  envoys  of  the  King  of  France  were  Nogaret,  who 
was  still  under  excommunication,^  William  du  Plessis,  and  others, 
who  brought  forward  against  Boniface  VIII.  the  most  improbable 
calumnies,  invented  by  hatred,  and  which  had  been  circulated  for 
years  by  the  accomplices  of  Philip.  Finally,  the  king,  whose  prin- 
cipal aim  at  that  time  was  directed  towards  the  Knights  Templars, 
was  fain  to  content  himself  with  the  understanding  that  the  process 
against  Boniface  should  be  decided  at  Vienne,  at 

The   Fifteenth   OEcumenical    Council    (Oct.   16,   1311,   to 
May  6,  1312), 

which  had  already  been  convoked  by  the  Pope.  At  this  synod  the 
charges  against  Boniface  were  declared  to  be  unfounded,  and  thus 
the  design  of  the  King  of  France  was  frustrated. 

But  with  regard  to  the  Order  of  the  Templars,^  the  suppression 
of  which  was  determined  upon  at  Vienne,  the  king  did  attain 
his  object,  which  was  to  fill  his  own  coffers  with  the  confiscated 
treasures  belonging  to  the  Templars,  at  the  same  time  that  he  won 
for  himself  the  reputation  of  being  a  defender  of  orthodoxy. 

Although  Clement  V.  had  acceded  to  the  greater  number  of  wishes 
expressed  by  the  King  of  France,  he  did  not  countenance  his  plan 
of  obtaining  the  royal  crown  of  Germany  and  that  of  the  empire 
for  his  brother  Charles  of  Valois.    Pope  Clement  favored  the  election 

1  He  was  absolved  on  April  27,  1311.  The  bull  "Licet"  in  Raynald,  Ad  ann.  1311, 
n.  50,  contains  the  conditions. 

2  See  §  132.  At  the  Council  of  Vienne  the  proposition  (which  Giinther  has  in 
modern  times  renewed)  that  the  "anima  rationalis  sive  intellectiva "  is  not  "vera 
forma  corporis  "  is  rejected  as  erroneous. 


POPES  BENEDICT  XL    TO   GREGORY  XI.  15 

of  Henry,  Count  of  Luxemburg,  who,  in  1310,  set  out  on  his  journey 
to  Rome. 

Filled  with  the  idea  of  imperial  omnipotence,  Henry  Yll.  made 
his  appearance  in  Italy,  which  had  been  fearfully  devastated  by  the 
continual  conflicts  between  the  Ghibellines  and  the  Guelphs,  and 
was  crowned  emperor  in  the  Lateran  by  the  cardinals  commissioned 
to  perform  that  office.  Unable  to  keep  aloof  from  the  strife  of 
party,  he  found  himself  drawn  in  to  take  sides  where  he  could  not 
establish  a  peace.  He  joined  the  Ghibellines,  who  had  welcomed 
him  by  acclamation,  and  he  then  became  their  leader.  The  Guelphs, 
on  the  other  hand,  found  an  ally  in  Robert,  King  of  Naples  ;  and  it 
was  against  this  latter  that  Henry's  anger  was  directed. 

It  was  in  vain  that  the  Pope  endeavored  to  induce  the  princes  to 
agree  to  an  armistice.  Henry  went  on  with  his  warlike  prepara- 
tions, and  threatened  Naples,  declared  Robert  an  enemy  of  the 
empire,  and,  April  26,  1313,  placed  him  under  the  ban  of  the  em- 
pire, and  pronounced  sentence  of  death  upon  him  for  high-treason. 
Being  called  upon  by  France  and  England  to  annul  this  sentence, 
Clement  required  the  emperor  to  revoke  his  hasty  judgment.  Henry 
did  not  comply ;  and  everything  was  already  prepared  to  attack 
Naples,  which  was  a  fief  of  the  Roman  Church,  when  Henry  died,  at 
Pisa,  on  the  24th  of  August,  1313,  after  a  short  sickness. 

In  England,  during  the  reign  of  Edw.ard  I.  (1272-1307),  the  king, 
who  was  continually  at  war  with  France  and  Scotland,  encroached 
in  many  ways  upon  the  ancient  rights  of  the  Church.  But  this 
was  far  less  the  case  under  Edward  II.  (1307-1327).  When  the 
king,  in  1312,  was  threatened  by  a  turbulent  nobility,  Clement  V. 
sent  two  legates  to  mediate  between  him  and  his  barons  ;  and 
after  a  protracted  stubbornness  of  purpose  on  the  part  of  the  latter, 
they  finally  effected  a  peace  between  them.  The  bishops  remained 
personally  attached  to  the  king,  but  they  resisted  the  efforts  made 
by  temporal  judges  to  cite  cases  appertaining  to  ecclesiastical  dis- 
cipline before  their  forum. ^ 

There  had  been  many  claimants  to  the  throne  of  Scotland ;  and 
Edward  I.  of  England  had  at  first  declared  in  favor  of  John  Baliol, 
who  paid  him  feudal  homage ;  but  afterwards  Edward  made  war 
against  him  and  took  him  prisoner  on  the  plea  that  he  was  an 

1  This  attempt  was  also  made  under  Edward  III.  ;  but  he  finally  acknowledged 
the  authority  of  the  ecclesiastical  courts  over  clerics.  The  bishops  were  also  fre- 
quently compelled  to  defend  the  rights  of  the  Church  to  her  own  possessions  and  to 
the  making  of  ecclesiastical  appointments. 


16  HISTORY  OF   THE   CATHOLIC   CHURCH. 

unfaithful  vassal.  The  Scots  elected  young  Eobert  Bruce  as  king ; 
and  he  drove  the  troops  of  the  English  king,  Edward  II.,  out  of  the 
kingdom  of  Scotland,  and  maintained  his  own  independence  in  it 
until  his  death,  in  1328.  He  refused  to  receive  the  legates  of  John 
XXII.,  because  the  papal  letter  which  they  brought  in  reference 
to  his  disputed  right  to  the  throne  and  to  the  claims  of  England 
denied  him  the  title  of  king.  When  afterwards,  for  the  sake  of 
peace,  the  Pope  gave  him  that  title,  his  Holiness  declared  that 
he  did  so  without  prejudice  to  any  advantage  or  disadvantage  that 
might  accrue  to  either  side.^ 

In  the  year  1314  Pope  Clement  V.  departed  this  life,  on  the  20th 
of  April.  But  it  was  not  before  the  7th  of  August,  1316,  that  he 
found  a  successor  ^  in  James  of  Ossa,  from  Cahors,  Cardinal  Bishop 
of  Porto,  who  took  the  name  of  John  XXII. 

The  first  care  of  this  Pope  was  directed  to  Germany.  Here,  on  the 
25th  of  November,  1314,  during  the  vacancy  of  the  apostolic  chair, 
a  double  election  had  taken  place.  Frederic  of  Austria  and  Louis 
of  Bavaria  were  contending  for  the  royal  crown.  Both  appealed  to 
the  Pope  for  recognition  and  for  coronation  as  emperor.  John 
XXII.  called  upon  them  (Sept.  5,  1316)  to  come  to  a  peaceable  un- 
derstanding, and  at  first  recognized  neither  of  the  elected  princes  as 
king,  but  confirmed  King  Robert  of  Naples  in  the  position  he  had 
received  from  his  predecessor  as  Imperial  Yicar  of  Italy  for  such 
time  as  the  imperial  throne  should  remain  vacant.^ 

The  victory  of  Miihldorf  (Sept.  28,  1322)  gave  Louis  the  upper 
hand  in  Germany ;  and  he  immediately  assumed  the  state  due  to 
a  king,  nay,   even  that   belonging  to  an  emperor,*  while  he  now 

^  This  declaration  was  in  conformity  with  one  of  Clement  V.,  and  similar  to  those 
made  by  other  Popes  on  like  occasions.  The  Popes  did  not  interfere  in  the  contest 
for  the  throne  by  both  countries;  they  only  sought  to  uphold  the  rights  of  the  Church 
in  like  manner  as  Eugene  IV.,  for  instance,  upheld  them  against  James,  King  of 
Scotland. 

'^  One  part  of  the  cardinals  wished  for  a  Pope  who  would  again  take  up  his  resi- 
dence in  Eonie  ;  but  those  who  were  attached  to  France  resisted  this.  Hcfclc,  Hist, 
of  the  Councils,  vi.  505  sqq. 

3  "  Imperium  vacans"  as  distinguished  from  "regnum  vacans." 

*  Thereby  coming  into  contradiction  with  himself  and  with  the  convictions  of  his 
contemporaries.  Cf.  Mutii,  Chron.  Germ.  xxiv.  866:  "Tanta  Eomanae  sedis  auctoritas 
et  religio  erat  apud  plerosque,  ut  non  judicarent  nee  appellandum  censerent  impera- 
torem,  nisi  prius  unctus,  coronatus,  confirmatusque  esset."  (Piatoi:  Germ.  Script,  ii. 
866.)  Gerh.  de  Moo,  Hist.  Austriac.  ii.  88 :  "  Ea  Pontificis  auctoritas,  ea  apud  plerosque 
reverentia  erat,  uti  ab  ejus  confirmatione  imperatoria  dignitas  penderet  multique  per 


POPES   BENEDICT  XI.    TO   GREGORY  XL  17 

demanded  recognition  from  the  Pope  without  further  examination 
into  his  claims.  At  the  same  time  he  gave  offence  by  the  support 
he  rendered  to  Galeazzo  Visconti  in  Milan,  and  to  other  enemies 
of  tlie  Church,  besides  attacking  the  imperial  vicar.  In  this  man- 
ner he  came  into  collision  with  the  Holy  See ;  and  in  October,  1323, 
John  XXII.  required  him  within  three  months  to  resign  the  ad- 
ministration of  the  empire  and  withdraw  his  operations  from  Italy 
until  such  time  as  the  papal  decision  was  given,  and  this  under 
pain  of  excommunication. 

The  king,  whose  behavior  during  this  conflict  had  been  a  mixture 
of  undignified  weakness  and  of  ill-tempered  spite,  asked  for  a  pro- 
traction of  the  limited  time  assigned,  while  at  the  same  time  lie 
protested,  at  the  Diet  of  Nuremberg,  against  the  papal  demand, 
which  he  characterized  as  unjustifiable,  and  demanded  an  oecumeni- 
cal council  against  John  XXII.,  who,  he  said,  favored  the  heretics. 

The  sentence  of  excommunication  which  was  pronounced  on  him 
in  ]\Iarch,  1324,  was  answered  by  Louis  in  a  manifesto  on  the  22d  of 
May,  wherein  John  was  charged  with  heresy  and  with  encroaching 
on  the  rights  of  the  electoral  princes.  The  Pope  denied  both  these 
charges,  denouncing  them  as  calumnies,  and  then  pronounced  (July, 
1324)  still  severer  censures  on  Louis,  who  had  oftentimes  violated 
the  rights  of  the  Church.^ 

The  position  taken  by  Leopold  of  Austria,  Frederic's  brother, 
who  in  agreement  with  the  Pope  wished  to  help  King  Charles  IV. 
of  France  to  the  imperial  crown,  compelled  Louis  to  conclude  the 
Treaty  of  Ulm  with  Frederic  (Jan.  7,  1326).  According  to  this, 
Frederic  was  to  rule  over  Germany,  while  Louis  was  to  govern  Italy 
and  to  wear  the  imperial  crown ;  but  the  stipulations  of  this  treaty 
were  never  carried  out.  Leopold  died  on  the  28th  of  February,  and 
Louis  became  sole  ruler. 

The  excommunicated  king,  under  the  influence  of  false  advisers,  — 
especially  of  the  schismatic  Minorites,  the  so-called  Fratricelli,^  — 
was  induced  by  them  still  further  to  increase  his  opposition  to  the 

Germaniam  neutrum  ex  regibus  agnoscere  vellent,  quoad  de  Pontificis  voluntate 
constaret." 

1  Martcnc,  1.  c.  p.  652  sqq.  To  the  reproach  that  the  Pope  was  encroaching  on 
the  rights  of  the  electors,  John  replied  :  "Nequaqnam  nostrae  intentionis  extitit,  nee 
existit,  juri  principum  ecclesiasticorum  vel  saecularium,  ad  quos  electio  Piomani  regis 
in  futurum  imperatorem  promovendi  spectare  noscitur,  per  processus  nostros,  seu 
aliqua  contenta  in  eis,  in  aliquo  derogare  inimo  illud  oiunino  eis  illibatum  volumus 
reservari"  (p.  671). 

2  See  §  137. 

VOL.  II.  2 


18  HISTORY  OF   THE   CATHOLIC  CHURCH. 

Church,  against  which  he  waged  war,  partly  by  sheer  violence, 
partly  by  the  pen. 

Among  the  anti-papal  writings  thus  elicited,  opposition  is  carried 
to  its  height  in  the  "  Defensor  pacis  "  of  Marsilius  of  Padua,  aided 
by  his  colleague  in  the  Parisian  High  School,  John  of  Jandun,  and 
the  spiritualist  Ubertino  of  Casale,  both  doctors  at  Paris.  These 
authors  not  only  subordinate  the  spiritual  power  to  that  of  the  tem- 
poral, but  they  overturn  the  whole  constitution  of  the  Church,  and 
promulgate  principles  concerning  ecclesiastical  authority  which  at 
a  later  date  were  enunciated  by  Calvin ;  they  also  bring  forward 
the  basest  and  coarsest  defamations  of  the  papacy.^ 

The  schismatic  Minorites  Michael  of  Cesena,  Bonagratia,  and 
particularly  William  of  Occam,^  took  part  in  these  polemics  of  the 
pen.  The  last-named  reiterated  in  his  various  writings  chiefly 
the  erroneous  views  developed  by  Dante  in  his  "Monarchia,"  but 
went  even  further,  and  wandered  so  wide  from  the  truth  that  he 
came  to  deny  the  infallibility  of  the  Pope  and  of  the  general  coun- 
cils, and  ascribed  the  final  right  of  decision  to  the  whole  association 
of  Christians. 

As  opponents  to  these  false  and  pernicious  principles,  the  Do- 
minican Petrus  de  Palude,  the  Minorite  Alvarus  Pelagius  (+  1352), 
and  the  Augustinian  hermit  Augustinus  Triumphus  {+  1328)  came 
forward.  Their  writings,  however,  are  not  free  from  untenable 
doctrines  in  many  points,  especially  in  reference  to  the  papal  power 
and  to  its  relation  to  the  temporal. 

Misled  by  his  schismatic  surroundings,  the  blinded  king  pro- 
ceeded, in  1327,  on  his  expedition  to  Italy.  In  Milan  he  received 
the  iron  crown,  and  then  with  solemn  ceremony  made  his  entrance 
into  Eome.     On  Jan.  17,  1328,  he  was  crowned  emperor  by  Sciarra 

1  In  the  bull  "  Licet  jiixta  doctrinani  "  (Martcnr.,  ii.  704  s(|q.),  John  condemned  the 
defender,  and  censured  the  following  propositions:  "  Quod  res  ecclesiae  temporales  sunt 
imperatori  subjectae  et  eas  possit  recipere  velut  suas.  Quod  b.  Petrus  apost.  non  jtlus 
auctoritatis  habuit,  quam  alii  apostoli  habuerint,  nee  aliorum  apostolorum  sit  caput. 
Item  quod  Christus  nullum  caput  dimisit  ecclesiae,  nee  aliquem  vicarium  suuni  fecit. 
Quod  ad  imperatorem  spectat,  papam  instituere  et  destituere  ac  punire.  Quod  omnes 
sacerdotes  sive  sit  papa,  sive  archiepiscopus,  sive  sacerdos  simplex,  sunt  ex  institutione 
Christi  auctoritatis  et  jurisdictionis  aeqnales  :  quod  autem  unus  plus  alio  habeat,  hoc 
est  secundum  quod  iniperator  concedit  uni  vel  alii  plus  et  minus,  et  sicut  concessit 
alicui  sic  potest  etiam  illud  revocare.  Quod  tota  ecclesia  simul  juncta  nullum 
hominem  punire  potest  punitione  coactiva,  nisi  concedat  hoc  imperator."  Cf. 
Bianchi,  Delia  potesta  e  della  politia  della  cliiesa,  ii.   565. 

-  See  §  142. 


POPES  BENEDICT  XL    TO   GREGORY  XI.  19 

Colonna,  in  the  name  of  the  Roman  people.  On  the  18th  of  April 
Louis  declared  the  Pope  guilty  of  heresy  and  of  other  crimes,  de- 
posed him  from  his  dignity,  and  had  him  burnt  in  effigy.  Some 
weeks  after  this,  he  nominated  the  ill-famed  Minorite  Peter  Rai- 
nalducci  from  Corvara,  under  the  name  of  Nicholas  V.,  as  supreme 
head  of  the  Church.  This  anti-Pope  repeated  the  coronation  of 
Louis  as  emperor. 

On  receiving  intelligence  of  what  had  transpired  in  Rome,  John 
XXII.  had  a  crusade  preached  against  the  excommunicated  king,  and 
summoned  the  German  princes  to  a  new  election. 

Tlie  triumph  of  the  last  imperial  anti-Pope  was  of  short  duration. 
The  king,  on  the  4th  of  August,  1328,  was  obliged  to  leave  Rome, 
covered  with  shame  and  hooted  out  by  the  scorn  of  the  people.  He 
returned  to  Germany,  while  the  anti-Pope,  after  some  wanderings, 
submitted  to  the  rightful  Pope.  To  elevate  and  strengthen  his 
authority,  which  had  fallen  to  a  somewhat  low  level,  Louis,  in  May, 
1330,  entered  into  negotiations  with  the  Holy  See  without  giving 
any  secure  sign  of  having  changed  his  sentiments,  on  which  account 
John  XXII.  could  not  accede  to  his  proposals.  At  length,  in  1333, 
the  king  declared  himself  ready  to  resign  in  favor  of  his  cousin, 
Henry  of  Lower  Bavaria;  but  at  this  juncture  the  intrigues  of  the 
kings  of  Hungary  and  Naples  frustrated  the  restoration  of  peace. 

During  the  time  that  this  obnoxious  conflict  had  been  carried 
on,  the  Pope  had  strictly  adhered  to  the  rule  of  -right  principles, 
while  Louis  had  vacillated  from  one  side  to  the  other,  and  the 
princes  of  the  empire,  regardless  of  all  principle,  had  sold  their 
fidelity  and  their  votes  for  money. 

To  ruin  the  authority  of  the  Pope,  Louis,  whose  peaceful  incli- 
nations were  again  changed  into  a  vehement  opposition,  made  the 
attempt,  by  the  advice  of  his  counsellors,  to  have  John  XXII.  ar- 
raigned as  a  heretic  before  a  general  council,  on  account  of  his 
"  Visio  beata,"  ^  and  deposed.  The  death  of  the  Pope  hindered  the 
carrying  out  of  this  strangely  conceived  plan. 

^  In  a  sermon  John  thus  expressed  himself  concerning  the  view  of  the  blest  : 
"Merces  sanctorum  ante  Christi  adventum  erat  sinus  Abrahae.  Post  adventum  vero 
Christi  et  ejus  passionem  et  ascensionem  in  coelo  merces  sanctorum  est  et  erit  usque 
ad  diem  judicii,  esse  sub  altari  Dei,  quia  animae  justorum  usque  ad  diem  judicii  erunt 
sub  altari,  i.e.  sub  protedionc  et  consolatione  huvuinitatis  Christi.  Sed  postquam 
Christus  venerit  ad  judicium  erunt  super  altare,  i.e.  super  Christi  humanitate,  quia 
post  diem  judicii  videbunt  .  .  .  non  solum  humanitatem  Christi  sed  etiam  divinita- 
tern,  ut  in  se  est.    Videbunt  etiam  patrem  et  filium  per  spiritum  sanctum."    (Baluze, 


20  HISTORY   OF   THE   CATHOLIC   CHURCH 

John  XXII.  died  Dec.  4,  1334.  He  was  a  learned,  ascetic,  edu- 
cated man,  and  an  indefatigably  active  Pope,  who  made  great  sacri- 
fices for  the  promotion  of  learning,  regulated  the  course  of  business 
in  the  curia  for  the  papal  chancery  and  the  Eota  Eomana,  and  fre- 
quently preached  the  truths  of  Christianity  to  the  people.  One  of 
the  principal  objects  of  his  solicitude  was  the  liberation  of  the 
Holy  Land,  for  which  purpose  he,  by  great  economy  and  by  a  mani- 
fold taxation  of  the  Church,^  had  collected  large  sums. 

John  XXII.  was  succeeded  by  the  mild  and  placable  Benedict 
XII.  (1334-1342),  who  immediately  took  the  necessary  steps  for  the 
reformation  of  the  curia,  and  bethought  him,  in  all  earnestness,  of 
carrying  the  resolves  of  his  predecessor  into  execution  by  returning 
to  Rome.^  But  this  was  to  be  his  lot  as  little  as  the  carrying  out 
of  that  other  project  of  reconciling  Louis  with  the  Church.  The 
Pope  himself  took  the  initiative  in  the  matter,  but  was  not  able  to 
withstand  the  French  oppression ;  therefore  the  envoys  of  the  king, 
equally  with  the  emissaries  of  the  bishops,  who  were  assembled 
at  Spire  in  1338,  had  to  leave  Avignon  without  coming  to  any 
conclusion. 

Under  such  circumstances,  any  settlement  of  the  conflict  was  out 
of  the  question,  and  the  exasperatiqn  against  France  increased 
daily.  In  July  of  the  same  year,  the  electors  came  together  in  the 
Diet  of  Rhense,  and  declared  that  the  one  who  should  be  elected  by 
the  majority  was  the  lawful  king.  This  view  was  also  maintained 
in  many  writings,  the  authors  of  which  identified  the  empire  with 
the  heathenish  Roman  Imperium,  or  made  it  dependent  on  the 
German  kingdom,  leaving  to  the  Pope  only  the  right  of  corona- 
tion.    They  contested  the  oath  taken  by  the  emperor  to  the  Pope, 

Vitae  pap.  Aven.  i.  788. )  On  the  controversies  arising  from  these  expressions,  see 
Hcfde,  Hist,  of  the  Councils,  vi.  522  sqq.  ;  Christophc,  ii.  19  sqq.  On  his  death-bed 
John  declared  :  "  Fatemur  et  credimus,  quod  animae  purgatae  et  separatae  a  corpori- 
bus  sunt  in  coelo,  coelorum  regno  et  paradiso  et  cum  Christo  in  consortio  angelorum 
congregatae  et  vident  Deum  ac  divinam  essentiam  facie  ad  faciem  clare,  in  quantum 
status  et  conditio  compatitur  animae  separatae  ;  si  vero  alia  vel  aliter  circa  materiam 
hujusmodi  per  nos  dicta,  praedicata,  sen  scripta  fuerunt  quoquo  modo,  ilia  diximus, 
praedicavimus  seu  scripsimus  reeitando  dicta  sacrae  scripturae  et  sanctorum  et  con- 
ferendo  et  non  determinando  nee  etiam  tencndo  et  sic  et  non  aliter  ilia  volumus  esse 
dicta,  praedicata  seu  scripta."  Benedict  XII.  gave  a  dogmatic  decision  in  the  bull 
"  Benedictus  Deus."     Cf.  Raynald,  Ad  ann.  1335,  n.  8,  sqq. 

1  Annates  (first  fruits),  etc.     See  §  130. 

'^  In  a  poetical  epistle  the  celebrated  poet  Petrarch  petitioned  the  Pope  to  take  up 
his  residence  in  Rome  (Carm.  lib.  i.  ep.  2). 


POPES  BENEDICT  XI.    TO    ORE fl DRY  XI.  21 

as  also  the  right  of  said  Pope  to  appoint  au  imperial  vicar  when 
the  throne  was  vacant. 

Such  were  the  views,  even  if  more  moderately  expressed,  of 
Lupoid  of  Bebenburg,  Bishop  of  Bamberg  (+  1363),  and  of  the  Abbot 
Engelbert  of  Admont.  They  stood,  however,  in  too  striking  a  con- 
tradiction to  historical  development  to  effect  any  sudden  change  in 
existing  relationships,  although  they  were  not  without  influence 
on  the  views  of  a  later  period. 

Meantime  the  excommunicated  king  protested,  at  the  Diet  of 
Frankfort,  on  August  6,  against  the  sentence  passed  on  him  by  John 
XXII.,  and  issued  a  constitution  in  which  he  declared  that  the 
imperial  dignity  is  derived  immediately  from  God,  and  that  the 
person  elected  by  the  electoral  princes  is  to  be  considered  king  or 
emperor  without  requiring  any  confirmation  from  the  Pope.  An- 
other edict  forbade  the  reception  of  any  papal  bull  or  the  like,  with- 
out the  consent  of  the  archbishop ;  it  also  forbade  that  obedience 
should  be  paid  to  it.  The  few  clergymen  who  observed  the  interdict 
were  threatened  with  severe  punishment. 

The  Church  in  Germany  was  in  a  most  deplorable  condition,  espe- 
cially from  the  fact  that  reverence  for  the  Holy  See  was  decreasing 
more  and  more.-'  The  papal  court  at  Avignon  seems  not  to  have 
rightly  known  or  comprehended  the  misery  of  the  Church  in  Ger- 
many ;  for  the  successor  of  Benedict  XII.,  Clement  VI.  (1342-1352), 
—  the  great  lover  of  pomp,  who,  by  the  purchase  of  Avignon  and  the 
nomination  of  French  cardinals,  had  bound  the  papacy  by  still  closer 
ties  to  France, — renewed,  April  12, 1313,  the  censures  against  Louis, 
who,  in  November,  1342,  had  made  overtures  of  peace  to  him.  The 
Pope  continued,  however,  to  negotiate  with  the  envoys  of  the  king. 
Louis,  who,  by  his  oppressions  of  the  Church,  by  his  greed  of  increasing 
his  dominions,  and  especially  by  his  usurpation  of  clerical  authority 
in  the  affair  of  divorce  granted  by  him  to  Margaret  (Maultasch), 
heiress  of  Tyrol  and  Carinthia,  and  in  the  dispensations  from  im- 
pediments to  marriage  by  blood  relationship  which  he  took  upon 
himself  to  legalize,  had  evoked  a  great  opposition  to  his  house  in 
Germany,  showed  an  inclination  to  accede  to  the  papal  conditions ; 
but  now  the  Pope,  suspecting  fraud,  made  greater  demands  on  him 
than  before.     These  demands  were  rejected  at  the  Diet  of  Frankfort 

1  Mutii,  Chron.  Germ.  xiv.  p.  881.  Of  the  sermons  preached  at  this  era  it  is  said  : 
"Aliquamdiu  nihil  aliud  ad  popuhnn  praedicahant  [scl.  the  adherents  of  Louis], 
quam  de  iniperatore  et  pontifice,  prohabant  omnes  declaniantes  ad  populuni,  im- 
periuni  esse  immediate  a  Deo,  nee  habere  papam  quidquam  juris  in  imperium,"  etc. 


22  HISTORY  OF  THE   CATHOLIC  CHURCH. 

(Sept.  8,  1344),  and  at  the  second  meeting  of  the  electoral  princes  at 
Rhense  (Sept.  16).  At  the  last  place  the  necessity  of  electing  a  new 
king  was  discussed. 

On  July  11, 1346,  Prince  Charles  IV.,  son  of  John,  King  of  Bohemia, 
was  elected  by  live  electoral  princes  at  the  recommendation  of  the 
Pope.  The  adherents  of  Louis,  against  whom  Clement  had  published 
a  very  severe  bull  of  excommunication  on  Holy  Thursday,  1346,  pro- 
tested against  this,  and  on  the  death  of  Louis  (1347)  set  up  as  anti- 
king  Giinther  of  Schwarzburg,  who,  however,  died  soon  after,  on 
June  14,  1349.  After  this  Charles  was  universally  acknowledged ; 
and  at  Easter,  1355,  the  king  received  in  Rome  the  imperial  crown, 
and  in  the  same  year  regulated  the  election  of  the  German  king  by 
the  Golden  bull,  which  makes  the  right  to  the  German  crown  depen- 
dent on  the  majority  of  votes  cast  by  the  electoral  princes.  By  this 
act,  as  also  by  his  declaration  that  he  would  reform  the  German  clergy 
by  his  own  authority,  the  emperor  fell  into  a  transient  discord  with 
Pope  Innocent  VI.  (1352-1362),  who  had  succeeded  Clement. 

Being  urgently  invited  thereto  by  the  inhabitants  of  Rome, 
Innocent  VI.  adopted  the  project  that  had  been  entertained  by 
his  predecessors,  of  returning  to  Rome,  the  Eternal  City,  which 
during  the  absence  of  the  Popes  had  been  the  prey  of  the  wildest 
party-feuds.  After  the  overthrow  of  the  dominion  of  the  nobles, 
the  celebrated  demagogue  Cola  di  Rienzi,  with  the  consent  of  the 
Pope,  assumed  the  reins  of  government ;  but,  having  by  his  luxurious 
habits  and  ostentatious  behavior  incurred  the  hatred  of  the  people, 
he  was  excommunicated  by  Cardinal  Bertrand  de  Deux,  Legate  of 
Clement  VL,  and  forced  to  flee  the  city.  Driven  from  Rome  (1347), 
Rienzi  wandered  from  place  to  place,  and  was  at  last  delivered  into 
the  power  of  the  Pope  by  the  Emperor  Charles  IV.  Meantime  other 
tyrants  had  seized  hold  of  the  government.  To  put  an  end  to  their 
rule.  Pope  Innocent  sent,  in  1353,  the  valiant  Cardinal  -^Egidius 
Albornoz  with  an  army  to  Italy.  To  him  Rienzi  was  sent  by  the 
Pope,  and  named  Senator  of  Rome  ;  but  when  reintrusted  with  power, 
he  became  again  intoxicated  with  vanity,  acted  like  a  tyrant,  and 
was  slain  in  a  tumult  of  the  people.  In  the  year  1361  the  papal 
dominion  over  Rome  Avas  again  established;  but  his  project  of  re- 
turning thither  himself  Innocent  had  to  transfer  to  his  successor 
Urban  V.  (1362-1370),  a  truly  apostolic  man. 

Pope  Urban  V.,  weary  at  length  of  imprisonment  at  Avignon,^ 

1  In  1366  Petrarch  asked  the  Pope  whether  he  wished  one  day  to  rise  again  with 
the  sinners  of  Avignon  or  with  tlie  martyrs  of  Rome. 


J'OPES  BENEDICT  XL    TO   (IREdUltV  XI.  23 

returned  to  Rome  on  the  19th  of  May,  1367,  by  way  of  Marseilles, 
in  spite  of  the  remonstrances  of  the  French  king,  Charles  V.  In 
September,  1370,  he  left  the  unquiet  city,  ostensibly  to  endeavor 
to  end  the  war  that  had  again  broken  out  between  France  and 
England ;  but,  as  St.  Bridget  of  Sweden  had  foretold,  he  died  soon 
after  his  arrival  in  France  (Dec.  19,  1370). 

After  the  death  of  Urban,  Gregory  XI.  (1370-1378),  a  nephew  of 
Clement  VI.,  and  the  last  French  Pope,  ascended  the  papal  throne. 
He  yielded  to  the  request  of  Catherine  of  Siena,  a  nun  of  the 
Dominican  order,^  and  in  spite  of  the  opposition  of  the  cardinals, 
and  the  remonstrances  of  Charles  V.  of  France,  returned  to  Kome. 
He  had  hardly  arrived  there  (Jan.  17, 1377),  when  he  bethought  him 
of  again  quitting  Italy,  which  was  then  a  prey  to  faction  and  torn 
to  pieces  by  the  spirit  of  'ga.vtj ;  but  before  he  could  carry  out  his 
purpose  he  died,  on  the  27th  of  March,  1378. 

Shortly  before  his  death,  Gregory  by  a  bull  empowered  the  sixteen 
cardinals  who  had  accompanied  him  to  Rome  to  elect  a  new  pon- 
tiff without  waiting  the  arrival  of  the  six  cardinals  who  had 
remained  in  Avignon.  He  also  decided  that  the  election  might 
take  place  anywhere,  at  any  suitable  place  and  without  conclave, 
by  a  simple  majority  of  votes. 

,  The  unanimous  choice  of  the  cardinals  on  the  8th  of  April  fell 
on  the  Archbishop  of  Bari,  Bartholomew  Prignano  (Urban  VI.),  a 
very  able  Pope ;  but  he  conducted  himself  so  harshly  towards  the 
refractory  cardinals  that  they  soon  broke  with  him  entirely.  The 
discontented  ones,  eleven  of  whom  were  Frenchmen,  and  Peter  de 
Luna,  a  Spaniard,  left  Rome,  and  at  Anagni  declared  the  election  of 
Urban  invalid,  and  renounced  obedience  to  him.  With  them  three 
Italian  cardinals,  won  over  by  promises,  united.  Only  Cardinal 
Tebaldeschi  remained  faithful  to  the  Pope.  The  rebellious  cardi- 
nals, at  Fondi,  whither  also  their  colleague,  the  Cardinal  of  Amiens, 
had  repaired,  elected  Cardinal  Robert  of  Geneva,  Pope.  He  took  the 
name  of  Clement  VII.,  and  took  up  his  residence  at  Avignon.  The 
three  Italian  cardinals  took  no  part  in  the  election,  but  neither  did 
they  protest  against  it. 

In  order  to  justify  their  desertion  of  Urban,  the  cardinals  alleged  that  the 
whole  transaction  concerning  the  election  of  Urban  had  been  uncanonical  and 

1  Raynald,  Ad  ann.  1376,  n.  1.  She  had  written  to  the  Pope  on  this  suhject,  and 
during  her  presence  at  Avignon,  as  advocate  for  the  Florentines,  she  exhorted  him  in 
person  to  return  to  Rome. 


24  HISTOUY   OF    THE    CATHOLIC   CHURCH. 

invalid  on  account  of  the  pressure  exercised  by  the  electtirs.  It  is  true,  indeed, 
that  the  Romans  had  urgently  requested  the  cardinals  to  choose  a  Roman  or 
at  least  an  Italian  Pope,  and  had  given  a  tumultuous  expression  to  their  desire 
for  the  election  of  a  Roman  Pope,  before  the  Vatican,  during  the  conclave. 
Other  disturbances  had  followed  after  the  election  had  taken  place,  because 
false  ideas  had  been  entertained  respecting  the  person  elected,  as  the  cardinals 
for  certain  reasons  did  not  immediately  make  known  the  result  of  the  election. 
"  But,"  says  Cardinal  Hergenrother,  in  his  "  Church  History,"  "  all  these 
tumults  were  not  of  the  kind  to  interfere  with  the  freedom  of  election  ;  in 
fact,  iii  the  afternoon  twelve  cardinals  held  a  second  election  altogether  free, 
when  the  choice  again  fell  on  the  Archbishop  of  Bari.  Order  was  soon 
restored  ;  the  election  was  solemnly  proclaimed  on  April  9,  and  on  the  10th 
the  enthronization  took  place  in  the  church  of  St.  Peter,  while  on  Easter 
Sunday  (the  18th  of  April)  the  coronation  was  solemnized. 

"  The  new  Pope,  Urban  VI.,  received  general  recognition.  All  the  cardinals 
there  assembled  attended  at  his  coronation,  assisted  him  at  the  ecclesiastical 
feasts,  requested  spiritual  favors  at  his  hands,  and  wrote  an  account  of  what 
had  passed  to  their  ccdleagues  in  Avignon  with  the  assurance  that  perfect  free- 
dom and  unanimity  liad  prevailed.  The  six  cardinals  who  had  been  left  in 
Avignon  also  acknowledged  him  as  Pope,  and  ordered  the  connnandant  of  the 
castle  of  St.  Angelo  to  deliver  up  the  keys  to  him,  as  the  former  Pope  had 
made  this  surrendering  of  the  keys  of  that  foilress  dependent  on  their  consent. 
Moreover,  Urban's  escutcheon  was  exposed  at  Avignon,  and  homage  done 
to  it."     (Church  History,  vol.  ii.  p.  35.) 

§  125.    The  Western  Schism. 

The  next  consequence  of  the  election  of  Robert  of  Geneva  was 
a  most  lamentable  schism  ^  in  Christendom.  Most  of  the  Catholic 
countries  remained  faithful  to  Urban  YI.,  for  whom  Catherine  of 
Siena  was  especially  zealous  ;  but  his  opponents  found  allies  in 
Johanna,  Queen  of  Naples,  and  Charles  V.,  King  of  France,  by 
whose  efforts  Lorraine  and  Scotland,  and  subsequently  also  Castile 
and  Aragon,  were  drawn  into  the  schism. 

To  facilitate  the  return  of  the  schismatics  to  the  Church,  Urban, 
who  previously  to  the  election  of  the  anti-Pope  had  nominated 
twenty-nine  new  cardinals,  hesitated  to  publish  the  bull  of  excom- 
munication; and  it  was  not  till  the  last  hoj^e  of  pacification  had 
vanished  that  he  excommunicated  Robert  and  his  abettors.  To 
this  the  anti-Pope  replied  by  anatheniatizing  Urban. 

The   faithlessness  of  Queen  Johanna  of  Naples  induced  Urban 

1  Theod.  a  Nicm,  De  Schismate,  lib.  4.  Theodoric  of  Niem  founded  the  German 
hospice  "  Anima  "  at  Rome. 


THE    WESTERN   SCHISM.  25 

to  take  the  kingdom  from  her,  and  invest  Charles  of  Durazzo  with 
it,  as  with  a  lief  of  the  Holy  See.  Johanna  sought  help  from 
the  French  court,  and  adopted  Louis,  Duke  of  Anjou,  to  whom  the 
anti-Pope  presented  a  portion  of  the  States  of  the  Church  as  the 
Kingdom  of  Adria.  Urban  had  a  crusade  preached  against  Louis. 
Before  this  prince  could  arrive  in  Italy,  Charles  III.,  supported  by 
the  Pope,  had  already  conquered  Naples  ;  and  all  the  attempts  of 
Louis  (+1384)  to  regain  the  rule  over  the  kingdom  were  frustrated 
less  by  the  arms  of  his  antagonist  than  through  the  famine  and 
sickness  which  wasted  his  army. 

Unfortunately,  dissensions  broke  out  between  Urban,  who  had 
come  to  Naples,  and  his  perfidious  vassal,  with  whom  some  cardi- 
nals, exasperated  by  the  harshness  of  the  Pope,  made  common 
cause.  They  even  resolved  to  place  Urban  VI.  under  restraint. 
But  Urban  was  beforehand  with  them ;  he  had  the  renegades 
imprisoned  and  tortured  in  Nocera,  and,  being  besieged  in  this  city 
by  Charles,  he  spoke  the  ban  and  interdict  over  him.  At  length  he 
escaped  from  the  power  of  Charles,  and  fled  to  Genoa,  where  he  is 
said  to  have  punished  five  cardinals  with  death.  His  svibsequent 
expedition  against  Naples  was  unsuccessful.  Urban  died  on  the 
loth  of  October,  1389,  at  Rome,  and  was  succeeded  by  Peter 
Tomacelli  (Boniface  IX.),  a  Neapolitan,  — a  gentle  and  pious  man, 
against  whom  the  anti-Pope,  whose  rule  was  very  bitterly  oppressive 
to  the  French  Church,  pronounced  anathema.  Boniface  restored 
the  papal  supremacy  in  the  States  of  the  Church,  reinstated  the 
cardinals  deposed  by  Urban,  and  invested  Ladislaus,  the  son  of 
Charles  III.,  with  Naples,  as  with  a  fief  of  the  Holy  See.  In  order 
to  bring  about  a  happy  termination  of  this  miserable  schism,  Boni- 
face had  recourse  to  Charles  VI.  of  France.  The  king  consulted 
the  University  of  Paris,  which  during  the  time  of  Urban,  and  again 
in  1390,  had  already  offered  its  services  as  mediator. 

The  university,  in  1394,  proposed  three  modes  of  restoring  peace, 
—  cession,  compromise,  and  an  oecumenical  council.  The  anti-Pope 
and  his  abettors  —  the  Cardinal  Peter  de  Luna  and  the  Duke  of 
Berry,  brother  to  the  king  —  tried  every  means  in  their  power  to 
frustrate  their  efforts  ;  but  they  did  not  attain  their  object.  The 
university  was  not  intimidated  by  the  threats  of  Charles  VI.,  and 
the  sick  king  was  finally  compelled  to  require  the  Pope  of  Avignon 
and  his  cardinals  to  work  for  the  union.  The  cardinals  were  already 
inclined  to  accept  the  proposals  made  to  them,  when  Eobert  of 
Geneva  died,  on  the  16th  of  September,  1394,  from  vexation  at  the 


26  HISTORY  OF   THE   CATHOLIC   CHURCH. 

"  poisonous  letter  "  of  the  university,  and  the  conduct  of  his 
cardinals. 

Notwithstanding  the  admonitions  of  the  king  to  the  contrar}^,  the 
schismatic  Pope  had  a  successor  on  the  28th  of  September,  in  the 
person  of  the  crafty  and  ambitious  Peter  de  Luna  (Benedict  XIII.), 
who  knew  how  to  entice  to  his  court  several  distinguished  men,  as 
Peter  d'Ailly,  Nicholas  of  Clemange,  and  even  St.  Vincent  Ferrer.^ 
The  last,  however,  soon  withdrew  from  his  party. 

On  the  2d  of  February,  1395,  Charles  VI.  called  an  assembly  of 
prelates  and  learned  men  to  Paris,  who,  in  union  with  the  univer- 
sity, proposed  the  cession  ^  of  both  Popes,  as  a  means  of  settling  the 
schism.  The  French  court  adopted  the  proposal,  and  sought  by 
special  embassies  to  induce  the  curia  of  Avignon  and  the  Christian 
courts  to  accede  to  it. 

The  envoys  of  the  king  and  of  the  university  obtained  from 
Peter  de  Luna  only  empty  promises ;  and  when  the  cardinals,  in 
accordance  with  the  oath  they  had  taken  at  the  conclave,  wished  to 
decide  in  favor  of  the  resignation,  the  anti-Pope  rejected  this  in  a 
special  bull.  Meantime,  by  making  large  promises  and  by  offering 
him  the  tithes  of  the  Church,  Peter  de  Luna  sought  to  change  the 
mind  of  the  King  of  France  and  his  court.  The  embassy  had  a 
better  result  with  King  Eichard  II.  of  England  and  Henry  of 
Castile,  who,  in  union  with  France  in  1397,  required  both  the  anti- 
Pope  and  Boniface  to  resign. 

Boniface  could  not  entertain  such  a  proposition,  and  Peter  de 
Luna  remained  obstinate.  The  French  court,  which  in  1398  had 
gained  over  the  German  king  Wenceslaus  to  approve  of  the  cession, 
on  July  28,  1398,  renounced  obedience  to  the  Pope  of  Avignon, 
whereupon  eighteen  cardinals  of  said  Pope  left  him.  Peter  de  Luna, 
besieged  in  his  own  palace,  was  now  willing  to  resign,  provided  his 
opponent  would  either  resign,  or  die,  or  be  deposed. 

But  before  the  two  kings,  Richard  and  Wenceslaus,  could  perform 
their  promise  of  obliging  the  lawful  Pope  to  resign,  they  themselves 
were  hurled  from  their  thrones,  which  fact  improved  the  condition 
of  Boniface.  The  circumstances  surrounding  the  anti-Pope  also  took 
a  more  favorable  turn.  He  escaped  from  imprisonment  in  1402 ;  the 
cardinals  who  had  deserted  him  fell  prostrate  at  his  feet  to  ask  his 
pardon,  and  in  1403  France  returned  to  obedience  under  him. 

1  St.  Vincent  Ferrer.     Translated  from  tlie  French  by  Rev.  Fr.  Dixon. 

2  Five  propositions  were  made  ;  namely,  the  three  above-named,  proposed  by  the 
university  in  1394,  and  two  new  ones,  —  to  conijuer  Boniface  IX.  by  the  sword,  or 
by  persuasion  to  induce  him  and  his  adherents  to  acknowledge  the  anti-Pope. 


THE    WESTERN   SCHISM.  27 

.  Under  these  circumstances  the  termination  of  the  schism  by- 
means  of  cession  could  no  longer  be  thought  of.  Yet  the  cardinals 
did  not  lose  sight  of  it.  The  successors  of  Boniface  (who  had  died 
Oct.  10,  1404),  —  with  whom,  to  save  appearances,  the  anti-Pope  en- 
tered into  negotiations,  —  Innocent  VII.  (+  Nov.  6,  1406)  ^  and 
Gregory  XII., ^  had  to  promise,  before  their  election,  to  resign  their 
dignity  should  the  maintenance  of  peace  require  it.  A  national 
synod  at  Paris  at  first  proposed  an  oecumenical  council,  but  after- 
wards decided  to  call  on  the  anti-Pope  to  resign  his  pretensions  of 
his  own  accord,  and  threatened  to  withdraw  from  their  obedience 
to  him  if  he  resisted. 

The  anti-Pope  then  entered  into  negotiations  with  Gregory  XII. 
But  the  conference  between  the  two  Popes,  projected  in  Marseilles, 
1407,  to  be  held  at  Savona,  did  not  come  off.  Gregory  feared  to 
repair  to  this  city,  which  was  under  the  dominion  of  France,  and 
the  anti-Pope  refused  to  accept  any  other  city  proposed  to  him. 

Pope  Gregory,  who  was  very  much  influenced  by  his  relatives, 
had  meantime,  in  violation  of  the  word  he  had  plighted  in  conclave, 
created  several  new  cardinals,  and  thereby  so  greatly  exasperated 
the  other  cardinals  who  had  been  his  friends,  that  in  May,  1408, 
they  fled  to  Pisa,  renounced  obedience  to  their  master,  and  appealed 
to  a  general  council.  Those  cardinals  who  belonged  to  the  other 
party,  at  a  conference  held  at  Leghorn,  joined  them  ;  and  both 
obediences  now  resolved  in  common  to  hold  an  oecumenical  council 
for  the  re-establishment  of  the  peace  of  the  Church.  Peter  de  Luna 
tried  to  frustrate  this  intention  by  holding  a  synod  at  Perpignan, 
and  Gregory  convoked  a  council  to  assemble  at  Pentecost,  1409, 
in  the  patriarchate  Aquileja  or  in  the  province  of  Ravenna.  The 
united  cardinals,  however,  persevered  in  their  opposition,  and  from 
Leghorn  summoned  an  oecumenical  council  to  be  held  at  Pisa. 

Altliough  the  reasons  alleged  by  the  rebellious  cardinals  in  justi- 
fication of  their  conduct  were  invalid,  many  prelates  and  learned 
men  took  their  part,  as  also  most  of  the  European  courts ;  therefore 
no  further  notice  was  taken  of  the  objections  urged  against  the 
validity  or  legitimacy  of  the  synod. ^ 

^  Cardinal  Cosimo  Migliorati,  a  learned  and  virtuous  man,  who  announced  that  he 
would  summon  an  cecumenical  council  to  put  an  end  to  the  schisms,  but  could  not 
bring  this  to  pass  on  account  of  the  insecurity  of  the  times. 

"^  Cardinal  Angelo  Corrario,  from  Venice. 

^  Gregory  in  his  protestation  asserts  that  the  cardinals  had  pronounced  judgment 
without  the  mediation  of  the  judges,  and  that  they  had  convoked  a  synod  to  obtain  a 


28  HISTORY  OF  THE   CATHOLIC   CHURCH. 

In  1408  France  had  yielded  obedience  to  the  anti-Pope.  In  the 
following  year  the  German  princes  of  the  empire  expressed  them- 
selves in  favor  of  neutrality  and  of  recognition  of  the  synod. 

King  Wenceslaus  of  Bohemia,  in  the  hope  of  recovering  the  Ger- 
man throne,  was  misled  into  deserting  Gregory,  whose  proposals  of 
mediation  were  rejected  by  the  cardinals. 

§  126.    The  Council  of  Pisa. 

The  council  summoned  by  the  cardinals  of  both  obediences  met 
at  Pisa,  and  was  opened  on  the  25th  of  March,  1409.  A  great  num- 
ber of  spiritual  and  temporal  dignitaries,  the  envoys  of  several 
courts,  and  the  delegates  of  many  universities  arrived  there  on  the 
appointed  day.  Only  the  German  king  Eupert,  and  Ladislaus  of 
Naples,  remained  faithful  to  Gregory  XII,,  and  by  their  ambassadors 
entered  a  protest  against  the  legitimacy  of  the  council ;  Spain,  Por- 
tugal, and  Scotland,  on  the  other  hand,  adhered  to  the  anti-Pope. 

Under  the  presidency  of  Guido  of  Malesec,  the  senior  cardinal, 
the  Council  of  Pisa,  supported  by  the  arguments  of  Peter  d'  Ancho- 
rano,  a  jurisconsult  of  Bologna,  declared  itself  in  its  eighth  session 
oecumenical,  and  asserted  that  it  truly  represented  the  whole  Church. 
It  proceeded  to  devote  its  first  labors  to  the  adjustment  of  the 
schism.  The  two  contending  claimants,  Gregory  XII.  and  Peter  de 
Luna,  were  cited  in  the  customary  form,  and  at  the  fifteenth  ses- 
sion were  declared  deposed  from  their  rights  and  dignities.  The 
proposals  made  to  the  council  by  Gregory  through  Charles  ]\Iala- 
testa.  Prince  of  Rimini,  were  not  accepted ;  neither  were  those 
presented  by  the  deputies  of  Peter  de  Luna. 

Having  previously  determined  that  the  future  Pope  should  not 
dissolve  the  council  before  the  enactment  of  the  necessary  reforms, 
the  cardinals  of  both  obediences,  being  for  this  time  authorized  so 
to  do  by  the  synod,  proceeded  to  the  election  of  a  new  Pope.  On 
the  26th  of  June  their  choice  fell  on  the  Archbishop  of  Milan,  Car- 
dinal Peter  Philargi  of  Candia,  who  took  the  name  of  Alexander  V. 

Under   his   presidency   the  council  continued  its  sessions  for  a 

sanction  for  that  judgment ;  that  the  Pope  alone  coukl  .summon  an  (Ecumenical  coun- 
cil ;  that  he  was  willing  to  put  off  the  council  summoned  by  himself,  if  he  could 
come  to  an  understanding  with  the  cardinals,  and  to  leave  the  fixing  of  the  place 
where  they  should  meet  to  two  umpires  ajipointed  by  himself  and  the  cardinals.  He 
could  not  attend  the  Council  of  Pisa  without  compromising  the  dignity  of  the  Holy 
See. 


THE   COUNCIL    OF  CONSTANCE.  29 

short  time,  during  which  Philargi  ratified  the  decrees  of  the  synod 
passed  previously  to  his  election,  and  several  wholesome  decrees  of 
reform  were  enacted ;  after  which  the  council  was  adjourned  for 
three  years,  and  appointed  to  meet  again  in  1412  to  continue  as  the 
Council  of  Pisa.  But  what  had  been  foretold  by  Rupert,  King  of 
Germany,  was  noAv  verified :  this  result  was  but  a  triplication  of  the 
schism,  for  three  persons  now  laid  claim  to  the  papal  tiara. 

Gregory  XII.,  who  had  held  the  council  convoked  by  himself  in 
Cividale,  found  a  refuge  in  Gaeta ;  Peter  de  Luna  remained  at  Per- 
pignan ;  and  the  Pope  of  Pisa  took  up  his  residence  in  Bologna. 

Here  the  latter  died  in  1410;  his  successor,  Balthasar  Cossa 
(John  XXIIL),  who  alienated  even  Ladislaus  of -Naples  from  the 
legitimate  Pope,  convened  the  council  appointed  by  his  predeces- 
sor, in  Pome,  1412.  But  few  prelates  responded  to  tlie  summons  ; 
and  the  whole  business  that  occupied  them  consisted  in  rejecting 
some  propositions  of  Wycliffe.  For  the  reformation  of  the  Church 
nothing  was  done. 

Although  Cossa  struggled  for  a  long  time  against  convening  a 
reformatory  synod,  he  was  at  length  obliged  to  yield  to  the  gen- 
eral wish  of  Christendom.  Pressed  by  Ladislaus  of  Naples,  he 
complied  with  the  demand  of  the  German  king,  Sigismund,  and 
convoked  a  council,  which  was  opened  with  all  due  solemnity  at 
Constance,  1414, 

§127.   The  Council  of  Constance. 

The  numerous  prelates,  the  deputies  from  the  universities,  the 
temporal  princes  and  their  plenipotentiaries,  who  now  were  assem- 
bled together  at  Constance,  recognized  as  the  chief  objects  of  the 
synod,  the  condemnation  of  the  heresy  Of  John  Huss,  the  refor- 
mation of  the  Church  in  its  Head  and  members,  but  principally  the 
termination  of  the  unhappy  papal  schism. 

To  effect  this  union  in  the  quickest  manner,  and  chiefly  to  paralj'ze 
the  influence  of  the  many  bishops  nominated  by  Cossa,  the  assem- 
bled members  of  the  council,  on  the  motion  of  Cardinals  Filastre, 
D'Ailly,  and  others,  decided,  contrary  to  what  had  hitherto  been 
ecclesiastical  practice,  (1)  That  in  affairs  of  the  union  not  only  the 
bishops,  but  every  member  of  the  council,  should  be  entitled  to 
vote ;  and  (2)  That  the  votes  should  be  taken,  not  by  a  majority  of 
episcopal  suffrages,  but  by  that  of  the  representatives  of  nations,  of 
which  at  the  beginning  four,  but  afterwards  five,  were  counted. 


30  HISTORY  OF   THE   CATHOLIC   CHURCH. 

After  this  the  three  contending  claimants  —  Gregory  XII.,  Bal- 
thasar  Cossa,  and  Peter  de  Luna  —  were  required  to  resign  their 
pretensions  of  their  own  free-will,  as  peace  could  in  this  way  be  best 
and  most  easily  restored  to  the  Church. 

After  fruitless  efforts  to  have  the  decrees  already  enacted  with- 
drawn, Cossa,  intimidated  by  a  memorial  presented  by  an  unknown 
Italian,  which  contained  a  series  of  grave  charges  against  his  morals, 
declared  himself  willing  to  abdicate  the  papal  dignity,  and  in  the 
second  session  read  the  prescribed  formula  of  cession  ;  but  soon 
afterwards  he  escaped,  with  the  assistance  of  Frederic,  Duke  of 
Austria,  to  Schaffhausen,  and  showed  signs  of  his  intention  to 
dissolve  the  council. 

The  council,  however,  had  in  the  third  session  taken  precautions 
against  any  attempt  at  such  a  dissolution.  In  the  fourth  and  fifth 
session  it  affirmed,  at  the  instance  of  D'Ailly  and  Gerson,  the 
propositions  that  the  council  had  its  authority  immediately  from 
Christ,  and  that  the  Pope  w\as  bound  to  accept  its  decisions  in 
matters  of  faith,  in  its  edict  regarding  the  present  schism,  as  in- 
deed in  all  things  appertaining  to  the  reformation  of  the  Head  and 
members  of  the  Church. 

Meantime  negotiations  with  Cossa,  who  had  taken  up  his  abode 
in  Freiburg,  were  continued,  as  he  had  recalled  his  previous  con- 
cessions. As  these  negotiations,  however,  led  to  no  result,  the 
synod  commenced  a  judicial  process  against  him,  and  in  the  twelfth 
session,  on  the  29th  of  May,  1415,  proceeded  to  depose  him ;  seventy- 
two  grave  but  exaggerated  accusations  Avere  brought  against  him. 
Cossa  (John  XXIIL),  who  was  taken  prisoner  by  the  Margrave 
Frederic  of  Brandenburg,  and  brought  to  Kadolfzell,  near  Con- 
stance,- finally  submitted  to  the  sentence  of  the  synod. 

The  lawful  Pope,  Gregory  XII.,  who  as  early  as  January,  1415, 
had  sent  an  embassy,  with  Cardinal  John  Dominici  at  its  head,  to 
Constance,  now,  at  its  fourteenth  session  (July  4),  having  in  the 
first  place  recognized  and  authorized  the  council  presided  over  l)y 
the  Emperor  Sigisniund,  thus  rendering  valid  its  succeeding  acts, 
sent  in  his  resignation  by  his  ambassador,  Charles  of  IVIalatesta, 
providing,  in  his  manner  of  doing  so,  for  the  preservation  of  the 
papal  dignity  and  for  the  maintenance  of  the  legitimacy  of  the 
lawful  Pope. 

The  schismatic  Peter  de  Luna  was  now  solicited  to  do  the  same, 
but  he  obstinately  refused  to  resign  the  tiara  of  his  own  free- 
will ;   therefore  the  council,  after  several  long  and  fruitless  nego- 


THE    COIWCIL    OF   CONSTANCE.  31 

tiations,  deposed  him  from  his  dignity  in  the  thirty-seventli  session, 
July  26,  1417. 

The  question  whether  the  election  of  a  Pope  or  the  necessary 
reforms  should  first  come  under  discussion  was  the  occasion  of 
vehement  debate ;  the  German  and  English  declaring  for  the  latter, 
the  other  nations  for  the  former  point.  In  the  thirty-ninth  and 
fortieth  sessions  they  at  length  came  to  an  agreement.  The  synod 
passed  several  decrees  of  reform,  and  determined  that  before  the 
dissolution  of  the  present  council  the  future  Pope  should  take  into 
consideration  the  reformation  of  the  Church  in  her  Head  and  mem- 
bers. After  this  the  twenty-three  cardinals,  with  whom,  for  this 
special  occasion,  six  deputies  from  each  nation  were  associated,  pro- 
ceeded to  elect  a  new  pontiff  as  Head  of  the  Church.  The  choice 
fell  on  the  noble  cardinal  Otho  Colonna  (Nov.  11,  1417),  who  then 
ascended  the  papal  throne  as  Martin  V. 

Martin  V.  established  a  special  tribunal  of  reform,  which  tribunal 
consisted  of  six  cardinals  and  of  one  deputy  for  each  nation.  In 
January,  1418,  he  proposed  a  plan  of  reform,  which  was  founded  on 
the  memorial  of  the  German  nation.  Nevertheless,  as  the  wishes 
of  each  particular  nation  and  their  requirements  differ,  the  Pope 
resolved  in  the  forty-third  session  to  confirm  and  issue  only  those 
decrees  that  were  generally  received,  and  to  conclude  a  separate 
concordat  with  each  nation  individually. 

This  concluded  the  acts  of  the  Synod  of  Constance,  and  it  was  left 
to  a  new  council  to  accomplish  the  work  of  reformation.  In  the 
forty-fourth  session  Martin  V.  promised  that  after  the  lapse  of  five 
years  he  would  convoke  a  council  to  meet  at  Pavia;  and  at  the 
forty-fifth  (i.  e.,  the  last)  session  he  closed  the  council. 

As  to  the  question  -whether  the  Council  of  Constance  may  be  num- 
bered among  the  general  councils,  it  is  an  assured  fact  that  from  the 
forty-second  to  the  forty-fifth  session  it  must  be  acknowledged  as 

The  Sixteenth  (Ecumexical  Council. 

And  even  the  previous  decrees  have  oecumenical  authority  in  so  far 
as  they  were  confirmed  by  the  Pope.  This  is  especially  the  case  in 
the  rejection  of  the  heresies  of  Wycliffe  and  of  Huss,  as  also  of  the 
reformatory  decrees. 

I.  Ill  regard  to  the  approval  of  the  earlier  decrees  of  the  council,  Martin  V. 
thus  expresses  himself:  — 

1.  In  the  bull  "Inter  cunctas  "  of  the  22d  of  February,  1418,  against  the 
WyclifRtes  and  Hussites,  in  which  one  suspected  of  heresy  is  asked,   "  Utrum 


32  HISTORY  OF   THE   CATHOLIC   CHURCH. 

credat,  quod  ilhul,  quod  sacrum  cone.  Const,  univ.  ecel.  repraes.  approbavit  et 
apjirobat  in  favorem  ficlei  et  ad  salutem  animarum,  quod  hoc  est  ab  universis 
Christi  fidelibus  approbaudum  et  tenendum? "^ 

2.  In  his  declaration  made  at  the  request  of  the  Poles,  that  he  should  pub- 
licly condemn  the  libel  of  the  Russian  Dominican  Falkenberg,  against  the 
king  and  Polish  nobility,  the  Pope  speaks  thus  :  that  he  holds  fast,  observes, 
and  approves  "omnia  et  singula  determinata,  couclusa  et  decreta  in  materiis 
fidei  per  jn-aesens  sacrum  concilium  generale  Const,  coucilialiter,  et  non 
aliter  nee  alio  modo."  It  is  true  that  this  explanation  refers  proximately  to 
the  cause  in  dispute  of  Falkenberg,  but  it  has  a  wider  scope  in  reference  to  the 
decrees  of  the  council  in  general. 

3.  The  decrees  of  the  Council  of  Constance  are  therefore  not  approved  un- 
conditionally, but  only  under  certain  restrictions. 

a.  The  expressions  "  concilialiter,"  in  contradistinction  to  that  of  "  nationali- 
ter"  (winch  means  only  of  individual  nations),  and  "  tumultualiter  "  (which 
implies  the  decisions  passed  in  Constance  contrary  to  the  right  order),  partly 
express  these  restrictive  limitations,  which  are  further  partly  shown  by  the 
words  "in  materiis  fidei"  and  "ad  salutem  animarum." 

b.  Both  these  speeclies  of  Martin  V.  thus  prove  that  he  only  confirmed  those 
decrees  of  the  council  which  were  embraced  in  the  right  way  ("  concilialiter"), 
and  which  were  passed  "in  favorem  fidei"  and  "ad  salutem  animarum." 

c.  A  closer  explanation  of  the  restriction  under  which  Martin  V.  confirmed 
the  decrees  of  Constance  is  given  by  his  successor,  Eugene  IV.,  in  his  letter  to 
his  legates  in  Germany  July  22,  1446,^  in  the  words :  "  Sicut  illi  [sel.  prae- 
decessores  nostri]  generalia  concilia  Constantiense  et  Basiliense  ab  ejus  initio, 
usque  ad  translationcm  per  nos  factam,  absque  tamen  praejudicio  juris  dignitatis, 
et  praeeininentiae  s.  sedis  Apostolicac  .  .  .  cum  omni  reverentia  et  devotione 
suscipimus,  complectimur  et  veneramur." 

According  to  this,  all  such  decrees  of  Constance  as  are  injurious  to  the  rights, 
dignity,  and  supremacy  of  the  Apostolic  See  are  excluded  from  the  papal 
confirmation. 

II.  From  the  foregoing  it  is  seen  how  the  question  may  be  answered,  what 
authority  resides  in  the  proposition  of  Constance  :  "  Concilium  supra  Papam." 

1.  Wholly  distinct  from  the  contradiction  involved  in  the  proposition  itself 
(as  a  true  oecumenical  council  without  the  Pope  is  not  conceivable),  the  very 
circumstance  under  which  it  was  uttered  impeaches  its  authority  ;  since, 

2.  This  said  proposition  was  put  forth  by  prelates  belonging  to  Cossa's 
obedience,  and  without  the  assent  of  the  cardinals,  and  therefore  not  "  concili- 
aliter."    To  this  may  be  added,  — 

3.  That  Martin  V.  refused  to  confirm  this  proposition  with  the  papal  appro- 
bation ;  and  that,  Sept.  4,  1439,  Eugene  IV.  condemned  and  reiiected  as  "im- 
pia,  scandalosa,"  a  proposition  of  the  Council  of  Basle,  thirty-third  session, 
referring  to  it,  which  set  up  the  proposition  of  Constance  as  a  dogma  ("  Sacro 
approbaute  coneilio,  scl.  Florent.,  damnamus  et  reprobamus").^ 

1  Harduin,  viii.  914.  «  Raynald,  Ad  ann.  1446,  n.  3.  ^  ggg  §  128. 


POPES   MARTIN    V.    AND   EUGENE   IV.  33 

4.  Finally,  because  Pope  Martin  V.  at  the  Council  of  Constance,  by  his  Con- 
stitution of  March  10,  1418,  affirms  :  "  Nulli  fas  est,  a  supremo  judice  videlicet 
apostolica  sede  seu  Romano  poutifice  Jesu  Christi  vicario  appellare  aut  illius 
judicium  in  causis  fidei,  quae  tanquam  niajores  ad  ipsum  et  sedem  Apostolicam 
defereudae  sunt,  decliuare,"  by  wliich  tlie  appeal  from  the  Pope  to  a  general 
ciiuncil  is  forbidden,  and  which  likewise  rejects  as  erroneous  the  underlying 
principle  of  the  superiority  of  an  oscumeuical  council  to  the  Pope,  as  is  even 
confessed  by  Gerson  himself,  the  spiritual  author  of  this  theory,  in  the  words : 
"  Destruens  [scl.  the  prohibition  of  the  Pope]  fuudamentale  penitus  robur  nedum 
Pisani  sed  Coiistantiensis  concilii,  et  eorum  omnium,  quae  in  eis,  praesertim 
super  electioue  suinmi  pontificis  et  iutrusorum  ejectione  atteutata  factaque 
sunt."i 

§  128.   The  Popes  Martin  V.  and  Eugene  IV.,  and  the  Councils 
of  Siena  and  Basle. 

The  synod  Avhich  had  been  convoked  by  Martin  Y.  (1417-1431)  to 
assemble  at  Pavia  (1423)  was  forthwith  transferred  to  Siena  on 
account  of  the  breaking  out  of  a  contagious  disease.  It  condemned 
the  heresy  of  Huss,  sketched  a  plan  for  reuniting  the  schismatic 
Greeks,  and  excommunicated  Peter  de  Luna  and  his  adherents; 
but  after  a  few  sessions  its  action  was  suspended,  and  the  considera- 
tion of  the  so  much  needed  reformation  was  adjourned  to  another 
council,  which  was  convoked  for  the  20th  of  February,  1431,  while 
Martin  yet  lived.     The  place  chosen  for  the  new  synod  was  Basle. 

Martin's  successor,  Gabriel  Condulmerio,  Eugene  TV.  (1431-1447), 
Avas  a  nephew  of  Gregory  XII.  He  confirmed  the  capitulation 
made  by  the  cardinals  before  the  election,  then  issued  the  bull  of 
convocation,  and  appointed  Cardinal  Julian  Cesarini  to  preside  at 
the  synod.  The  small  number  of  prelates  who  were  in  attendance, 
together  with  the  desire  to  promote  negotiations  which  should  re- 
unite the  Greek  and  Latin  churches,  and  other  important  causes, 
then  induced  the  Pope,  on  the  12th  of  November,  1431,  to  transfer  the 
council  to  Bologna,  to  be  opened  in  that  place  after  the  lapse  of 
eighteen  months. 

But  the  twelve  prelates  then  assembled  at  Basle  were  not  satis- 
fied with  this  transfer ;  and  Julian,  who  had  resigned  the  presi- 
dency, made  earnest  representations  to  the  Pope  in  this  regard. 
The  twelve  prelates  held  their  first  session  on  the  14th  of  Decem- 
ber, defining  its  aim  and   scope  to  be   "  the  extirpation  of  heresy 

^  Dial.  apol.  ap.  v.  d.    Hardt.  iv.  1532.     Compare  on  this  controversy  Bal.lerini, 
De  potestate  ecelesiastica,  etc.,  ]>.  98  sqq.     See  also  §  130. 
VOL.   II.  3 


34  HISTORY   OF   THE    CATHOLIC   CHURCH. 

and  of  the  Greek  schism,  the  re-establishment  of  peace  among 
Christian  princes,  the  strengthening  of  faith,  the  revival  of  the 
ancient  discipline,  and  the  reformation  of  the  Church  in  her  Head 
and  members." 

The  prelates  assembled  at  Basle,  who  had  thus  and  in  other  ways 
already  overstepped  their  rights,  being  encouraged  by  the  protec- 
tion of  several  courts,  went  further  yet.  They  demanded  of  Eu- 
gene the  withdrawal  of  the  bull  of  dissolution,  and  in  their  second 
session  (Feb.  15,  1432)  renewed  that  decree  of  Constance,  which 
affirms  that  the  authority  of  the  council,  coming  immediately  from 
Christ,  was  superior  to  that  of  the  Pope.  At  the  third  session  (April 
29)  they  cited  Eugene  and  the  cardinals  to  appear  before  the 
council  within  three  months,  under  penalty,  if  they  refused,  of 
incurring  the  legal  punishment.  In  the  fourth  session  (June  20) 
they  forbade  the  Pope  to  create  new  cardinals,  appointed  a  gov- 
ernor for  the  County  of  Avignon,  and  gave  letters  of  safe  conduct 
to  the  Bohemians.  In  the  seventh  session  it  was  decreed  that  in 
case  the  Apostolic  See  became  vacant,  the  future  Pope  could  only 
be  elected  at  the  seat  of  the  council  (Basle). 

Such  overstrained  propositions  as  these,  which  Nicholas  of  Cusa, 
in  his  celebrated  work  "  De  concordantia  catholica,"  lib.  3,  seeks 
to  defend,  would  not  have  been  brought  forward,  had  not  the 
"  Fathers  of  Basle "  been  supported  by  King  Sigismund  and  other 
princes.  Emboldened  by  this  support,  they  rejected  the  conciliatory 
proposals  of  Eugene,  and  in  their  sixth  session  (September  6) 
declared  him  obstinate  ("  contumax  ")  ;  yet,  on  December  18,  in  their 
eighth  session,  at  which  Julian  presided,  they  inchdgently,  as  they 
boasted,  granted  him  a  respite  of  sixty  days  in  which  to  revoke  the 
bull  of  dissolution. 

For  the  sake  of  peace,  Eugene,  whose  four  legates  had  been  able 
to  effect  nothing,  sent  four  new  nuncios  to  Basle,  with  peaceable  ^ 
proposals,  and  on  Feb.  14,  1433,  issued  the  bull  of  revocation.  The 
"Fathers  of  Basle,"  however,  continued  their  opposition  to  him, 
and  in  the  eleventh  session  (April  27,  1433)  declared  that  a  Pope 
who  refused  to  assist  at  a  general  council  rendered  himself  liable 
to  suspension :  nay,  they  wished  to  pronounce  this  sentence  on 
Eugene  in  the  thirteenth  session ;  they  would  not  listen  to  his 
nuncios ;  but  finally  the  synod  granted  him,  at  the  fourteenth  ses- 
sion, a  new  term  of  grace  for  ninety  days. 

1  Raynald,  Ad  ann.  1432,  n.  19,  1433,  n.  3.  Aug.  Patritii,  Summa  conciliorum 
Basil.  Florent.,  etc.,  n.  24,  ap.  Harduin,  iv.  1104.     Hartzheim,  Cone.  Germ.  v.  793. 


POPES   MARTIN    V.    AND   EUdEXE    IV.  35 

!Meantime,  ou  the  14tli  of  February,  the  papal  embassy  arrived  at 
Basle,  bearing  the  bull  of  revocation.  Sigismund  also,  after  he  had 
been  crowned  emperor,  came  to  the  city.  But  the  synod  took  ex- 
ceptions to  several  expressions  in  the  bull,  and  treated  the  legates 
in  an  unfriendly  manner.  In  the  bull  it  was  affirmed  :  "  Statuimus, 
volumus  et  mandamus,  quod  Basileae  sacrum  generale  concilium  per 
nostros  legatos  illuc  quantoeyus  transmitteudos,  qui  nomine  nostro 
praesideant,  celebretur.''''  The  members  of  the  synod  were  not  satis- 
tied,  because  by  that  sentence  it  would  seem  that  the  council  was 
but  just  then  convoked,  which  would  nullify  its  previous  acts  as  not 
being  recognized  by  the  Pope.  They  likewise  found  fault  because 
Eugene  in  a  bull  of  May  1,  in  which  he  charged  his  legates  to  labor 
for  the  reformation  of  the  Church  in  all  her  members,  had  omitted  to 
include  '•  in  her  Head  "  also.  The  Pope  therefore  declared,  on  the 
29th  of  July,  that  in  sending  legates  to  Basle  he  had  in  view,  not 
the  formation  of  a  new  council,  but  the  continuation  of  one  already 
existing;  but  that  he  rejected  all  decrees  enacted,  or  yet  to  be 
enacted,  against  his  person  or  against  the  dignity  of  the  Apostolic 
See. 

To  comply  with  the  wishes  of  the  emperor,  and  to  restore  peace 
to  the  Church,  if  it  were  possible  to  do  this  by  any  lawful  means, 
Eugene  resolved  on  a  new  sacrifice  (August  1).  He  issued  a  bull  by 
which  he  acknowledged  the  synod  as  a  lawful  one  from  its  begin- 
ning, of  which  only  the  decrees  against  the  Apostolic  See  were  to  be 
rejected.  He  declared  his  willingness  to  favor  the  synod  if  only  the 
acts  against  his  person  and  the  dignity  of  the  Apostolic  See  were 
recalled,  and  if  his  legates  were  admitted  in  very  fact  to  the  presi- 
dency. But  this  did  not  satisfy  the  members  of  the  synod.  In  recog- 
nizing conditionally  the  authority  of  the  synod,  Eugene  had  used 
the  words  ''we  will  and  are  content"  ("volumus  et  contentamur"), 
while  they  wanted  him  to  say,  "  we  decree  and  declare  "  (''  decerni- 
mus  et  declaremus  ").  This  was  also  done  in  the  bull  of  Dec.  15, 
1433.  It  was,  in  fact,  the  utmost  yielding  of  the  sick  Pope,  who  was 
at  that  time  hard  beset  by  his  enemies,  together  Avith  the  discontent 
shown  by  the  princes  at  the  conduct  of  the  members  of  the  synod, 
that  at  the  sixteenth  session  (Feb.  5, 1434)  effected  a  reconciliation 
between  the  council  and  the  Pope. 

After  this  restoration  of  peace  with  the  Apostolic  See,  the  council, 
at  which  now  a  greater  number  of  prelates  appeared,  numbering, 
however,  at  most  two  hundred  bishops  and  abbots,  renewed  some 
good  enactments  that  had  been  framed  at  previous  synods,  and  at 


36  HISTORY   OF   THE    CATHOLIC   CHURCH. 

the  same  time  resumed  its  opposition  to  the  Apostolic  See,  and 
renewed  the  affirmation  that  the  council  was  superior  to  the  Pope 
(eighteenth  session,  June  26,  1434).  Besides  Cesarini,  there  was  no 
papal  legate  present,  as  such.  The  council,  which  permitted  the  par- 
ticipation of  the  legates  in  the  proceedings  only  conditionally,  desired 
these  legates,  not  as  such,  but  as  private  individuals,  to  accept  the 
decrees  under  oath,  especially  that  of  the  superiority  of  the  council 
to  the  Pope  ;  this  they  did  reluctantly,  but  in  their  own  name,  not 
in  that  of  the  Pope.^ 

The  members  abolished  all  annates  (twenty-first  session,  June 
9,  1435),  without  giving  any  compensation  for  them  to  the  Pope, 
and  abolished  the  reservations,  while  at  the  same  time  they  imposed 
taxes  on  the  clergy  for  their  own  support.  Further,  on  the  25th 
of  March,  143G,  during  the  twenty-third  session,  the  synod  passed 
new  regulations  on  the  mode  of  the  future  papal  election ;  on  the 
oath  which  the  newly  elected  pontiff  should  take ;  and  on  the 
number,  rights,  and  official  duties  of  the  cardinals.  It  also  en- 
tered into  negotiations  with  the  Greeks,  although  the  Pope  had 
already  negotiated  with  them  ;  granted  them,  of  its  own  authority, 
a  letter  of  safe  conduct ;  and  had  an  indulgence  published  in  order 
to  procure  the  necessary  money  to  defray  the  travelling  expenses 
of  the  Greek  envoys. 

Eugene  IV.  condemned  these  decrees,  complained  to  the  Christian 
princes  of  the  arrogance  of  the  prelates  of  P)asle,  who  in  January, 
1436,  had  addressed  to  hiin  a  sharp  admonition  ("  monitorium  '")  ;  and 
he  also  drew  up  a  memorial  to  the  crowned  heads,  in  which  he 
requested  them  to  recall  their  ambassadors  from  Basle. 

The  negotiations  respecting  the  Greek  union  finally  brought  about 
the  rupture.  The  better  part  of  the  synod  joined  the  Pope,  whose 
legates  had  proposed  Florence  or  Udine  as  the  place  of  the  council ; 
the  majority,  however,  guided  by  Cardinal  d'Allemand,  Archbishop 
of  Aries,  refused  to  meet  in  an  Italian  city. 

In  the  twenty-fifth  session  (May  7,  1437)  vehement  discussions 
took  place.  The  majority  decreed  that  the  council  should  be  held 
at  Basle,  Avignon,  or  in  a  city  of  Savoy.  Eugene  confirmed  the 
decision  of  the  minority,  which  proposed  an  Italian  city  :  and  the 
Greek  ambassadors  assented  to  this.  The  most  eminent  of  the  prel- 
ates left  Basle.  The  majority,  however,  who  sought  to  strengthen 
themselves  by  receiving  country  clergymen  and  subordinate  officials 
of  the  bishops,  in  the  twenty-sixth  session  (July  31,  1437)  cited  the 
1  Cf.   Turrecremnfa,  Sunim.  de  eccl.  ii.  100.     Eai/nahf,  M  ami.  1434,  ii.  14 


POPES   MARTIN    V.    AND    EUGENE   IV.  37 

Pope  to  appear  before  their  tribunal,  and  declared,  at  the  twenty- 
ninth  session,  the  transferring  of  the  council  to  Ferrara  null  and  void. 

Notwithstanding  these  decisions  and  denunciations  of  the  "Fa- 
thers of  Basle,"  who  even  threatened  Eugene  with  suspension  and 
deposition,  the  number  of  prelates  who  betook  themselves  to  Ferrara 
became  greater  and  greater,  while  the  little  handful  at  Basle  grad- 
ually melted  away  by  slow  degrees.  The  council  at  Ferrara  was 
opened  on  the  8th  of  January,  1438 ;  and  the  dissatisfaction  experi- 
enced at  Basle  at  such  a  defeat  deprived  the  members  of  the  reform 
synod  (who,  however,  had  done  ver}^  little  for  reformation)  of  their 
senses.  At  the  thirty-first  session  (Jan.  24,  1438)  they  suspended 
the  Fope,  and  at  the  thirty-second  session  (March  24)  cited  the 
members  of  the  Council  of  Ferrara  ^  to  answer  for  their  conduct 
at  Basle.  These  responded  by  pronouncing  anathema  on  the  pseudo- 
synod. 

Notwithstanding  the  grave  objections  to  the  proposition  made  by 
Nicholas  Tudeschi,-  Archbishop  of  Palermo  (Panormitanus),  the 
majority  of  the  council  at  Basle,  guided  by  D'Allemand,  concluded 
to  depose  Eugene ;  while  the  minority  joined  the  moderate  party. 
For  the  purpose  of  the  deposition  eight  new  dogmas  ^  w^ere  framed ; 
of  which,  in  the  thirty-third  session  (May  16,  1439),  contrary  to 
the  opinions  of  the  majority  of  bishops  present,  three  were  accepted 
as  truths  of  faith  ("  fidei  cath.  veritates  "),  namely,  — 

1.  The  council  is  above  the  Pope, 

2..  Without  consent  of  its  members,  it  can  neither  be  dissolved, 
prorogued,  nor  transferred. 

3.  Any  one  w^ho  denies  these  truths  is  a  heretic* 

Hereupon  Pope  Eugene  IV.,  against  whom  not  the  smallest  accu- 
sation could  be  substantiated,  was,  at  the  thirty-fourth  session,  on 

1  In  January,  1439,  it  was  transferred  to  Florence  on  account  of  the  breaking  out 
of  a  pestilence. 

2  Aug.  Patr.  1.  c.  c.  90  :  "  Panormitanus  praesul,  cum  aliter  persuadere  non 
posset,  secessione  facta,  du.xerit  [dixerit]  se  cum  aliis  praelatis  oratorum,  qui  ma- 
jorem  partem  praelatorum  coriiplectebantur,  conclusere  [concludere]  non  esse  con- 
cludendum  ;  et  asserentes  omne  jus  concilii  apud  eos  esse,  quoniam  infeiiores  non 
haberent  potestatem  ineundi  suffragia  in  conciliis  generalibus,  et  maxime  in  rebus 
fidei,  neque  vocem  habere  nisi  consultatiVam  tantum  ;  atque  in  tantum  excanduit,  ut 
coUuviem  illam  copistarum  concilium  appellaverit  ;  affirmaverit(pie  flagitium  fieri 
ab  Arelatensi  [scl.  D'Allemand],  qui  cum  tribus  cpiscopis  titularibus  (I)  omnes  con- 
silii  praelatos  vellet  statuere."     {Hard.  ix.   11.54.) 

^  Pntr,  1.  c.  c.  88.     Koch,  Sanctio  pragmat.  Germ.  p.  13. 
*  Arncnc.  Sylr.  Hist.  Basil.  Cone.  lib.  i.  p.  79. 


38  HISTORY   OF   THE   CATHOLIC   CHURCH. 

the  2oth  of  Juue,  1439,  formally  deposed  as  a  heretic  by  an  as- 
sembly composed  of  seven  bishops  and  some  other  prelates.  There 
were  in  all  but  twenty  bishops  and  abbots  present  at  this  session ; 
but  a  much  more  numerous  body  of  the  inferior  clergy  were  in 
attendance. 

Although  the  greater  part  of  the  princes  remained  faithful  to  the 
lawful  Pope,  and  loudly  blamed  the  conduct  of  the  Basilians,  as  they 
were  now  called,  these  Basilians  continued  their  sittings,  notwith- 
standing the  outbreak  of  a  pestilence,  and  proceeded  to  a  new  papal 
election.  The  choice  fell  on  Amadeus,  Duke  of  Savoy,  who  styled 
himself  Felix  Y.,  and  in  the  thirty-ninth  and  fortieth  sessions  was 
acknowledged  as  Pope  by  the  council. 

The  anti-Pope,  thus  elected  after  a  very  peculiar  fashion  by  a  few 
doctors,  prelates,  and  bishops,  received  obedience  from  very  few 
princes  and  universities.  He  himself  was  entirely  dependent  for 
his  support  on  the  pseudo-synod ;  and  they  imposed  heavy  taxes 
on  the  churches  subject  to  them,  for  his  maintenance,  till,  tired  of 
his  irksome  position,  he  withdrew  to  Lausanne.  The  synod  con- 
tinued to  hold  sessions  throughout  the  years  1441  and  1442,  and 
finally  dissolved  itself  after  the  forty-fifth  session  (iVIay  16,  1443),  in 
which  it  was  resolved  that  after  the  lapse  of  three  years  an  oecu- 
menical council  should  be  held  at  Lyons.  The  obstinate  schismatics 
still  remained  at  Basle,  and  later  on,  when  expelled  by  Frederic  III., 
emigrated  to  Lausanne,  where  they  did  not  conclude  their  so-called 
council  till  the  year  1449. 

The  Emperor  Sigismund,  who  had  at  first  rejoiced  at  the  convo- 
cation of  the  Synod  of  Basle,  at  length,  when  the  expectations  he 
had  cherished  were  not  met,  Avithdrew  his  countenance  from  it. 
The  electoral  princes  who  were  assembled  at  Frankfort  in  1438 
to  choose  a  successor  to  Sigismund  declared  neither  in  favor  of 
the  Pope  nor  of  the  synod.  This  state  of  things  lasted  during  the 
reign  of  Albert  II.  (-h  1439)  and  also  under  Frederic  III. 

At  a  diet  held  at  Mentz  (1439),  and  attended  by  the  ambassadors 
of  the  kings  of  France,  Castile,  and  Portugal,  the  rights  of  the 
Apostolic  See  were  ably  defended  by  Cardinal  Cervantes  and 
iSTicholas  de  Cusa;  but  a  new  trouble  came  upon  Eugene.  The 
princes  demanded  the  convocation  of  a  general  council,  while  the 
deposition  by  Eugene,  in  1445,  of  the  two  electoral  princes,  arch- 
bishops of  Cologne  and  Treves,  both  of  whom  favored  the  anti- 
Pope,  threatened  to  cause  a  rupture  ;  for  the  other  electoral  princes 
concluded,  at  an  assembly,  IVtarch  21,  1446,  to  send  an  embassy  to 


POPES  MARTIN    V.   AND  EUdENE   IV.  39 

Eugeue  IV.,  who  should  demand  from  him,  (1)  His  approval  of  cer- 
tain decrees  of  Basle,  accepted  by  themselves  ;  (2)  The  convocation 
of  a  general  synod  ;  (o)  Acceptance  of  the  article  on  the  superiority 
of  the  council  over  the  Pope ;  and  (4)  The  reinstating  of  the  two 
deposed  archbishops. 

Eugene  did  not  negotiate  with  the  ambassadors,  at  whose  head 
was  the  boorish  Gregory  of  Heimburg ;  but  by  the  advice  of  Fred- 
eric III.,  who  had  associated  ^neas  Sylvius  of  Piccolomini,  his 
private  secretary,  with  the  embassy,  he  sent  the  Cardinals  Thomas 
of  Sarzana,  Bishop  of  Bologna,  and  Carvajal,  together  with  Nicho- 
las de  Cusa,  as  legates  to  the  diet  opened  at  Frankfort,  Sept.  14, 
1446.  With  them  J5neas  Sylvius  labored  for  the  cause  of  the 
Apostolic  See.  He  partly  succeeded  in  winning  over  some  of 
the  electoral  princes  to  the  cause  of  the  Pope.  A  new  embassy 
to  Eugene  IV.  was  organized.  After  some  negotiations  an  un- 
derstanding was  come  to,  shortly  before  the  death  of  Eugene, 
which  took  place  on  Feb.  23,  1447.  Four  papal  documents  were 
drawn  up,  which  contained  the  so-called  "Concordats  of  the 
Princes."  ^ 

The  question  of  the  indemnity  to  be  offered  to  the  Pope  for  the 
abolition  of  the  annates,  etc.,  was,  according  to  the  decision  of  the 
princes  assembled  at  Aschaffenburg  (1447),  to  be  settled  at  the  Diet 
of  Nuremberg  in  1448.  But  as  early  as  February  17  of  that  year. 
King  Frederic  III.  concluded  with  Pope  Nicholas  V.  the  Concordat 
of  Vienna,  which  is  very  similar  to  the  Treaty  of  Constance,  and 
was  recognized  as  law  for  the  ecclesiastical  affairs  of  Germany. 

Twenty-three  decrees  of  the  Council  of  Basle  were  also  received 
in  France  in  an  assembly  at  Bourges  (1438) ;  and  on  June  7,  1438, 
these,  partly  unchanged,  partly  modified,  were  signed  by  the  King 
Charles  VII.  The  document  is  known  as  the  Pragmatic  Sanction  ; 
to  give  it  an  authorized  basis,  appeal  was  made  to  the  dubious  Prag- 

1  Printed  in  (Horix)  Concord,  nation.  Germ.  i.  135  sqq.  Koch,  1.  c.  p.  181  sqq. 
Raynald,  Ad  ann.  1447,  n.  4  sqq.  (incomplete).  Eugene  declared,  on  February  5,  in  a 
document  ("salvatorium  ")  :  "  Quoniam  propter  imminentem  nobis  aegritudinem  [he 
died  of  it  shortly  after],  non  valenius  omnia  per  eos  [that  is,  the  German  ambas- 
sadors], petita  et  per  nos  concessa,  cum  ea  integritate  judicii  et  consilii  examinare 
et  ponderare,  (]uae  rerum  magnitudo  et  gravitas  requirit,  tenore  pracsentium  protesta- 
mur,  cpiod  per  quaecunque  a  nobis  dictis  Regi  .  .  .  responsa  et  respondenda,  concessa 
et  concedenda,  non  intendimus  in  aliquo  derogare  doctrinae  sanctorum  patriim,  aut 
praefatae  sedis  privilegiis  et  auctoritati,  habentes  pro  non  responsis  et  non  concessis 
quaecunque  talia  a  nobis  contigerit  emanare."  On  the  transactions  in  Rome,  cf.  Aen. 
Syl.  ap.  Koch,  p.  309  sqq. 


40  HISTORY  OF   THE   CATHOLIC   CHURCH. 

matie  Sanction  of  Louis  IX.  (1268).^  It  contains  very  pernicious 
principles,  especially  concerning  the  relations  between  the  Pope  and 
the  council,  and  in  after  times  served  as  the  basis  of  the  so-called 
Galilean  Liberties. 

The  Council  of  Basle  —  but  only  in  the  degree  in  which  its  meas- 
ures were  recognized  by  the  Pope  —  and  the  Council  of  Ferrara- 
Florence,  which  Eugene  summoned  as  the  continuation  of  that  of 
Basle,  together  form 

The  Seventeenth  CEcumenical  Council. 

Respecting  the  Council  of  Basle,  therefore,  the  first  twenty-five 
sessions  are  to  be  distinguished  from  the  rest.  The  latter  ones  are 
obviously  schismatic ;  and  even  of  the  former  only  those  decrees  are 
to  be  regarded  as  oecumenical  which  treat  of  the  extirpation  of 
heresy,  of  the  maintenance  of  peace  in  Christendom,  and  of  the 
reformation  of  the  Church  in  its  head  and  members,  without  dero- 
gating from  the  dignity  of  the  Apostolic  See.^ 

§  129.   The  last  Popes  of  this  Upoch,  —  Nicholas  V.  to  Leo  X. 

Eugene's  successor,^  Thomas  of  Sarzana  (Nicholas  V.,  1447-1455), 
a  great  friend  and  promoter  of  learning,  and  the  founder  of  the 
Vatican  Library,  after  adjusting  the  schism,  held  in  1450  a  glorious 
jubilee  at  Eome,  combated  the  heretics,  and  devoted  his  whole  time 
and  exertions  to  the  reconquest  of  Constantinople,  which  in  1453 
had  fallen  into  the  hands  of  the  Turks.  The  same  course  was  pur- 
sued by  Calixtus  III.  (1455-1458),  Alphonsus  Borgia  from  Xativa. 
To  him  the  credit  of  the  victory  near  Belgrade  in  1456  was  due ;  but 
on  account  of  the  indifference  to  the  cause  shown  by  Christian 
princes,  he  obtained  no  more  enduring  result  than  his  predecessor 
had  done.  This  able  Pope  was  unfortunately  not  free  from  nepo- 
tism ;  he  appointed  two  of  his  nephews  cardinals  in  one  day,  and 
made  a  third  governor  of  the  Castle  of  St.  Angelo  and  Duke  of 
Spoleto.  It  was  probably  on  this  account  that  the  cardinals  after 
his  death  framed  a  capitulation  of  election,  by  which  restrictions 
were  placed  on  the  papal  prerogatives. 

1  C'f.  Histoire  conteiiaut  rorigine  de  la  pragmatique  sanction  et  des  concordats  in 
Traitez  des  droits  et  libertes  de  I'eglise  Gallicane,  Paris,  1731,  torn.  i.  p.  2,  p.  29  sqq. 

2  See  Hcfclc,  Hist,  of  the  Councils,  i.  p.  54  (2d  ed.  p.  62)  sqq. 

3  On  the  succeeding  Popes,  see  Christophe,  Histoire  de  la  papaute  pendant  le  15 
siecle,  avec  les  pieces  justificatives.  2  vol.  Lyons  et  Paris,  1863.  (From  the  ponti- 
ficate of  Martin  V.)     On  Nicholas  V.,  see  Manctti,  Vita  Kicol. 


NICHOLAS    V.    TO  LEO  X.  41 

His  successor,  the  learned  .Eneas  Sylvius  (Pius  II.,  14:58-1464), 
had  in  his  youth  led  a  somewhat  profligate  life,  and  had  ranged 
himself  on  the  side  of  the  Council  of  Basle  and  of  the  anti-Pope. 
In  the  year  1442  the  Emperor  Frederic  III.  took  him  into  his 
service,  and  sent  him  with  the  embassy  of  the  electoral  princes  to 
Rome.  Here  he  became  fully  reconciled  to  Pope  Eugene,  received 
priest's  orders,  and  from  that  time  forth  was  a  sincere  adherent 
of  the  Apostolic  See.  Soon  after  his  election  to  the  papal  throne 
Pius  summoned  the  Christian  princes  (1459)  to  meet  him  at  Man- 
tua, for  consultation  on  the  Turkish  question.  Here,  although  the 
hopes  of  the  Pope  to  excite  the  enthusiasm  and  obtain  the  aid  of 
the  Christian  princes  signally  failed,  his  own  zeal  did  not  falter. 
Although  sick,  he  first  endeavored  by  an  elaborate  letter  to  convert 
the  Sultan  ;  when  that  failed,  he,  on  the  19th  of  June,  1464,  hastened 
to  Ancoua  to  place  himself  at  the  head  of  the  Crusaders.  Here  he 
died  on  the  14th  of  August. 

At  Mantua,  in  1459,  Pius  II.  had  already  forbidden  any  new 
appeals  to  a  general-  council,  under  pain  of  excommunication, 
which,  in  fact,  he  had  pronounced  on  Diether  v.  Isenburg,  Arch- 
bishop of  Mentz.  His  endeavors  to  obtain  from  the  French  king, 
Louis  XI.,  the  abolition  of  the  Pragmatic  Sanction,  were  frustrated 
by  the  opposition  of  Parliament.  A  plan  of  reform,  devised  by 
Nicholas  of  Cusa,  was  unfortunately  never  carried  into  effect. 

In  the  bull  "  In  minoribus  agentes  "  Pius  retracted  his  former 
erroneous  views  on  the  Pope  and  the  council,  to  which  he  had  given 
utterance  chiefly  at  Basle,  and  which,  before  he  became  cardinal,  he 
had  already  known  to  be  untenable. 

He  was  succeeded  by  a  nephew  of  Eugene,  Cardinal  Peter  Barbo 
of  Venice,  the  pomp-loving  Paul  II.  (1464-1471),  who  rejected  the 
capitulation  edict  of  election,  which  had  been  made  in  the  con- 
clave, and  created  three  of  his  nephews  cardinals.  As  respects  his 
conduct  in  other  matters,  Platina  (+  1481)  is  not  a  trustworthy 
biographer.  Hatred  guides  his  pen  against  this  Pope,  because  he 
abolished  the  court  of  the  seventy-two  Abbreviators,  against  which 
charges  of  simony  and  other  notorious  corruptions  had  been  made, 
and  had  ordered  a  criminal  investigation  to  be  entered  into  re- 
specting the  members  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences.  It  is  certain, 
however,  that  during  the  reign  of  Paul  II.  nothing  was  done  for 
the  restoration  of  the  ancient  Church  discipline. 

Xor  did  the  pontificate  of  the  learned  and  art-loving  Franciscan, 
Pope  Sixtr.s  I"'.  (1471-1484),  bring  better  times  to  the  Church.    Im- 


42  HISTORY  OF   THE   CATHOLIC   CHURCH. 

mediately  after  his  elevation  he  indeed  began  to  interest  himself  in 
prosecuting  the  war  against  the  threatening  Turk;  but  he  beheld 
himself  forsaken  by  the  Christian  princes,  and  he  then  turned  all 
his  attention  to  Italian  affairs.  Misled  by  his  relatives,  to  whom  he 
was  much  attached,  he  gave  his  consent  to  the  plan  of  the  Pazzi 
family  to  overturn  the  dominion  of  the  Medici  in  Florence,  on 
condition,  however,  that  no  blood  should  be  shed.  But  the  plot 
failed;  and  the  conspirators,  among  whom  was  Francesco  dei  Sal- 
viati,  whom  Lorenzo  de'  Medici  had  refused  to  acknowledge  as 
Archbishop  of  Pisa,  were  immediately  put  to  death.  Excommuni- 
cation and  other  censures  pronounced  against  Lorenzo,  nay,  the 
interdict  itself  laid  on  the  whole  territory  of  Florence,  passed 
noiselessly  over  them,  producing  no  result.  Neither  was  anything 
to  be  effected  by  force  of  arms.  King  Louis  XL  of  France  sided 
with  the  Florentine  Lorenzo,  who  even  won  over  to  his  cause  the 
King  of  Naples,  the  Pope's  own  ally.  The  capture  of  Otranto  by 
the  Turks  at  length  made  Sixtns  more  placable,  and  in  1480 
brought  about  a  reconciliation  between  him  and  the  penitent 
Florentines. 

No  less  fatal  for  the  Church  was  the  position  of  the  Pope  towards 
Venice.  Sixtus  was  at  first  the  ally  of  the  city  against  Duke  Este 
of  Ferrara ;  but  when  he  afterwards  made  peace  with  the  duke,  the 
Venetians  continued  the  war  by  themselves,  and  took  no  heed  of 
the  warning  of  the  Pope  to  desist.  When  Sixtus  pronounced  eccle- 
siastical censures  on  the  Venetians  in  order  to  render  the  con- 
tinuation of  the  war  impossible,  they  disregarded  alike  ban  and 
interdict,  and  appealed  to  an  oecumenical  council.  Even  in  Rome, 
the  city  beautified  with  magnificent  buildings  by  the  Pope,  insecur- 
ity made  itself  felt  more  and  more.  In  the  States  of  the  Church 
the  Orsini  sided  with  the  Pope ;  the  Colonnas  and  Savelli  against 
him. 

Had  the  cardinals,  after  the  death  of  Sixtus,  instead  of  framing  a 
capitulation  of  election,  ohosen  a  Pope  who  with  a  strong  hand  would 
have  resisted  the  malpractices  of  selling  offices,  and  have  curbed 
the  worldly  spirit  among  the  members  of  the  curia,  the  mistrust 
then  prevalent  against  Rome  might  possibly  have  decreased ;  now, 
the  choice  that  fell  on  Cardinal  John  Baptist  Cibo  of  Genoa  (Inno- 
cent VIII.,  1484-1492)  could  serve  but  to  its  increase. 

Elevated  by  bribery  to  the  papal  chair,  this  Pope,  who,  after 
spending  his  youth  in  frivolity,  had  received  holy  orders,  was  a 
patron  of  art  and  science,  and  had  the  good  fortune  to  put  an  end 


NICHOLAS   V.    TO   LEO  X.  43 

to  the  anarchy  that  had  prevailed  in  Rome.^  He  tried  to  put  an 
end  to  sorcery  and  witchcraft,  and  summoned  all  Christendom  to 
take  up  arms  against  the  Turks.  For  keeping  in  captivity  Prince 
Dschem  (Zizim)  he  received  a  yearly  payment  of  forty  thousand 
ducats  from  the  Sultan  Bajazet ;  and  by  doing  so,  he  preserved  -peace 
for  Christendom.  But  Innocent  did  not  labor  earnestly  to  eradicate 
abuses.  Complaints  of  bribery  and  corruption  among  the  members 
of  the  curia,  whose  number  he  considerably  increased,  became  louder 
and  louder,  and  crimes  became  more  and  more  frequent  in  Rome.^ 
Innocent's  alliance  with  Lorenzo  de'  Medici,  whose  thirteen-year- 
old  son  John  afterwards  became  Pope  Leo  X.,  and  who  already  pos- 
sessed ]nany  benefices  while  he  was  at  this  time  created  cardinal, 
gave  him  support.  His  son  Francis  obtained  the  hand  of  Magdalene 
de'  Medici. 

After  the  death  of  Innocent  YIIL,  in  1492,  the  twenty-three 
cardinals,  of  whom  fifteen  were  bribed,  proceeded  to  elect  Rodrigo 
(Lenzuoli)  Borgia  to  the  papal  chair,  under  the  name  of  Alex- 
ander VL  (1492-1503).  It  is  beyond  dispute  that  this  Pope  pos- 
sessed vigor  of  intellect,  sagacity  in  business  matters,  with  an 
affable  and  courteous  demeanor^  especially  to  the  poor  and  middle 
classes.  At  his  enthronization,  however,  pagan  frivolity  vied  with 
low  flattery,  in  Rome,  to  greet  his  accession ;  and  to  this  succeeded 
the  most  shameless  pasquinades  and  lampoons  on  the  Pope  himself. 
In  fact,  the  bright  side  of  Alexander's  character  was  fearfully 
obscured  by  dark  shadows ;  but  an  accurate  picture  of  his  life  can 
scarcely  be  drawn,  because  the  notices  we  have  of  it  differ  so  much 
one  from  the  other,  and  ofttimes  bear  on  their  front  the  marks  of 
exaggeration   and   untruth.^     Before  his  elevation,  Alexander  had 

^  "Pater  patriae."  What  Sfe2)h.  Infcssura  (-t-1494)  says  in  the  diary  he  wrote, 
"  Diarium  urbis  Eomae  ab  ann.  1294-1494,"  concerning  the  condition  of  the  Romans 
and  the  character  of  the  last  Popes,  is  to  be  taken  with  great  caution,  as  the  vehement 
and  calumniating  author  permits  himself  great  exaggerations  and  unjust  representa- 
tions. Muratori,  who  edited  the  diary  (Script,  rer.  ital.  iii.  2),  names  him  as  "  pro- 
clivis  ad  maledicentiam  "  (1.  c.  1109).     Cf.  Raynald,  Ad  ann.  1490,  n.  22. 

2  So  says  Infcssura,  Ad  ann.  1489,  ap.  Muratori,  1.  c.  1226. 

3  Cf.  Corio,  Storia  di  Milano,  vii.  888  sqq.     One  inscription  runs  thus  :  — 

"  Caesare  magna  fuit,  nunc  Roma  est  maxima,  Sextus 
Regnat  Alexander,  ille  vir,  iste  Deus." 

See  Roscoe,  Life  and  Pontificate  of  Pope  Leo  X. 

*  The  heavy  accusations  of  the  scandalous  Burchard,  of  Strasburg,  Bishop  of  Citt^ 
di  Castellana,  and  Master  of  the  Ceremonies  in  Eome  (-^  1506),  were  weakened,  (1)  By 
the  unreliable  character  of  the  man,  of  whom  his  successor,  Paris  de  Grassis,  says 


44  HISTORY  OF   THE   CATHOLIC   CHURCH. 

had  live  children  by  the  Lady  Vauozza  de  Catanei.  His  son  John 
was  created  Duke  of  Gandia,  by  Ferdinand  the  Catholic ;  another 
son,  Caesar  Borgia,  became  Archbishop  of  Valencia,  and  obtained 
the  cardinal's  hat.  The  relations  which  Alexander  bore  to  temporal 
sovereigns  were  on  the  whole  friendly.  By  the  celebrated  meridian 
line  he  staved  off  the  outbreak  of  contention  between  Spain  and 
Portugal ;  he  also  regulated  the  missionary  work  in  the  New  World. 

Alexander  lived  in  peace  with  the  Emperor  Frederic  III.,  and 
with  his  successor  Maximilian  I.  On  the  other  hand,  he  fell  into 
discord  with  Charles  VIII.  of  France  about  Naples ;  and  on  the  olst 
of  December,  1494,  Charles  entered  Rome,  but  eventually  was  con- 
strained to  withdraw  from  Italy.  The  attempt  of  the  king  to  con- 
voke a  general  council  against  the  Pope  was  frustrated  by  his 
death.  With  his  successor,  Louis  XII.,  the  Pope  was  on  the  best 
of  terms.  Caesar  Borgia,  who  after  the  assassination  of  his  brother 
laid  aside  the  cardinalate  with  the  full  consent  of  the  Pope,  married 
a  French  princess,  with  whom  he  received  the  Dukedom  of  Valen- 
tinois  as  her  dower,  to  which  Alexander  added  a  principality  in 
Romagna.  By  degrees  the  papal  dominion  over  the  States  of  the 
Church  was  restored. 

The  assassination  of  the  Duke  of  Gandia,  which  was  falsely  as- 
cribed to  his  brother  Caesar,  deeply  affected  Alexander,  and  turned  his 
attention  more  forcibly  to  the  condition  of  ecclesiastical  affairs.  He 
commissioned  six  cardinals  to  draw  up  a  scheme  of  reform ;  he  even 
showed  symptoms  of  being  willing  to  resign  the  tiara;  but  this 
frame  of  mind  was  not  of  long  continuance.  The  reform  scheme 
was  not  carried  into  execution ;  and  the  warning  voices  of  Christian 
princes,  who,  it  is  true,  did  not  place  themselves  in  a  proper  posi- 
tion towards  the  Church,  remained  unheeded.  The  daring,  genial, 
and  highly  endowed  Jerome  Savonarola,  the  reformatory  demagogue 
in  the  monk's  habit,  was,  on  the  charge  of  having  uttered  false 
prophecies  and  of  having  by  his  sermons  instigated  the  people  to 
sedition,  handed  over  to  secular  authority,  and  condemned  by  it  to 
the  death  he  underwent  on  the  23d  of  May,  1498. 

Something,  however,  was  done  for  the  welfare  of  the  Church. 
The  discovery  of  America  by  Christopher  Columbus  presented  an 
opportunity  to  the  -Apostolic  See  to  propagate  the  Christian  faith 
in  the  New  World,  and  the  destruction  of  the  Moorish  kingdom  in 

(Diarium  ad  ann.  1506),  that  he  was  "non  solum  non  humanus,  sed  supra  omnes 
hestias  bestialissinius,  inhumanissimus,  invidiosissimus ;  and  (2),  Because  he  asserts 
many  things  from  riunor  alone.  OlUvier,  Le  pape  Alex.,  Paris,  1870  ;  Hist,  du  Pajw 
Alex.  VI.,  1SS2. 


NICHOLAS  Y.    ro   LEO  X.  45 

Spain  (1492)  restored  the  doininioii  of  Christianity  to  that  realm. 
By  increasing  the  severity  of  the  penalties  for  reading  heretical  and 
dangerons  books,  the  Pope  hindered  such  works  from  spreading. 

The  report  of  an  incestuous  intercourse  between  Alexander  and 
his  daughter  Lucretia  ^  is  a  vile  calumny,  as  is  also  the  accusation 
that  he  was  the  murderer  of  Prince  Dschem.  Yet  he  well  deserves 
the  reproach  of  having  done  nothing  to  stem  the  torrent  of  an  ever- 
increasing  corruption  among  the  higher  grades  of  the  clergy  and 
laity  ;  and  of  having,  by  tolerating  the  conduct  that  prevailed  at  his 
own  court,  contributed  not  a  little  to  bring  religion  into  contempt. 
But  Alexander  was  essentially  more  of  a  worldly  than  a  spiritual 
prince.  Neither  he  himself  nor  the  most  of  those  who  surrounded 
him  were  able  to  grasp  the  true  idea  of  the  Church,  or  to  compre- 
hend what  is  involved  in  the  exalted  olfice  of  her  supreme  head. 
But  also  in  this  Pope  the  promise  given  to  the  Prince  of  the  Apos- 
tles was  verified. 

After  his  death,  —  which  was  occasioned  by  a  malignant  fever, 
and  not  by  poison,  as  some  have  asserted,  —  the  pious  cardinal  Pic- 
colomini,  whose  heart  and  soul  were  animated  with  zeal  for  the 
reformation  of  the  Church  in  its  head  and  in  its  members,  was,  in 
September,  1503,  elevated  to  the  papal  chair,  under  the  name  of 
Pius  III.  He  reigned  but  twenty-six  days,  and  was  succeeded  by 
the  Cardinal  Archbishop  of  Ostia,  Julian  of  Rovere,  a  nephew  of 
Sixtus  IV.,  who  took  the  name  of  Julius  II, 

The  pontificate  of  this  Pope  is  pre-eminently  of  a  political  charac- 
ter, Julius  II.  was  of  an  open,  honest  disposition ;  he  was  an  able 
ruler  and  a  brave  general ;  but  to  these  qualities  were  not  nnited 
the  peculiar  attributes  of  a  truly  Apostolic  Head.  Too  much  occu- 
pied with  things  exterior,  Julius  directed  too  little  of  his  attention 
to  things  interior.  He  restored  the  papal  rights  in  the  States  of 
the  Church,  and  crushed  the  power  of  the  mighty  Caesar  Borgia. 
To  punish  the  Venetians,  he  joined  the  League  of  Cambray,  and 
fought  the  haughty  signora  alike  with  spiritual  as  with  temporal 
weapons ;  on  their  humbling  themselves  before  him,  Julius,  fearing 
the  preponderance  of  French  power  in  Italy,  became  reconciled 
with  the  republic.  The  discontent  which  this  reconciliation  called 
forth  in  the  mind  of  Louis  XII.  was  fostered  by  the  action  taken 
by  Pope  Julins  against  Alphonso  Este,  Duke  of  Ferrara,  and  finally 
occasioned  a  breach  between  him  and  the  King  of  France.     The 

^  See  Roscoe. 


46  HISTORY  OF   THE   CATHOLIC   CHURCH. 

Synod  of  Tours,  convoked  by  the  king,  entered  into  his  plans,  and 
threatened  the  Pope  with  a  general  council. 

Louis  was  strongly  supported  by  some  cardinals,  Avho,  angry  at 
the  refusal  of  the  Pope  to  convoke  a  general  council,  deserted  him, 
and  under  the  protection  of  France  (1511)  convoked  a  general  synod 
to  be  held  at  Pisa.  Maximilian  I.,  whose  ambassadors  had  been 
able  to  effect  nothing  at  Home,  entered  eagerly  into  the  plan. 

Notwithstanding  this,  this  undertaking  of  the  cardinals  met  with 
no  encouragement  in  the  main  body  of  Christianity,  which,  dreading 
a  schism,  disapproved  of  the  action  of  the  cardinals.  Driven  out 
of  Pisa,  they  continued  their  sessions  successively  in  jVlilan,  Asti, 
and  Lyons,  but  without  result.  Meantime,  in  July,  1511,  the  Pope 
convoked  at  Rome 

The  Eighteenth  (Ecumenical  Council  (Lat.  Y.), 

the  main  objects  of  which  were  given  out  to  be :  (1)  The  restoration 
of  peace  among  Christian  princes  :  (2)  The  war  against  the  Turks ; 
(3)  The  reformation  of  the  Church  in  its  head  and  members.  The 
council  was  opened  on  the  19th  of  April,  1512.  Its  authority  was 
recognized  by  the  Emperor  Maximilian  I.  At  the  beginning  there 
were  present  fifteen  cardinals  and  seventy-nine  bishops ;  this  num- 
ber was  afterwards  increased  to  one  hundred  and  twenty.  The 
most  of  them  were  of  Italy.  In  the  fifth  session  a  decree  against 
simony  at  papal  elections  was  passed,  and  confirmed  by  the  Pope. 
Julius  II.,  who  had  excluded  the  renegade  cardinals  from  the  council, 
died  after  that,  and  was  succeeded  by  John  de'  Medici  (Leo  X.). 

Trained  in  the  schools  of  the  Humanists,  a  lover  of  splendor  and  a 
man  of  extravagant  habits,  this  celebrated  member  of  the  house  of 
Medici  was  conversant  with  the  art  of  attracting  to  himself  learned 
men  and  artists,  but  he  was  not  by  any  means  so  conversant  with 
the  knowledge  of  how  to  renew  the  spirit  of  Jesus  Christ  in 
Christendom. 

The  sittings  of  the  council  were  continued :  several  reformatory 
decrees  were  framed;  but  only  palliative  measures  were  adopted, 
the  axe  was  not  laid  at  the  root  of  the  evil.  Towards  its  conclusion 
Prance  also  acceded  to  the  council,  and  the  concordat^  between  Leo 
X.  and  King  Francis  I.  removed  the  offensive  Pragmatic  Sanction 
of  Bourges.  This  was  approved  by  the  council ;  further,  a  bull  pro- 
claimed the  superiority  of  the  Pope  to  all  councils,  shortly  after 
which  the  council  was  closed  (March  16,  1517). 

1  Nussi,  Conveiitiones,  p.  20  sqq.     Cf.  kSt.  a.  M.  Laach,  iii.  222  sqq. 


THE  PRIMACY.  47 

In  vain  the  Dominican  general  Thomas  de  Vio  (Gaetanus),  who 
had  an  anxious  presentiment  of  the  coming  storm,  conjured  them 
to  continue  their  sessions,  and  with  a  strong  hand  to  complete  the 
work  of  reformation.  The  Fathers  Avere  dismissed  at  the  close  of 
the  twelfth  session. 

On  this  subject  Cardinal  Hergenrother  says  :  ''  This  early  closing 
of  the  council  has  frequently  been  considered  as  a  measure  some- 
what over-hasty  and  injurious  to  the  interests  of  the  Church,  espe- 
cially as  it  was  in  the  autumn  of  that  self-same  year  that  the  mighty 
storm  of  the  Reformation  broke  forth  in  Germany.  Yet  a  longer 
continuation  of  this  council  would  scarcely  have  prevented  this 
storm  from  arising  or  have  lessened  its  intensity  when  arisen.  The 
council  could  only  frame  laws,  and  there  was  already  no  lack  of 
wholesome  laws;  the  failure  was  in  the  observance  of  these  laws, 
and  in  the  power  to  enforce  such  observance.  .  The  numerous  decrees 
of  Basle  had  effected  no  renovation  of  ecclesiastical  life ;  they  had 
worked  no  improvement  in  the  weakness  that  pervaded  the  central 
power,  rather  had  they  increased  the  influence  of  the  secular  power 
over  the  formation  of  the  arrangements  of  the  Church.  A  danger- 
ous revolutionary  movement  was  in  process,  —  a  movement  tliat  could 
not  be  suppressed ;  it  had  to  take  its  course,  had  to  abide  the  time 
in  which  to  manifest  all  its  fruits.  It  was  only  through  great  and 
saintly  men  that  help  could  come ;  and  these  were  raised  up  by  God 
in  large  numbers  when  the  necessities  of  the  Church  had  reached 
their  extremity,  when  human  pride  was  at  the  end  of  its  wisdom. 
It  was  only  by  the  painful  operation  of  throwing  off  from  itself  the 
matter  engendered  by  revolutionary  disease,  that  the  health  of  the 
body  of  the  Church  could  be  restored."  ^ 


B.   HISTORY   OF   THE   INTERIOR    AFFAIRS  OF  THE   CHURCH. 

I.     CONSTITUTION   OF   THE   CHURCH. 

1.  Ecclesiastical  Hierarchy. 

§  130.    The  Primacy. 

In  order  to  discuss  more  fully  the  labors  and  achievements  of  the 
Apostolic  See  at  this  epoch,  and  to  place  these  in  the  various  phases 

^  Hergenrother,  ii.  p.  139. 


48  HISTORY  OF   THE   CATHOLIC   CHURCH. 

in  which  tliey  may  be  viewed,  it  is  necessary  to  consider  more 
closely  the  relations  in  which  the  Popes  stood  to  the  Christian 
sovereigns  and  those  in  which  they  stood  to  other  members  of  the 
Church. 

The  Pope,  as  the  acknowledged  head  of  the  Church,  was  the  com- 
mon father  of  all  Christians,  — of  the  "respublica  Christiana"  in  its 
two  forms,  the  Christian  Church  and  the  Christian  State.  To  him, 
as  Vicar  of  Christ,  all  had  to  be  subordinated;  while  he  himself 
was  responsible  to  God  alone,  without  his  power  from  this  cause 
being  able  to  degenerate  into  caprice.^ 

As  to  the  relationship  which  the  spiritual  bears  to  the  temporal, 
especially  that  which  the  Pope  bears  to  Christian  rulers,  both  spirit- 
ual and  temporal  rulers  acknowledge  that  their  power  proceeds  from 
God ;  and  in  doing  so,  they  deduce  the  necessity  of  the  existence  of 
an  interior  harmony  with  each  other,  and  proclaim  the  superiority 
of  the  spiritual  over  the  temporal  power. ^ 

In  consequence  of  this  superiority,  the  Church  claimed  for  her 
Supreme  Head  the  right  to  admonish  and  to  punish  temporal 
princes  without  thereby  arrogating  to  herself  the  dominion  of  the 
world  ("  dominium  mundi "),  and  without  looking  on  princes  as  her 

1  This  has  been  declared  by  the  Pope  innumerable  times.  Paschal  II.  says  :  "Ad 
hoc  in  ecclesia  Dei  constitnti  snnius,  ut  ecclesiae  ordinem  et  patrum  debeamus  praecepta 
servare"  (Ep.  225,  ap.  Mignc,  Patr.  lat.  toni.  clxiii.  col.  214).  Pius  VII.  sent  word  to 
the  allied  princes  of  the  ecclesiastical  provinces  of  the  upper  Rhine  :  "The  Pope  finds, 
in  the  very  nature  and  in  the  constitution  of  the  Church,  of  which  he  is  the  head, 
certain  limits,  which  he  may  not  overstep  without  violating  his  conscience  and 
misusing  the  exalted  power  which  Jesus  Christ  confided  to  his  care  for  the  edifi- 
cation, not  for  the  destruction,  of  His  Church  "  (Esposizione  dei  sentimenti  di  sua 
Santita,  etc.). 

2  See  Hergenriithcr,  Catholic  Church  and  Christian  State,  pp.  351,  412.  Gcrson, 
De  niodis  uniendi  ac  reformandi  eccl.  c.  2.  :  "  Ecclesia  Christi  est  inter  omnes  res- 
publicas  aut  societates  recte  ordinatas  a  Christo  superior,  nobilior  ac  diligibilior  " 
(Op.  ii.  163).  Ivo  Carnot,  Ep.  238  ad  Paschal,  pap.  :  "  Novit  paternitas  vestra,  quia 
cum  regnum  et  sacerdotium  inter  se  conveniunt,  bene  regitur  mundus,  floret  et  fructi- 
ficat  ecclesia.  Cum  vero  inter  se  discordant,  non  tantum  parvae  res  non  crescunt,  sed 
etiam  magnae  res  miserabiliter  dilabuntur."  Innocent  II.  wrote  to  the  Emperor 
Lothaire  :  "Si  auctoritas  sacra  pontificum  et  potestas  imperialis  vere glutino  charitatis 
ad  invicem  copulentur,  Omnipotenti  debitus  famulatus  libere  poterit  exhiberi  et 
christianus  populus  grata  pace  et  tranquillitate  gaudebit "  ( IVatterich,  Rom.  pont. 
vitae,  ii.  209).  The  Emperor  Frederic  I.  writes  :  "  Regiae  majestatis  dignitas  postu- 
lat,  quae  et  pacis  et  concordiae  bonum  spectare  noscuntur  attenta  sollicitudine  stabi- 
lire,  et  ut  inter  regnum  et  sacerdotium  indissolubili  caritate  bonum  ipsum  perpetuo 
perseveret,  diligenti  studio  et  e.\acta  diligentia  laborare."  Pcrtz,  Mon.  Germ.  Hist, 
iv.  93. 


THE   PRIMACY.  49 

vassals ;  on  the  contrary,  the  Popes  repeatedly  declared  that  in 
jyurely  temporal  matters  kings  had  no  one  over  them,  and  that  the 
power  of  the  Church  in  their  regard  was  a  spiritual  one,  which 
touched  temporal  things  only  indirectly.^  Of  this  right  the  Pope 
was  obliged  to  make  use  as  mediator  of  peace  between  contending 
princes,  as  protector  of  the  subjects  against  princely  despots,  and 
as  defender  of  the  right  against  tyranny  and  caprice. 

The  mutual  relations  existing  between  the  spiritual  and  temporal 
powers  are  appropriately  symbolized  under  the  figure  of  the  sun 
and  moon-^  or  of  that  of  the  two  swords.^  It  has  already  been 
made  clear,  in  the  foregoing  history  of  the  relative  position  between 
Church  and  State,  that  in  the  course  of  time  various  changes  oc- 
curred which  led  to  repeated  and  often  violent  conflicts  between 
Emperor  and  Pope,  and  to  learned  controversies,  in  which,  not  being 
always  animated  by  a  tranquil  and  edifying  spirit,  the  authors 
sometimes  lost  sight  of  the  object  in  view  in  the  treatises  and 
poems  which  they  published. 

Even  as  the  political  position  occupied  by  the  Pope  among 
Christian  nations  was  not  attained  by  cunning  or  by  arrogance,  so 
neither  are  the  rights  exercised  by  the  Popes  within  the  Church 
a  product  of  the  pseudo-Isidorean  decretals,  or  of  other  causes ;  they 
are  simply  an  outcome  of  that  supreme  power  conferred  by  Christ 
on  St.  Peter  and  his  su.ccessors,  the  division  of  which  into  essential 
and  non-essential  rights  was  first  invented  by  the  Febronians. 

This  supreme  power  was  made  use  of  by  the  Popes  in  various 
ways,  according  to  the  exigence  of  the  movement  which  called  it 
forth.  The  circumstances  that  arose  in  course  of  time  determined 
the  manner  of  its  action;  such  were,  chiefly,  the  encroachments 
of  the  temporal  power  upon  the  rights  of  the  Church,  the  weak- 
ness or  injustice  of  many  metropolitans  and  the  encroachments  of 

1  Cf.  IiiiKc.  III.  Decretal.  Per  Vcnerabilem,  c.  13,  x.,  Qui  filii  sint  legitimi 
(iv.  17)  :  '•('uin  rex  ipse  siiperiorem  in  temporalibus  minime  recognoscat,"  etc.  .  .  . 
Yeruiii  etiain  in  aliis  regionibus  [i.e.  outside  the  States  of  the  Church],  certis  causis  in- 
spectis  tcm2)omlcnijurisdidioncm  casualitcr  cxcrccmus,  non  quod  alieno  juri  praejudi- 
care  velimus,"  etc.     See  Hergcnrothcr,  p.  373  sqq. 

2  Inuoc.  III.  Ep.  lib.  i.  ep.  401,  lib.  ii.  ep.  294.  Cf.  Gesta  liinoc.  c.  63  :  "Ad 
firmanientura  coeli,  h.  e.  univeisalis  ecclesiae  fecit  Deus  duo  magna  luminaria,  i.e. 
duas  magnas  instituit  diguitates,  quae  sunt  pontificalis  auctoritas  et  regalis  potestas, 
sed  ilia  qui  praeest  diebus,  i.  e.  spiritualibus,  major  est  ;  quae  vero  carnalibus,  minor 
est,  ut,  quanta  est  inter  solem  et  luuam,  tanta  inter  pontifices  et  reges  differentia 
cognoscatur." 

3  See  §  123. 

VOL.  II.  4 


50  HISTORY  OF   THE   CATHOLIC   CHURCH. 

some  bishops.  This  rendered  it  necessary  that  it  shouki  fall  within 
the  actual  jurisdiction  of  the  Popes,  (1)  To  examine,  confirm,  trans- 
fer, or  depose  bishops ;  (2)  To  cite  the  complaints  against  bishops 
before  their  own  tribunal;  (3)  To  lay  the  right  of  dispensation 
enjoyed  by  the  bishops  under  greater  restrictions,  as  also  their 
privilege  of  excommunicating  and  of  laying  a  country  under  an 
interdict. 

The  relation  of  the  bishop  to  the  Pope  is  appropriately  expressed 
in  the  declaration  of  Innocent  III.,  that  the  bishops  were  "vocati  in 
partem  sollicitudinis ; "  ^  and  in  the  vow  of  canonical  obedience,'^ 
which  since  the  time  of  Gregory  VII.  has  been  enjoined  on  metro- 
politans and  at  a  later  period  on  all  bishops. 

Besides  this,  the  Popes  at  this  epoch  exercised,  more  than  they 
formerly  had  done,  their  supreme  right  of  conferring  all  ecclesi- 
astical benefices.  (1)  They  recommended  ("preces")  certain  candi- 
dates for  vacant  benefices,  or  ordered  them  to  be  installed  ("  literae 
monitoriae  et  praeceptoriae  "),  or  themselves  performed  the  instal- 
lation ("lit.  executoriae ") ;  they  also  granted  expectances  ("expec- 
tationes")  of  benefices  about  to  be  vacant.  (2)  They  reserved  for 
themselves  the  privilege  of  filling  up  certain  prebends  ("  reserva- 
tiones  "),  and  bestowed  others  as  commendams,  by  Avliich  means  they 
not  only  rewarded  many  deserving  men,  and  supported  those  among 
the  clergy  who  had  been  robbed  of  their  means  or  who  had  been 
driven  away  for  their  fidelity  to  the  Apostolic  See,  but  they  also 
promoted  learning,  and  rendered  the  foundation  and  existence  of 
manj'  universities  possible ;  while  the  monastic  institutions  placed 
formidable  counteracting  influences  to  the  spirit  of  caste,  pride,  and 
ambition  in  the  higher  classes,  and  to  the  overreaching  pretensions 
of  the  power  of  the  \2aty. 

Finally,  the  Popes,  in  virtue  of  their  supreme  power  of  taxing 
the  churches,  either  conjointly  with  other  bishops  or  separately, 
laid  extraordinary  imposts  on  individual  churches  or  clergymen 
for  the  support  of  the  Crusades,  for  the  foundation  and  maintenance 
of  the  higher  establishments  of  learning,  and  for  any  other  object  of 
general  utility,  asking  special  taxes  of  them  for  the  maintenance 
of  the  curia. 

The  various  kinds  of  tribute  thus  paid  to  the  Holy  See,  which 
were  not,  however,  a  special  introduction  of  this  epoch,  but  had 

1  C.  4,  X.,  De  caiictoritate  et  usu  pallii  (i.  8). 

2  Respecting  this  oath,  which  is  by  no  means  an  oath  of  vassalage,  as  has  been 
falsely  asserted,  see  Thomassin,  Vetus  et  nova  eccl.  disciplin.  ii.  2,  c.  43  sqq. 


THE   PRIMACY.  51 

already,  at  least  partially,  been  levied  in  preceding  ages,  were :  (1) 
The  fruits  of  the  first  year  (''fructus  niedii  temporis,  jus  deportus  "), 
which  were  taken  from  vacant  prebends,  and  from  moneys  left  at 
the  death  of  clergymen ;  (2)  The  annates,  which  had  their  origin  in 
a  practice  usual  in  the  early  ages,  both  in  the  East  and  West,  of 
presenting  gifts  at  ordinations  ('' emphanistiea,"  "  inthronistica," 
"  benedictio,"  "oblatio"),  which  were  taken  from  the  benefices  con- 
ferred by  the  Popes  either  outside  ("annata  Bonifaciana")  or  in  the 
consistory  ("servitia  communia  et  minuta")  ;  (3)  The  income  from 
confirmation  and  the  Pallium  fees ;  (4)  The  taxes  for  dispensations. 

Other  taxes  which  the  Pope  received  from  different  countries 
were :  (1)  Peter's  pence,  which  were  first  paid  in  England ;  (2)  The 
tribute  paid  by  such  princes,  cities,  and  cloisters  as  placed  tliem- 
selves  under  the  special  protection  of  the  Pope ;  (3)  The  feudal 
tax,  paid  by  the  vassals  of  the  Holy  See  to  the  Pope. 

As  Supreme  Head  of  the  Church,  the  Bishop  of  Rome  had  even 
yet  greater  titles  to  special  honor.^  It  was  on  this  account  that 
the  Middle  Ages  called  him  exclusively  "Papa,"  "  Vicarius  Christi," 
"  Vicarius  Dei,"  at  times  also  "  Vicarius  Petri."  The  wearing  of  a 
mitre  which,  since  Nicholas  II.,  was  adorned  with  two,^  and,  from 
the  time  of  Clement  V.,  with  three  crowns  ("tiara,"  "triregnum," 
"  mitra  turbinata") ;  the  erect  crosier  ("  pedum  rectum  ") ;  the  many 
testimonies  of  respect  and  veneration  shown  him,  such  as  kissing 
the  foot,  the  holding  of  the  stirrup  by  the  emperor  ("officium 
stratoris")  on  whom  the  Pope  conferred  the  crown, — all  testify  to 
the  honor  in  which  he  was  held,  which  the  above-named  and  other 
practices  only  symbolized. 

Although  the  rights  which  the  Popes  exercised  had  their  foun- 
dation in  the  very  nature  of  the  primacy  itself,  and  are  therefore 
anything  but  unwarrantable  assumptions,  yet  in  the  course  of  time, 
and  principally  towards  the  end  of  this  epoch,  loud  complaints  Avere 
made  of  the  oppressions  and  demands  for  money  by  the  Pope. 
These  complaints,  if  in  part  they  were  utterly  unfounded,  as  was 
sometimes  the  case,  yet  were  also  in  part  owing  to  the  too  frequent 
use  made  by  the  Popes  of  their  incontestable  rights,  as  also  to  the 
conduct  of  their  officers. 

It  was  especially  at  the  time  of  the  conflicts  with  the  Hohenstau- 
fens  that  the  Popes  found  themselves  compelled,  by  stern  necessity, 
to   lay   heavier   taxes  on  certain  churches,  to    depose   disobedient 

1  See  §§  52,  95. 

2  Others  ascribe  the  introduction  of  the  twofold  crown  to  Boniface  VIII.  (1297). 


52  HISTORY  OF   THE   CATHOLIC   CHURCH. 

bishops,  and  to  reward  faithful  clergymen  for  the  loss  of  their  in- 
comes by  compensating  them  with  the  gift  of  benefices  in  other 
lands.  The  discontent  arising  from  this  cause  not  infrequently 
found  vent  in  sundry  places,  in  complaints  of  the  extortions  prac- 
tised by  the  papal  legates  and  of  the  collation  of  benefices  upon 
strangers  ;  and  these  complaints  found  frequent  expression  in  sat- 
ires of  the  bitterest  kind.^ 

The  slanderous  libels  circulated  against  the  Popes  by  the  Emperor 
Frederic  II.  contributed  still  more  to  shake  the  veneration,  confi- 
dence, and  love  of  the  people  for  the  Holy  See.  These  pamphlets 
contained,  besides  personal  suspicions  of  certain  Popes,  the  exposi- 
tion of  certain  very  pernicious  principles,  which  in  after  times,  par- 
ticularly during  the  conflict  between  Louis  the  Bavarian  and  the 
Popes  at  Avignon,  were  presented  -  in  harsher  colors,  and  not  only 
upset  the  proper  relationships  between  Pope  and  Emperor,  but 
also  called  in  question  the  undoubted  ecclesiastical  rights  of  the 
primate.^ 

The  residence  of  the  Popes  at  Avignon  was  a  misfortune  for  the 
Church,  chiefly  because  the  Christian  world  at  large  saw  in  the  Pope 
of  Avignon  more  a  friend  of  France  than  the  supreme  head  cherish- 
ing for  the  whole  Church  a  solicitude  equal  and  common  to  all,  and 
because  the  exactions  of  the  curia,  whose  resources  from  the  States 
of  the  Church  had  dried  up,  continually  augmented  the  ill-will  of 
the  people. 

But  the  "Western  schism,  that  poisonous  fruit  of  the  exile  of 
Avignon,  was  even  yet  more  injurious  to  the  status  and  dignity  of 
the  Apostolic  See.  The  mere  fact  that  the  Popes  in  Kome  and  the 
schismatics  in  Avignon  had  to  seek  recognition  from  the  tempoi-al 
princes,  and  that,  in  order  not  to  lose  their  favor,  they  were  compelled 
to  ignore  many  things,  threw  too  great  an  influence  in  ecclesiastical 
matters  into  the  hands  of  the  laity,  which  was  very  detrimental  to 
church  discipline. 

To  this  may  be  added  that  the  churches  were  now  still  more 
heavily  taxed  for  the  support  of  the  two  curias ;  and  the  mutual 
anathematizing  of  each  other  produced  a  contemj)t  for  the  censures 
of  the  Church.  Again,  the  bishoprics  and  prelatures  were  con- 
ferred neither  according  to  merit  nor  to  canonical  rule,  but  often  at 
the  recommendation  of  some  worldly  prince,  or  with  the  view  of 

1  On  the  complaints  of  the  English  envoys  at  the  First  Council  of  Lyons,  1245.  see 
Hefele,  Hist,  of  the  Councils,  v.  902,  999. 

2  See  §§  121,  124. 


THE  PRIMACY.  53 

gaining  a  powerful  ally  or  of  rewarding  some  one  for  service  per- 
formed. In  this  way  the  service  of  the  Church  underwent  consider- 
able detriment,  and  suffered  many  disadvantages  in  consequence. 

Worse  than  this,  not  only  the  avowed  enemies  of  the  Apostolic 
See,  but  even  well-disposed  men,  such  as  Henry  of  Langenstein,  Peter 
D'Ailly,  Nicholas  of  Clemange,  Gerson,  Nicholas  of  Cusa,  and  others, 
in  the  expressed  intention  of  restoring  ecclesiastical  unity,  pro- 
pounded and  defended  views  on  the  relation  of  the  Pope  to  temporal 
princes  and  concerning  his  position  in  the  Church  which  were  erro- 
neous in  themselves  and  pernicious  in  their  effects.  The  so-called 
reformatory  synods  of  Pisa,  Constance,  and  Basle,  in  seeking  to 
reduce  these  principles  to  practice,  had  the  hardihood  to  depose 
Popes,  to  pass  new  decrees  on  their  rights  and  duties,  whereby 
they  greatly  impaired  the  reverence  due  to  the  chair  of  St.  Peter, 
called  forth  an  indescribable  confusion  in  Christendom,  aroused 
the  spirit  of  revolt  against  authority,  while  at  the  same  time  the}' 
made  manifest  the  utter  absurdity  and  destructive  nature  of  such 
theories. 

Notwithstanding  all  these  foregoing  difficulties,  had  the  Popes 
acted  with  the  energy  and  in  the  spirit  of  Gregory  VII.,  they  might 
have  diverted  great  evils  from  the  Church ;  had  they  set  themselves 
in  opposition  to  the  corruption  that  pervaded  all  classes,  from  the 
clergy  to  the  laity,  and  from  the  lowest  class  of  these  latter  to  the 
ranks  of  princes,  including  some  members  of  the  sacred  college  it- 
self, much  good  might  have  been  effected.  But  the  watchmen  on 
the  walls  of  Sion  were  asleep,  while  the  enemy  was  undermining 
the  foundation.  Some  Popes  indeed  were  aware  of  the  mischief 
effected,  but  did  not  venture  to  enter  on  the  gigantic  struggle,  and 
contented  themselves  with  lopping  off  some  obtrusive  branches ; 
and  when  nepotism  had  introduced  into  the  college  of  cardinals  a 
larger  number  of  useless  and  often  unworthy  members,  who  in  con- 
clave were  more  intent  on  seeking  their  own  advantage  than  on 
meeting  and  providing  for  the  necessities  of  the  Church,  then  the 
worldly  spirit  of  the  Renaissance  and  of  the  Humanists  obtained 
the  upper  hand  and  prevailed  in  the  Eternal  City.  Luxury,  sense- 
less prodigality,  thoughtless  squandering  of  time,  superseded  apos- 
tolic simplicity,  dignity,  and  watchfulness  over  self,  and  hastened 
the  breaking  out  of  that  catastrophe  which,  under  the  pretext  of 
reformation,  tore  away  by  fraud  or  force  many  thousands  of  souls 
from  the  Church.  But  God  had  already  chosen  the  men  who  were 
to  work  for  the  spiritual  regeneration  of  all  classes,  and  by  their 


54  HISTORY   OF   THE    CATHOLIC   CHURCH. 

labors  at  the  Council  of  Trent  to  effect  a  thorough  reformation  of 
the  Church  in  its  head  and  in  its  members. 

On  the  "  Corpus  juris  ennuuici  "  aud  the  literature  concerning  it,  see  the 
manuals  of  canon  law.  The  first  part  of  it  contains  the  collection  of  canons 
and  decrees  composed  by  the  monk  Gratian,  a  professor  at  Bologna,  1150  or 
1151.  They  are  interpreted  and  applied  in  certain  cases  ("  distinctiones," 
"causae,"  "  de  consecratione  ").  The  "  Glossa  ordinaria"  was  composed  by 
John  Semeca  (Teutonicus,  +  before  1240),  Provost  at  Halberstadt.  The  second 
part  comprehends  the  collection  of  decretals,  "  Decretalium  Greg.  IX.,"  lib.  5 
("judex,"  "judicium,"  "  clerus,"  "  conuubia,"  "  crimen  "),  composed  in  1230  at 
the  behest  of  Gregory  IX.  by  St.  Raymond  of  Pennaforte  from  the  already  ex- 
isting five  compilations,  and  the  collection  "  Liber  sextus"  (containing  the 
decrees  of  Innocent  IV.  and  Bonifoce  VITI.),  added  by  Boniface  YIII.  himself 
in  1297,  and  likewise  divided  into  five  books.  The  third  part  consists  of  the 
so-called  Clementines  (Const.  Clementinae,  lib.  5),  which  were  collected  by 
Clement  V.  after  the  Council  of  Vienne,  but  were  not  published  until  1317  under 
John  XXII.  ;  and  of  the  so-called  Extravagants  (Extrav.  communes  and 
20  Extr.  Job.  XXII.),  which  were  not  edited  as  an  authentic  collection,  and 
were  received  for  the  first  time  by  John  Chappuis  in  his  edition  of  the  Corp. 
jur.  can.  (Paris,  1499).  In  1598  Pope  Clement  ordered  Cardinal  Pinelli 
to  compose  a  "  Liber  septimus  "  (ed.  Sentis.  Friburg.  1870),  but  he  did  not 
corifij"m  the  collection. 

§  131.    The  Other  3Iemhers  of  the  Hierarchy. 

The  cardinals,  to  Avhom,  by  the  decrees  of  Nicholas  II.,  of  Alexan- 
der III.,  of  Gregory  X.,  and  others,  was  conceded  the  exclusive 
right  of  electing  a  Pope,  were  the  counsellors  of  the  Popes,  and 
assisted  them  in  the  government  of  the  Church.  According  to  the 
regulations  of  the  Church,  only  learned  and  able  men,  selected  from 
the  Christian  world  at  large,  should  be  received  into  the  college 
of  cardinals  ;  unhappily,  this  rule  was  violated  at  the  time  of  the 
exile  at  Avignon,  and  at  a  later  period,  by  the  nepotism  of  several 
Popes.  The  number  of  cardinals  was  not  always  equally  large ; 
the  Synod  of  Basle  wished  to  reduce  it  to  twenty-four. 

By  the  Fourth  Council  of  the  Lateran  (c.  24),  the  cathedral  chap- 
ters were  granted  the  right  of  electing  the  bishop,  which  right, 
however,  was  limited,  and  sometimes  even  nullified,  by  papal  reser- 
vations and  by  the  temporal  power.  The  chapters  were  to  a  con- 
siderable extent  independent  of  the  bishops,  and  had  their  own 
statutes.  The  number  of  their  members  was  in  most  cases  precisely 
determined.     In  several  cathedral  and  collegiate  chapters  only  the 


THE    OTHER   MEMBERS    OF   THE    HIERARCHY.  55 

sons  of  noble  families  could  obtain  canonicates  or  prebends  ;  as,  for 
example,  in  the  cathedral  chapters  of  Liege,  1145,  were  numbered 
nine  sons  of  kings,  fourteen  sons  of  dukes,  thirty  counts,  seven 
barons  and  knights.  This  arrangement,  though  not  unjustifiable  in 
itself,  was  prejudicial  to  Church  discipline,  when  the  rich  founda- 
tions began  to  be  considered  as  institutions  for  providing  support 
for  the  younger  sons  of  the  nobility.  In  this  way  many  talented 
men  were  excluded  from  the  most  important  positions,  and  seeds 
of  great  dissension  were  sown  between  the  nobles  and  non-nobles 
of  the  land.  Another  evil  was  the  accumulation  of  benefices 
("cumulatio  beneficiorum "),  some  canons  possessing  the  benefices 
of  several  churches.  The  Popes  frequently  nominated  as  members 
of  these  chapters  deserving  ecclesiastics,  who  were  not  of  noble 
birth  ;  but  the  noble-born  were  opposed  to  this.  After  the  dissolu- 
tion of  the  "vita  communis,"  which  in  many  dioceses  continued  to 
exist  up  to  the  thirteenth  century,  the  cathedral  vicars  were  ap- 
pointed to  celebrate  the  divine  services. 

In  the  thirteenth  century,  besides  archdeacons,  episcopal  vicars- 
general,  oificials,  and  penitentiaries  were  appointed.  The  latter 
were  the  bishop's  representatives  •'  in  foro  interno."  Auxiliary  or 
titiilar  bishops  performed  the  episcopal  functions  when  the  diocesan 
bishop  was  prevented  from  doing  so. 

The  tithes  and  the  stole-fees  ("  jura  stolae  ")  served  for  the  main- 
tenance of  the  parish  clergy.  In  many  places  the  income  of  the 
clergy  was  very  small.  ]\Iany  of  the  clergy  lived  on  the  stipends  for 
masses  (annuals),  or  pursued  some  trade  ;  others  filled  the  office 
of  notary  or  of  physician,  etc  ;  not  a  few  lived  on  the  alms  of  the 
faithful.  To  protect  the  revenues  of  the  parish  clergymen  from  the 
encroachments  of  the  monks,  it  was  found  necessary  for  the  Church 
to  issue  a  series  of  laws. 

The  practice  that  prevailed  of  conferring  a  prebend  before  the 
recipient  had  been  ordained  was  very  injurious  to  the  Church ;  still 
more  so  was  the  giving  away  of  benefices  and  prebends  to  immature 
youths  and  boys,  as  also  the  heaping  of  several  bishoprics  and  pre- 
bends (or  canonries)  on  one  individual,  in  violation  of  the  ancient 
canonical  laws.  In  this  manner  many  dioceses  obtained  chief  pas- 
tors who  were  ignorant  of  the  language  spoken  by  the  natives,  and 
who  hardly  visited  their  flocks  even  in  a  very  hasty  manner.  Be- 
sides this,  the  rights  of  bishops  in  appointing  clerics  to  parishes 
were  often  violated  by  patrons  of  the  livings.  ]\Ioreover,  the  real 
holders  of  the  benefice  often  confided  to    poorly  paid  vicars   the 


56  HISTORY  OF   THE   CATHOLIC   CHURCH. 

performance  of  their  functions.  To  do  away  with  such  abuses  as 
these,  the  Church  ordered  that  a  perpetual  vicar  ("  vicarius  per- 
petuus ")  shoukl  be  appointed,  and  that  the  real  holder  of  the  bene- 
fice, who  was  the  proper  pastor,  should  leave  him  a  sufficiency  for 
his  maintenance  from  his  revenues. 


2.  Religious  Orders. 
§  132.    Religious  Orders  of  Knifihts  {Military  Orders^. 

The  profound  religious  sentiment  of  the  Middle  Ages  is  evinced 
in  a  peculiarly  illustrious  manner  by  the  numerous  orders  and 
congregations  that  took  their  rise  about  that  time,  each  of  which, 
while  pursuing  its  own  particular  object,  still  kept  in  view  the 
main  object,  the  sanctification  of  their  own  members  and  of  the 
world. 

Beyond  all  other  associations,  those  orders  which  combined  knight- 
hood with  monasticism  demand  our  special  attention.  Amongst 
these  were  the  Knights  of  8t.  John,  who  owe  their  origin  to  a 
hospital  in  Jerusalem  founded  (1048)  by  some  merchants  of  Amalfi. 
At  first  they  occupied  themselves  with  tending  the  sick;  but, 
already  under  their  second  grand-master,  Raymond  du  Puy,  they 
took  upon  themselves  the  defence  of  the  Holy  Land  and  the  pro- 
tection of  Christian  pilgrims.  Pope  Innocent  II.  approved  this 
change  in  their  rule,  and  permitted  the  Hospitaller  Brothers  of 
St.  John  the  Baptist,  as  they  were  first  called,  to  wear  a  white 
cross,  of  jNIaltese  form,  on  their  breast ;  and  the  whole  order  now 
divided  itself  into  knights,  chaplains,  and  serving-brothers. 

The  Knights,  who  were  greatly  in  favor  alike  with  the  Popes  as 
with  temporal  rulers,  on  the  conquest  of  Jerusalem  by  Saladin,  1187, 
chose  the  fortress  Margat  in  Phcenicia  as  the  head-quarters  of  their 
order  ;  and  after  the  fall  of  Acre,  in  1285,  they  changed  this  to 
the  island  of  Rhodes  (1310).  When  this  island  in  1522  had  fallen 
into  the  hands  of  the  Turks  under  Soliman  II.,  the  Emperor 
Charles  V.  assigned,  in  1530,  the  island  of  Malta  to  the  Knights ; 
and  here  they  remained,  in  faithful  observance  of  their  rule,  until 
the  year  1798,  when  this  bulwark  was  surrendered  to  General 
Bonaparte,  it  is  said  by  the  treason  of  the  Grand-master  the  Count 
of  Hompesch  and  of  the  French  Knights. 

The  Peace  of  Amiens  purposed  to  restore  Malta  to  the  order ; 
but  the  English,  who  had  wrested   the   island  from   the    French, 


RRLICIOUS   ORDERS   OF  KNIGHTS.  57 

refused  to  give  it  up ;  and  the  Peace  of  Paris,  1814,  left  them   in 
j)eaceable  possession  of  it. 

At  the  head  of  the  whole  order,  which  was  divided  into  nations 
or  tongues,  stood  the  grand-master;  the  chiefs  of  the  respective 
nations  were  called  "  ballivi  conventuales  "  or  pillars  ("  piliers  "). 
There  were  also  female  cloisters  of  this  order.  The  order  now 
chiefly  attends  to  nursing  the  sick  and  wounded,  as  was  especially 
seen  in  the  time  of  the  war  of  1870-1871. 

A  similar  association  was  that  of  the  Templars,  which  was 
founded  by  nine  French  knights,  who,  under  the  leadership  of 
Hugh  of  Payens  (de  Paganis)  and  Geoffrey  of  St.  Omer,  banded 
together  for  the  protection  of  Christian  pilgrims.  This  little  society, 
who  lived  in  great  poverty,  remained  for  a  considerable  time  un- 
noticed, until,  at  the  instance  of  St.  Bernard,  in  1127,  the  Council  of 
Troyes  gave  them  a  rule  which  Pope  Honorius  II.  confirmed.  From 
that  time  forward  the  order  was  richly  endowed  with  privileges 
and  donations.  The  number  of  its  members  increased,  and  they 
fought  bravely  against  the  infidels.  They  wore  a  white  mantle, 
with  a  red  cross  of  eight  points,  of  the  Maltese  form,  on  the  shoulder. 
When  Acre  had  fallen  into  the  hands  of  the  enemy,  they  withdrew 
to  Cyprus  and  at  a  later  date  to  the  West.  Paris  became  the  central 
point  of  the  order  (Le  Temple). 

King  Philip  IV.  of  France  was  an  inveterate  enemy  of  the  order ; 
he  worked  upon  the  "  apostolic  solicitude  "  of  Pope  Clement  V.  till 
he  induced  him  to  abolish  it  in  1312. 

Whether  the  crimes  laid  to  the  charge  of  the  members  of  this 
order  are  wholly  invented,  or  true  at  least  in  part,  cannot  be 
positively  ascertained. 

Alike  celebrated  with  the  Knights  of  St.  John  and  the  Knights 
Templars  were  the  Teutonic  Knights  of  St.  Mary  of  Jerusalem, 
who  made  their  appearance  for  the  first  time  as  an  association  at  the 
siege  of  Acre,  1190.  Henry  Walpot  of  Bassenheim  was  their  first 
grand-master.  The  habit  of  the  order  was  white  with  a  black 
cross.  Pope  Clement  III.  and  the  Emperor  Henry  VI.  recognized 
the  new  order ;  and  Pope  Celestine  III.  approved  their  statutes,  which 
were  drawn  from  the  rules  of  the  St.  John  and  Templar  orders. 

This  order,  which  enjoyed  the  same  privileges  as  the  other  two 
had,  gained  great  credit  for  itself  in  the  Church  by  subjugating 
the  heathenish  Prussians.  After  subduing  this  country,  the  grand- 
master removed  from  Venice,  where  he  had  resided  since  the  fall 
of  Acre,  to  Marienburg,  on  the  Vistula,  1309,  and  thence,  on  the 


58  HISTORY  OF   THE    CATHOLIC   CHURCH. 

apostasy  of  Albert  of  Brandenburg,  to  Mergentheira,  in  Suabia,  1525. 
In  the  year  1809  the  grand-master  lost  his  rank  as  prince.  The 
present  grand-master  is  Archduke  William  of  Austria. 

The  other  military  orders  —  as  that  of  the  Brothers  of  the  Sword, 
that  of  the  Knights  of  Dobrin,  those  of  St.  Jago,  Calatrava,  and 
Alcantara  of  Spain,  of  Avis  in  Portugal,  and  of  St.  Maurice  in  Savoy 
—  were  of  less  significance  than  the  preceding  ones. 

Although  no  certain  judgment  can  be  passed  on  the  guilt  or  innocence  of  the 
Templars,  the  following  has  at  least  its  foundation  in  history  :  — 

I.  The  principal  enemy  of  the  order  was  Philip  IV.,  who,  on  the  denuncia- 
tion of  a  certain  Squiyi  v.  Flexian,  demanded  its  suppression  of  Clement  V. 
As  the  Pope  did  not  immediately  acquiesce  in  this  demand,  the  king,  on  the 
13th  of  October,  1307,  had  all  the  Templars  in  his  dominions  arrested,  and 
prosecuted  by  the  Grand-inquisitor  William  of  Paris,  Nogaret,  and  others. 
Being  put  to  the  torture  and  examined  by  other  means  also,  confessions  were 
extorted  from  the  prisoners,  which  most  of  them  afterwards  revoked,  even 
though  such  revocations  exposed  them  to  certain  death,  while  pardon  awaited 
those  who  stood  by  tlieir  confession. 

Testimony  equally  in  favor  of  the  Templars  is  afforded  by  the  unworthy  pro- 
ceedings of  King  Philip,  who  through  his  agent  Dubois  had  pamphlets  com- 
posed in  which  the  Pope  is  accused  of  having  been  bribed  by  the  Templars, 
and  the  king  is  called  up  to  pnnish  the  impious,  as  Moses  did  of  yore,  without 
troubling  himself  about  the  Pope  (Notices  et  extraits,  xx.  2,  p.  175  sqq.). 
This  testimony  is  further  advanced  by  the  king's  convoking  a  national 
assembly  at  Tours,  May  I,  1308  (1.  c.  p.  163  sqq.),  in  order  to  give  force  to 
his  threats  against  Clement,  although  the  latter  had  already,  Nov.  22,  1307, 
issued  the  bull  "  Pastoralis  praeemineutiae,"  in  which  he  had  ordered  the  arrest 
of  all  the  Templars  and  an  examination  to  be  made  respecting  them. 

Besides  this,  it  must  create  an  unfavorable  impression  concerning  Philip, 
that  he,  in  violation  of  the  agreement  previously  entered  into  with  the  Pope, 
and  contrary  to  the  ecclesiastical  laws,  cited  the  proceedings  of  examination 
before  his  own  tribunal  (Boutarie,  La  France  sous  Ph.  le  Bel,  p.  132),  and 
that  afterwards,  though  he  appeared  to  yield,  he  did  not  leave  either  the  con- 
duct of  the  prosecution  of  the  Templars  or  that  of  the  administration  of  their 
sequestrated  property  in  France  to  the  Pope,  but  by  his  management  they 
practically  adverted  to  himself,  which  can  only  be  explained  by  the  suggestion 
that  the  king  was  actuated  by  other  motives  than  those  which  arose  from  his 
conviction  of  the  guilt  of  the  order. 

Nay,  the  very  crimes  of  which  the  order  were  accused,  such  as  apostasy, 
idolatry  and  immorality,  bear  on  their  front  the  stamp  of  calumny,  as  such  could 
scarcely  have  so  long  remained  unknown  had  they  been  widely  spread  within 
the  order. 

This  argument  is  strengthened  by  the  fact  that  in  the  examinations  entered 


RELIGIOUS   ORDERS  OF  KNIGHTS.  59 

into  in  other   countries   by  order  of  the  Pope,  the  result   for   the  most  part 
testified  to  the  innocence  of  the  accused. 

Finally,  the  conduct  of  Philip  himself  after  the  sui)pression  of  the  order,  more 
especially  his  exactions  of  money  from  the  property  of  the  Templars,  with  his 
refusal  to  hand  over  their  possessions  to  the  Knights  of  St.  John,  as  he  had 
promised  to  do,  plainly  reveal  the  motives  that  prompted  him  to  persecute  the 
order  whose  richest  possessions  were  in  France.  Moreover,  outside  of  their 
great  riches  and  power  (there  were  fifteen  thousand  Knights),  the  king's  senti- 
ments were  influenced  by  the  fact  that  in  his  contest  with  Boniface  VIII.  the 
Templars  had  sided  with  the  Pope  against  himself. 

II.  Nor  can  the  guilt  of  the  members  be  inferred  from  the  suppression  of  the 
order  by  the  Pope  ;  for  as  the  bull  of  March  22,  1 31 2,  bears  witness,  that  sup- 
pression took  place  without  the  accused  being  allowed  to  defend  themselves  as 
Clement  V.  and  the  majority  of  the  Fathers  wished.  It  took  place,  not  in  virtue 
of  a  legal  sentence,  but  out  of  ''apostolic  solicitude."  This  important  passage 
runs  thus  :  "  Xon  sine  cordis  amaritudine  et  dolore,  own  2)er  modum  definitivae 
senfentiae,  sed  per  modum  provisionis  seu  ordinationis  apostolicae  praefatum 
templi  ordinem  et  ejus  statum,  habitum  atque  nomen  irrefragabili  et  perpetuo 
valitura  tollimus  sanctione  ac  perpetuae  prohibition!  subjicimus,  sacro  concilio 
approbante,  districtius  inhibentes,  ne  quis  dictum  ordinem  de  cetero  intrare, 
vel  ejus  habitum  suscipere  vel  portare,  aut  pro  templario  gerere  se  praesumat." 
The  same  is  expressed  by  the  bull  *'  Ad  certitudinem,"  May  6,  1312.  In  it 
Clement  reserves  to  himself  the  sentence  to  be  passed  on  several  members  of 
the  order,  particularly  on  the  grand-master,  James  of  Molay,  and  others,  whilst 
the  rest  of  them  are  referred  for  judgment  to  the  provincial  synods  ;  and  on  these 
synods  the  Pope  enjoined  care  for  the  innocent,  and  clemency  towards  all.  By 
the  bull  of  May  2,  "Ad  providam,"  the  Pope  regulates  the  disposal  of  the 
prt)perty  of  the  order. 

Furthermore,  it  is  not  to  be  overlooked  that  Philip  IV.  appeared  in  Vienne 
at  the  head  of  an  armed  force  to  carry  out  the  suppression  of  the  order,  which 
to  him  was  an  object  of  hatred  ;  and  that  he,  disregarding  the  commission 
appointed  by  Clement,  ordered  the  grand-master  and  the  grand-preceptor  of 
Normandy  to  be  burnt,  after  both  the  accused  had  decidedly  refused  to  plead 
guilty  to  the  crimes  confessed  by  them  when  under  torture,  as  the  members 
of  the  comnussion  wished  them  to  do,  —  in  the  face  of  death  they  solemnly 
protested  the  innocence  of  the  order. 

Although  these  facts  are  strong  witnesses  in  disproof  of  the  accusations 
brought  against  the  Order  of  Templars,  they  do  not  altogether  confute  them. 
At  a  later  period  some  men  have  undertaken  to  defend  the  order,  whose 
reasonings  have  rather  tended  to  establish  than  to  remove  an  unfavorable 
judgment. 

On  the  whole  question  see  Hefele,  Hist,  of  the  Councils,  vol.  vi. 


60  HISTORY   OF  THE    CATHOLIC   CHURCH. 


§  133.   Tlie  New  Monastic   Orders  founded  on  the  Rule  of 
St.  Benedict  and  St.  Augustine. 

These  were :  1.  The  Order  of  Grammont  (Grand  mont).  Its 
founder  was  Stephen  of  Tigerno,  in  Auvergne,  who  by  his  residence 
at  the  court  of  Archbishop  Milo  of  Benevento,  and  by  his  intercourse 
with  the  austere  hermits  of  Calabria,  had  come  to  the  conclusion 
that  he  would  found  an  order  of  the  strictest  poverty.  Gregory 
VII.  gave  his  special  approbation  to  the  plan  (1073) ;  and  Stephen, 
who  died  in  1124,  built  his  first  cloister  at  JVIuret,  near  Limoges. 
The  inmates  of  this  cloister  withdrew  to  Grandmont  under  Peter 
of  Limoges,  their  second  superior.  It  was  under  the  fourth  prior, 
Stephen  of  Lisiac,  that  the  "  Consuetudines "  were  selected  for  a 
rule.  Grandmont  continued  to  be  the  principal  seat  of  the  order; 
the  presidents  of  other  separate  cloisters  were  called  "correctores." 
Unhappily,  the  arrogance  displayed  by  the  lay -brothers  ("conversi"), 
to  whom  had  been  intrusted  the  administration  of  the  temporal 
affairs,  gave  rise  to  schisms  within  the  order,  which  were  injurious 
to  its  spirit ;  on  which  account  the  Apostolic  See  was  frequently 
obliged  to  interfere.  John  XXII.  raised  Grandmont  to  the  rank  of 
an  abbey,  to  which  the  other  thirty-nine  priories  were  subordinated. 
This  order  ceased  at  the  French  Revolution, 

2.  The  Order  of  the  Carthusians.  This  order  owes  its  origin 
to  St.  Bruno  of  Cologne,^  afterwards  master  of  the  cathedral  school 
at  Rheims,  who  in  1086  laid  the  foundation  of  the  mother-cloister 
of  this  order  in  a  frightfully  desolate  valley  called  La  Chartreuse, 
in  the  diocese  of  Grenoble.  Invited  thither  by  his  former  pupil, 
Pope  Urban  II.,  Bruno  went  (1090)  to  Rome,  thence  to  Calabria, 
where  he  founded  a  second  monastery,  in  which  he  ended  his  days 
in  1101,  The  strict  rules  of  the  order  were  drawn  up  in  writing 
by  Guigo,  the  fifth  prior.  The  monks  led  a  contemplative  life; 
but  they  also  cultivated  the  soil,  and  distinguished  themselves  in 
learned  pursuits.  The  Prior  of  Chartreuse  stood  at  the  head  of 
all  the  monasteries  of  the  order.  The  original  simplicity  in  these 
monasteries  vanished  as  riches  increased;  nevertheless,  the  old 
strictness  of  discipline  was  retained.     The  order  of  "  vallis  caulium  " 

1  Respecting  the  appalling  legend  of  his  deceased  teacher  at  the  Parisian  High- 
School,  the  authenticity  of  which  is  defended  by  Don  Ducreux,  a  Carthusian  priest, 
see  Tappert,  St.  Bruno,  Luxembourg,  1872,  p.  374  sqq. 


THE   NEW   MONASTIC   (Jh'D/CRS.  61 

is  a  special  brancli  of  this  order.     There  were  but  few  female  con- 
vents belonging  to  it. 

3.  The  Order  of  Cistercians,  or  Bernardines.  The  Benedictine 
monk,  Robert,  Abbot  of  Molesme  (+  1108),  is  venerated  by  the  mem- 
bers of  this  order  as  their  spiritual  father.  He,  discontented  with 
his  own  monks,  founded  a  monastery  at  Citeaux  (Cistercium),  in  the 
bishopric  of  Chtilons-sur-Marne.  In  the  first  years  of  its  existence 
it  numbered  but  few  members;  but  after  St.  Bernard  with  his 
thirty  associates  had  entered  (1113),  its  numbers  increased  so  rap- 
idly that  in  a  short  time  four  new  monasteries  had  to  be  founded. 
Of  these,  the  most  celebrated  was  Clairvaux  (Clara  vallis). 

The  Abbot  of  Citeaux  was  the  head  of  this  order ;  his  council 
consisted  of  the  abbots  of  the  first  four  monasteries.  The  rule  of 
the  order  {"  Charta  caritatis,"  1119)  is  the  reformed  Benedictine  Rule. 
The  monks  practised  manual  labor,  without,  however,  neglecting 
study.  During  the  Middle  Ages  the  Cistercian  abbots  were  held  in 
high  veneration,  and  were  employed  in  important  missions.  This 
order  also  had  female  cloisters. 

4.  The  Premonstratensians,  or  Xorbertines,  were  in  the  beginning 
regular  canonists,  who  united  the  contemplative  to  the  active  life. 
Their  founder  is  St.  Norbert,  a  descendant  of  the  noble  house  of 
Van  Gennep  in  Xanten,  who  had  not  put  to  the  best  possible  use 
the  revenues  which  he  derived  from  several  ecclesiastical  prebends, 
until,  being  one  day  struck  by  lightning  and  rescued  from  death,  he 
(1114)  suddenly  changed  his  course  of  life,  distributed  his  goods 
to  feed  the  poor,  labored  with  astonishing  success  as  a  preacher  of 
penance  in  several  countries,  and  founded  at  Premontre  (Pratum 
monstratum)  the  first  monastery  of  his  order,  which  was  confirmed 
by  Honorius  II.  (1126).  Yet  in  the  same  year  Xorbert,  being 
present  at  the  Diet  of  Spire,  was  there  elected  Archbishop  of  Magde- 
burg, as  if  by  inspiration.  It  was  with  reluctance  that  he  accepted 
the  proffered  dignity ;  he  made  his  appearance  in  his  episcopal  city 
in  the  garb  of  poverty,  and  encountered  many  difficulties  in  the 
fulfilment  of  his  office ;  eventually  he  reaped  splendid  fi-uits  from 
his  labors.  The  rule  of  this  order  is  similar  to  that  called  after 
St.  Augustine ;  there  were  cloisters  of  monks  and  nuns.  The 
tertiaries  of  this  order  lived  in  the  world. 

5.  The  Celestinian  and  Augustinian  Hermits.  The  founder  of  the 
first  order  is  Peter  of  ]\[urone,  who  ascended  the  papal  chair  under 
the  name  of  Celestine  V.  Urban  IV.,  in  1264,  gave  the  monks  the 
Benedictine  Rule.     The  director  of  the  whole  order  since  the  year 


62  HISTORY  OF   THE    CATHOLIC   CHURCH. 

1284  has  been  the  Abbot  of  Sulniona.  The  Augustinian  Hermits  took 
their  rise  from  an  amalgamation  of  various  religious  associations 
by  Pope  Alexander  IV.  (1256).  They  venerate  St.  Augustine  as 
their  spiritual  father,  having  received  his  rule  from  the  Apostolic 
See.  The  rule  did  not,  however,  originate  with  St.  Augustine  in  its 
present  form. 

§  134.    The  Orders  devoted  to  the  Sjiecial  Veneration  of  Mary. 

1.  The  Order  of  Fontevrault  (Fons  Ebraldi),  founded  by  the  great 
preacher  of  penance  Robert  of  Arbrissel  (1094),  and  confirmed  by 
Paschal  II.  There  were  cloisters  for  men  and  women,  both  of  which 
were  subject  to  the  Abbess  of  Fontevrault.  They  followed  the  Ben- 
edictine Rule.  The  members  of  the  order  had  the  difficult  vocation 
of  converting  fallen  women  and  girls. 

2.  The  Order  of  the  Guilbertines,  which  had  a  similar  constitu- 
tion to  that  of  Fontevrault.  It  was  founded  by  St.  Guilbert  of 
Sempingham,  and  confirmed  by  Pope  Eugene  III. 

3.  The  Order  of  the  Carmelites.  Its  founder  was  Berthold,  a 
monk  and  priest  of  Calabria,  who  in  the  year  1156,  with  a  few 
companions,  led  a  hermit  life  on  Mount  Carmel.  Albert,  Patriarch 
of  Jerusalem,  in  1219  gave  the  Anchorites  of  Mount  Carmel  a  rule 
which  Honorius  confirmed  in  1224.  Driven  from  Mount  Carmel  by 
the  Saracens,  the  hermits  came  to  Europe,  where  their  numbers 
rapidly  increased  as  cenobites,  and  they  were  classed  among  the 
Mendicant  Orders  (1245).  Under  Pope  Eugene  IV.  (1431)  the 
members  were  divided  into  "calceati"  (shod),  or  conventuals,  and 
"  discalceati "  (unshod),  or  observants.  They  had  cloisters  for 
monks  and  nuns.  Tertiaries  have  also  joined  the  order  since 
1477.  In  1697  Pope  Innocent  XII.  put  an  end  to  a  controversy 
respecting  the  age  of  the  order.  The  sixth  general,  Simon  Stock, 
an  Englishman,  introduced  the  scapular.^ 

4.  The  Servites  (Servi  B.  M.  V.),  an  order  founded  by  seven  noble 
youths  of  Florence,  with  the  consent  of  Archbishop  Ardinghus,  1233, 
and  approved  by  Alexander  IV.,  1255.  St.  Philip  Benitius  (+  1285), 
the  general  and  ornament  of  the  order,  also  received  tertiaries.  The 
order  also  cultivated  learning. 

5.  The  Olivetans,  or  brethren  of  St.  Mary  of  Mount  Olivet. 
Their   founder   is  John  Tolomei,    of  Siena  (1319).     They  had  the 

1  Cf.  Laiinoi,  Diss.  5  de  Simon.  Stokii  viso,  de  Sahbatinae  bullae  privileg.  et 
scapularis  Caniielitar,  sodalitate  (Op.  oin.  ii.  p.  2,  p.  379). 


ORDERS    FOR    THE    I' ARE    OF    THE    SICK,    ETC.  63 

Benedictine  Rule.  John  XXII.  contirined  the  order.  The  Institute 
of  Oblates  at  Konie,  founded  by  St.  Francisca  Ilomana  (+  1440),  is  a 
branch  of  this  order  ;  it  was  confirmed  by  Eugene  IV. 

The  ^N'olasci,  information  concerning  which  will  be  given  in  the 
following  sections,  belong  to  this  division. 

§  135.    Orders  founded  expressly  for  taking  Care  of  the  Sick  and 
for  other  Objects  of  Charity. 

1.  The  devastating  epidemics  by  which  the  people  in  the  Middle 
Ages  were  frequently  visited  called  into  life  several  religious  orders, 
the  members  of  which  devoted  themselves  to  the  care  of  the  sick. 
Of  this  description  were  :  — 

a.  The  Anthonists,  at  first  a  society  of  laymen,  on  whom  Hono- 
rius  III.  in  1218  conferred  the  rights  and  privileges  of  an  order,  and 
to  whom  Boniface  YIII.  in  1297  gave  the  Augustinian  Rule.  Its 
founder  was  the  French  nobleman  Gaston,  whose  son  had,  at  the 
intercession  of  St.  Anthony  of  Egypt,  recovered  from  a  pestilential 
disease,  the  so-called  Sacred  Fire  (1095).  The  chief  monastery  of 
this  order  was  at  St.  Didier-la-Mothe,  where  St.  Anthony  was 
particularly  venerated. 

b.  The  Hospitallers,  founded  by  Guido  of  Montpellier  and  approved 
by  Pope  Innocent  III.,  in  1198.  The  members  of  this  order,  who  to 
the  three  vows  added  the  fourth,  "to  serve  their  masters  the  poor." 
from  the  time  of  Eugene  IV.  observed  the  Augustinian  Rule.  Their 
principal  monastery  was  the  Hospital  of  the  Holy  Ghost  at  Rome. 

c.  The  Cellites,  since  1348  also  called  Alexians,  from  the  name  of 
their  patron  saint,  Alexius.  Pope  Pius  II.  gave  them  the  Augustinian 
Rule  in  1460. 

d.  The  Jesuates,  originally  an  association  of  laymen  founded  by 
John  Columbini  of  Siena,  and  recognized  by  Pope  Urban  V.  in  1364 
as  an  order  of  the  Augustinian  Rule.  Clement  IX.  in  1668  abolished 
the  monks'  cloisters,  which  had  become  degenerated.  The  nuns' 
convents  of  this  order,  however,  in  Avhich  the  rule  was  strictly  ob- 
served, are  still  in  existence. 

2.  It  was  no  small  benefit  that  was  rendered  to  suffering  humanity 
by  the  orders  whose  object  it  was  to  free  Christian  slaves  from  the 
hands  of  the  Saracens  :  these  were,  — 

a.  The  Nolasci,  or  the  Order  of  Our  Lady  for  the  Liberation  of 
Captives,  founded  in  1218  by  St.  Peter  Xolascus,  assisted  by  St. 
Raymond  of  Pennaforte,  a  Dominican,  and  James,  King  of  Aragon. 


64  HISTORY   OF    THE   CATHOLIC    CHURCH. 

They  were  originally  divided  into  two  classes,  —  knights  and  brothers 
(priests).  Under  Pope  Clement  V.  the  former  joined  the  military 
orders  ;  the  brothers,  however,  whose  reorganization  by  John  Baptist 
Gonzales  was  conhrmed  by  Clement  VIII.,  remained  faithful  to  their 
original  vocation. 

b.  The  Trinitarians  of  St.  John  of  Matlia  and  St.  Felix  of  Valois. 
This  order,  which  was  confirmed  by  Innocent  III.,  spread  especially 
in  Spain  and  France.  In  this  latter  kingdom  they  were  also  called 
Mathurins,  from  the  church  of  St.  Mathurin  at  Paris,  where  they  had 
their  first  cloister.  The  principal  monastery  was  that  of  Cerfroi,  in 
the  diocese  of  Meaux.  At  first  the  rule  was  strictly  observed ;  later, 
tepidity  seized  upon  the  members.  Yet  reformatory  attempts  were 
made.  They  wore  a  white  habit,  with  a  blue  and  red  cross  on  the 
breast.  The  order  had  cloisters  for  women,  and  received  tertiaries. 
3.  Other  religious  associations  of  this  epoch  were,  — 
(/.  The  Humiliati  (Humbled),  a  society  of  laymen  which  came  into 
existence  in  the  time  of  the  Emperor  Henry  II,,  and  in  1134  was 
divided  into  male  and  female  associations.  St.  John  of  Meda  gave 
them  the  Benedictine  Ride,  and  Pope  Innocent  III.  granted  them 
the  rights  of  an  order.  In  the  year  1571,  however.  Pope  Pius  V. 
suppressed  the  monasteries  of  the  monks  on  account  of  an  attempt 
to  murder  St.  Charles  Borromeo,  who  had  endeavored  to  introduce 
reforms. 

b.  The  Beghines,  or  Beguines,  a  society  of  pious  women  and  virgins, 
who  dwelt  in  small  houses,  had  religious  services  in  common,  and 
employed  themselves  in  manual  labor.  This  association  arose  in  the 
twelfth  century.  Pope  Urban  III.  confirmed  their  rule.  Pope  Clem- 
ent V.  intended  to  do  away  with  it.  but  his  successor  John  XXII. 
took  them  under  his  protection.  There  were  also  men's  associations 
of  this  description,  called  Beghards ;  ^  these,  however,  soon  fell  into 
decay,  and  dissolved  the  community  of  their  own  accord. 

c.  The  Hieronymites,  who  lived  according  to  the  Rule  of  St.  Augus- 
tine, and  venerated  St.  Jerome  as  their  patron.  This  association 
was  formed  by  several  hermits  combining  to  lead  a  community  life. 
They  spread  in  Spain ;  the  celebrated  cloisters  of  Our  Lady  of 
Guadeloupe  in  Estramadura,  Escurial,  and  St.  Just  belonged  to  them. 
In  Portugal  they  had  establishments  at  Belem  and  Mafra.  In  Italy 
the  community  was  introduced  by  Peter  Gambacorti  (Peti'ua  1& 
Pisis).     In  1374  Pope  Gregory  XI.  gave  them  a  rule. 

^  See  §  145.     Mosheim,  De  Beghardis  et  Beguinabns  ed.  Martini.     Leips.  1790. 


THE    TWO   GREAT  MENDICANT  ORDERS.  65 

d.  The  Order  of  the  ^Minims  was  founded  by  St.  Francis  of 
Pauhx  (+  1507),  and  confirmed  by  Sixtus  IV.  (1474). 

e.  The  Order  of  St.  Bridget  of  Sweden  (+1373),  or  of  the 
Savior,  is  very  similar  to  the  Order  of  Fontevrault. 

4.  Towards  the  end  of  this  epoch  several  religiovis  societies  arose 
in  Germany  and  in  the  Netherlands,  the  members  of  which  led  a 
life  in  common.  Gerard  Groot  of  Deventer  (+  1384)  founded  an 
association  of  clerics  under  the  name  of  Clergy  and  Brethren  of  the 
Common  Life  (''  Clerici  et  fratres  vitae  communis ").  His  pupil 
Florentius  Radewin  (+  1400)  continued  the  work.  Laymen  also 
joined  the  community. 

The  monastery  of  the  canons  regular  at  Windesheim  (1386) 
formed  a  central  point  for  the  various  confraternities.  Another 
cloister  stood  on  Mount  St.  Agnes,  near  Zwoll.  Being  favored  by 
the  Popes  Eugene  IV.  and  Paul  II.,  these  confraternities  encouraged 
study,  successfully  opposed  the  demoralization  of  the  clergy  and 
laity,  and  were  in  many  other  respects  solicitous  and  energetic  in 
promoting  the  welfare  of  the  Church  and  of  mankind.  Thomas  a 
Kempis  and  Gabriel  Biel,  the  last  of  the  Sententiaries,  belonged  to 
them. 

§  136.   The  two  great  Mendicant  Orders. 

More  important  and  more  influential  than  any  of  the  orders  of 
this  epoch  which  we  have  hitherto  considered,  were  the  orders  of 
St.  Dominic  and  of  St.  Francis  of  Assisi.  which  arose  in  the  thir- 
teenth century. 

Without  being  able  to  decide  on  entering  the  profession  of  a  mer- 
chant, St.  Francis,  who  combined  a  deep  sense  of  religion  with  an  in- 
tense love  for  the  poor,  and  who  -was  of  a  cheerful  disposition,  spent 
the  days  of  his  youth  at  his  father's  house,  which,  when  he  clearly 
saw  his  vocation,  he  abandoned,  in  order  to  devote  himself  entirely 
to  the  service  of  God.  Having  disarmed  the  opposition  of  his  father 
by  renouncing  his  inheritance,  he  commenced  his  career  as  a  preacher 
of  penance,  and  in  a  short  time  attracted  to  himself  so  many  young 
men  of  every  rank  of  life,  who  were  willing  to  follow  his  austere 
manner  of  living,  that  he  resolved  to  found  a  new^  order. 

Pope  Innocent  III.  (1210)  assented  to  the  design,  and  gave  his 
vei'bal  approval  to  the  association  of  the  Friars  Minor  ("Fratres  mi- 
nores  "),  or  Minorites.     The  formal  sanction  of  the  rule,^  however, 

1  Holstein-Brokie,  torn.  iii.  p.  21  sqr|. 

VOL.    II.  5 


66  HISTORY  OF   THE    CATHOLIC   CHURCH. 

was  not  given  until  1223  by  Pope  Honorius  III.  Its  principal  object 
is  the  realization  of  a  poverty  so  perfect  that  it  should  be  mani- 
fested in  every  way  and  in  all  things. 

About  the  same  time  (1212)  St.  Clara  of  Assisi  associated  herself 
with  several  pious  virgins  in  order  to  lead  a  cloistered  life.  St. 
Francis  gave  them  a  rule.  They  are  known  now  by  the  name  of  the 
Poor  Clares.  He  also  induced  people  living  in  the  world  to  join  the 
two  orders  as  tertiaries. 

Not  content  with  having  done  so  much  for  the  honor  of  God  in 
the  West,  the  saint  undertook  the  wearisome  and  hazardous  task  of 
preaching  the  Christian  faith  to  ^Mahometans.  He  even  preached 
before  the  Sultan  of  Egypt,  without  however  converting  him  to 
Christianity.  In  Palestine  he  left  his  pupil  to  guard  the  Holy 
Sepulchre  at  Jerusalem. 

Even  in  this  world  God  glorified  his  servant  by  imprinting  on  his 
person  the  marks  of  the  five  wounds  ("Stigmata")^  in  1224;  two 
years  after  which  he  became  a  participator  in  the  glories  of  heaven. 
His  utter  surrender  of  his  whole  being  to  God,  which  is  expressed  so 
forcibly  in  his  divinely  inspired  hymns,  enabled  him  to  enter  into 
those  relations  with  Nature  which  mankind  held  before  the  fall. 
As  early  as  1228  Gregory  IX.  canonized  this  wonderful  man.  Avho 
has  been  a  source  of  blessing  for  the  human  race. 

Simultaneously  with  St.  Francis,  St.  Dominic,  born  at  Calahorra,  in 
Old  Castile,  1170,  labored  for  the  same  intent.  He  Avas  the  founder 
of  the  Order  of  the  Friars  Preachers.  He  completed  his  theological 
studies  at  Valencia,  became  canon  in  1199,  and  subsequently  sub- 
prior,  at  Osma. 

The  atrocities  committed  by  the  Albigenses  in  the  south  of 
France,  whither  Dominic  had  accompanied  his  bishop,  Diego,  made 
him  embrace  the  resolution  to  devote  his  whole  life  to  the  conver- 
sion of  those  who  had  gone  astray.  His  sermons  were  very  effec- 
tive ;  and  as  early  as  the  year  1206  he  was  enabled  to  found  the 
convent  La  Prouille,  in  the  diocese  of  Toulouse,  for  the  reception  of 
converted  women,  and  for  the  education  of  poor  girls  from  the 
higher  classes. 

But  in  order  to  combat  heresy  persistently,  the  zealous  mission- 
ary founded,  in  1215,  the  Order  of  Friars  Preachers  ("Fratres  prae- 
dicatores  "),  to  whom,  at  the  desire  of  Pope  Innocent  III.,  he  gave  a 
somewhat  modified  Augustinian  Rule.^     The  first  monastery  of  the 

1  Cf.  Bonaven.  Legenda  major,  c.  13. 

2  The  Fourth  Council  of  the  Lateran  had  (c.  13)  ordained:  "Ne  niniia  religionum 


EFFICIENCY  OF  THESE  ORDERS.  67 

new  order  to  which  Honorius  III.  gave  ecclesiastical  sanction  was 
built  at  Toulouse,  and  the  first  general  chapter  was  held  at  Bologna, 

1220.  It  w^as  here  determined  that  the  habit  should  be  white,  and 
that  the  order  should  possess  no  property.     A  year  later,  Aug.  6, 

1221,  Dominic  ended  his  earthly  career  in  the  above-named  city. 
In  1234  Gregory  IX.  placed  him  among  the  saints. 

Like  the  Order  of  the  Minorites,  that  of  the  Dominicans  had 
cloisters  for  women,  and  Tertiaries,  the  so-called  militia  of  Christ 
C  Ordo  militiae  Christi  ").  The  Pope  conferred  on  Dominic  the  dig- 
nity of  a  Master  of  the  Sacred  Palace  ("Magister  sacri  Palatii"), 
and  made  him  chief  of  the  staff  of  book-censors,  —  an  office  which 
continued  in  the  order.  St.  Dominic  also  gave  the  present  form  to 
the  Rosary. 

The  interior  constitutions  of  the  Minorites  and  of  the  Domini- 
cans are  ver}^  similar.  At  the  head  of  each  convent,  the  former 
place  a  guardian,  the  latter  a  prior.  For  each  single  province  a 
"  prior  provincialis "  is  appointed.  The  supreme  government  of 
each  order  is  vested  in  the  general  ("  minister  generalis  "),  who  re- 
sides in  Rome.  Important  matters  are  decided  in  provincial  and 
general  chapters.  Four  definers  ("  deiinitores  "'l  assist  the  provin- 
cial and  general. 

§  137.  Efficiency  of  these  Orders.  —  The  Enmity  they  excited.  — 
Disputes  and  Party-Divisions  among  Themselves. 

In  order  to  apprehend  the  significance  of  the  two  Mendicant 
Orders,  the  ecclesiastical  and  political  condition  of  the  thirteenth 
century  must  be  taken  into  consideration. 

Instead  of  the  early  enthusiasm  for  the  Church,  many  Christians 
had  become  envious  of  and  averse  to  the  rich  (?)  clergy,  who,  on 
their  part  being  somewhat  worldly-minded,  no  longer  possessed  the 
force  to  remove  this  mistrust  on  the  side  of  the  laity,  nor  efficiently 
to  counteract  the  tepidity  and  corruption  which  were  making  daily 
inroads  among  them. 

It  was  to  these  discontented  dispositions  that  the  preachers  or 
orators  of  the  new  sects  arising  on  all  sides  addressed  themselves ; 
when,  under  the  hypocritical  mask  of  zeal  for  the  restoration  of  the 

diversitas  gravein  in  ecclesia  Dei  confnsionem  inducat,  firmiter  prohibeniiis,  iiequis 
de  caetero  novam  religionem  inveiiiat ;  sed  ([uicunque  voluerit  ad  religionem  converti, 
unam  de  approbatis  assumat."  Dominic  adopted  several  decisions  of  the  Premonstra- 
tensians  into  his  rule. 


68  HISTORY  OF   THE   CATHOLIC   CHURCH. 

primitive  purity  and  simplicity  of  the  Church,  they  endeavored  to 
mislead  the  unsuspecting  minds  of  the  people  to  the  adoption  of 
their  shameless  blasphemies. 

The  dangers  alike  to  spiritual  and  to  temporal  power  which  arose 
from  this  cause  were  ever  on  the  increase.  The  demonstrations 
made  by  the  opponents  of  religion  and  of  the  State  became  bolder 
and  bolder  ;  it  was  an  evil  that  Avould  not  yield  either  to  the  force 
of  arms,  to  ecclesiastical  censures,  or  to  all  the  labors  of  such  reli- 
gious orders,  then  existent,  as  could  be  brought  to  bear  upon  it.^ 

It  was  then  that  the  Mendicant  monks  suddenly  arose  ;  they 
travelled  through  cities  and  villages,  they  instructed  the  faithful, 
they  victoriously  rebutted  heresy,  and  in  this  way  they  protected 
Europe  from  the  anarchy  which  was  advancing  towards  her  with 
giant  strides.  Neither  was  it  of  less  importance  to  the  Church  that 
these  orders  preached  the  Gospel  to  the  heathen,  and  labored  with 
unremitting  zeal  to  effect  the  reunion  of  the  schismatic  Greeks  with 
the  Church ;  that  they  converted  many  who  had  been  led  astray, 
and  many  heretics ;  that  they  regenerated  the  clergy  alike  with  the 
people  ;  that  they  reconciled  enemies  ;  and  that  they  were  intrusted, 
not  alone  by  the  Popes,  but  also  by  temporal  rulers,  Avith  missions  of 
the  most  difficult  description  and  of  the  highest  importance. 

The  achievements  of  the  two  orders  in  reference  to  learning  and 
knowledge  were  scarcel}^  less  considerable.  The  greatest  doctors, 
the  ornaments  of  the  universities,  —  such  men  as  Albertus  ]\ragnus, 
Thomas  Aquinas,  Alexander  of  Hales,  Bonaventure,  Duns  Seotus, 
and  others,  — belonged  to  these  orders.'^ 

This  unlooked-for  and  immeasurable  influence  of  the  Mendicant 
Orders  on  their  contemporaries  called  forth  the  opposition  of  a 
portion  of  the  secular  clergy  and  of  the  professors  of  the  university. 
This  opposition  was  in  part  occasioned  by  the  imprudent  conduct 
and  encroachments  of  some  of  the  monks. 

The  most  violent  of  the  assailants  of  the  efficiency  and  of  the 
religious  institution  of  Mendicants  was  William  de  St.  Amour  (de 
Sancto  Amore),  Professor  of  Paris.  St.  Thomas  Aquinas^  replied  to 
his  unfounded  and  exaggerated  accusations.     He  and  St.  Bonaven- 

1  See  §  146. 

2  See  §§  110,  121,  139,  141.  JVadiUng,  Annales  Miiiorum,  8  vols.  fol.  Lugd.  1625 
sq(i. ;  Mamachi,  Annales  ordinis  predicatorum,  Monunienta  Franciscana,  ed.  Brewer 
and  Hewlett,  Lond.  1858  and  1882,  2  vols.,  treat  of  the  English  province. 

^  Contra  retrahentes  homines  ab  ingressu  religionis,  and  Contra  irapiiguantes  Dei 
cultiun  et  religionem,  printed  in  the  Opuscula  of  St.  Thomas. 


ENMITY  EXCITED  BY   THE  MENDICANT  ORDERS.      69 

ture  ^  composed  glorious  apologies  for  their  respective  orders,  to 
oppose  to  these  caluiuuies. 

The  controversies  on  doctrine  and  other  matters  which  broke  out 
between  the  Dominicans  and  the  Minorites  were  even  more  detri- 
mental to  the  prosperity  of  the  two  orders  than  had  been  this 
enmity  of  oj)ponents  ;  and  the  divisions  which  took  place  among 
the  latter  were  more  injurious  yet. 

In  order  to  preserve  unity  and  mutual  love  among  the  members 
of  both  orders,  the  two  generals  issued  in  the  year  1255,  a  beautiful 
united  rescript,  in  which  they  dwelt  on  the  exalted  significance  of 
these  two  virtues  as  a  means  of  insuring  the  duration  and  of  calling 
down  a  blessing  on  the  labors  of  the  brethren. 

The  danger  incurred  under  Elias  of  Cortona,  the  second  general 
of  the  Minorites,  and  under  Crescentius  of  Essi,  of  yielding  to  too 
great  laxity  of  discipline,  was  haj^pily  warded  off  by  the  more  fer- 
vent party  under  the  guidance  of  St.  Anthony  of  Padua  (+  1231).^ 

]More  to  be  lamented  than  even  this  contest,  was  the  controversy 
on  the  rule  of  the  order,  especially  as  it  regarded  the  vow  of  pov- 
erty.^ To  put  an  end  to  it,  Pope  Nicholas  III.,  in  1279,  issued  the 
bull  "Exiit,  qui  seminat,"  *  by  which  he  declared  the  rule  of  the 
order  to  be  in  conformity  with  the  Gospel,  and  reserved,  as  Inno- 
cent IV.  had  already  done,  all  the  property,  whether  houses,  lands, 
gardens,  or  movables  used  by  the  order,  as  belonging  to  the 
Holy  See. 

This  decretal  did  not  attain  its  end.  Some  zealots  in  the  order 
now  maintained  that  according  to  the  decision  of  the  Pope  the 
rule  of  the  order  was  truly  and  properly  the  Gospel  itself,  and  as 
such  unchangeable  ;  and  that  poverty  consisted  in  the  perfect  renun- 
ciation of  every  possession  and  r'ir]ht  of  rise,  even  regarding  the 
things  to  be  consumed,  as  food  and  the  like,  so  that  only  the  most 
simple  use  ("  simplicissimus  usus  ")  remained  to  the  friars.  These 
zealots  for  absolute  poverty  (Spiritualists)  were,  some  of  them  at 
least,  eccentric  enthusiasts,  who  finally  placed  themselves  in  formal 

1  Expositio  in  regulam  fratruni  minorum.  Lib.  apolog.  in  eos,  qui  ordini  Minor, 
adversantur.   De  paupertate  Christi  contra  Guil.  Op.  scti  Bonav.,  toni.vii.  Lugd.  1668. 

2  Notwithstanding  such  difficulties,  the  first  century  of  the  Franciscan  order  was 
one  oC  wonderful  increase  and  prosperity,  in  wliich  the  severity  of  the  ordei-  and  the 
observance  of  the  Rule  were  maintained. 

3  Regitia  scti  Franc,  c.  6  :  "  Fratres  nihil  approprient  nee  donium  nee  locum  nee 
aliquam  rem,  sed  tanquam  peregrini  et  advenae  in  hoc  saeculo  in  paupertate  et  Immili- 
tate  Deo  famulantes  vadant  pro  eleeinosyna  confidenter." 

*  Bull  "Exiit,  qui  seminat,"  in  c.  3,  De  verbi  signific.  in  vi.  (v.  12).  On  the  con- 
troversies, see  Wadding,  Aunal.  Minor.,  in  which  the  papal  bulls  are  also  printed. 


70  HISTORY   OF   THE    CATHOLIC    CHURCH. 

opposition  to  the  Holy  See,  and  established  connections  with  the 
heretical  Fratricelli,    or  Beghards. 

The  opposition^  of  the  Spiritnalists  to  tlie  Apostolic  See  was 
chiefly  shown  in  a  writing  of  the  Minorite  Gerhard  (1254),  composed 
as  an  introduction  to  the  so-called  Everlasting  Gospel  of  the  Cister- 
cian abbot,  Joachim  of  Floris  (+  1202),  containing  the  prophecies, 
and  in  the  exposition  of  the  Apocalypse  by  John  of  Oliva  (+  1297). 

Pope  Celestine  V.  made  the  attempt  to  restore  peace  to  the  order 
by  exempting  the  Spiritualists  from  paying  obedience  to  the  general 
of  the  order ;  but  Boniface  VIII.  soon  saw  himself  obliged  to 
withdraw  the  permission  granted  by  hiS  predecessor.  The  ma- 
jority of  them  resisted  the  papal  commands.  To  win  over  the 
schismatics,  Pope  Celestine  V.  in  the  bull  "  Exivi  de  paradiso  "  had 
given  an  explanation  of  the  rule.  His  successor,  John  XXII.,  in  the 
bull  '•  Quorumdam  exigit  "  also  ordered  the  schismatics  who  had 
been  guilty  of  great  excesses  to  return  to  the  obedience  of  their 
general.  Instead  of  obeying,  the  schismatic  Spiritualists  threw  off 
allegiance  to  the  Pope  himself,  withdrew  to  Sicily,  and  elected 
Henry  of  Ceva  as  their  general. 

This  conflict  took  a  new  phase  under  John  XXII.,  and  entered  a 
more  extensive  field.  The  main  object  of  contention  which  the  Spir- 
itualists shared  with  the  Conventuals,  their  opponents,  was  whether 
it  was  heretical  to  say  that  Christ  and  his  Apostles  had  possessed 
property,  individually  or  in  common.  To  render  it  possible  to 
bring  the  question  under  fair  discussion,  the  Pope  retracted  the  cen- 
sures of  the  bull  '•  Exiit,"  and  demanded  opinions  from  the  cardinals, 
from  the  Sorbonne,  from  the  universities,  and  also  from  the  Mi- 
norites, before  proceeding  to  a  decision.  The  general  of  the  order, 
jMicbael  of  Cesena,  Occam,  and  others  declared,  in  the  general  chap- 
ter at  Perugia,  that  it  was  not  heretical  to  say  that  Christ  and  the 
Apostles  had  possessed  no  property.  The  Minorite  Bonagratia 
brought  this  decision  to  Avignon. 

In  answer  to  this  conclusion,  the  Pope,  on  Dec.  8,  1322.  pub- 
lished the  bull  "  Ad  conditorem  canonum,"  in  which  the  prop- 
erty reserved  by  Nicholas  III.  to  the  Holy  See  was  surrendered. 
The   formal   dogmatic  decision  respecting  the  property  of  Christ 

^  This  oiipositioii  is  by  no  means  to  be  ascribed  to  the  order  as  such.  The  really 
heretical  views  of  Gerhard  were  not  shared  by  any  of  the  other  members  ;  he  was.  on 
account  of  his  obstinacy,  punished  by  his  superiors. 


DISPUTES   AND   DIVISIONS   AMONG    THEMSELVES.     71 

and  the  Apostles  ensued,  on  Nov.  12,  1323,  in  tlie  bull  "  Cum  inter 
nonnullos,"  in  which  the  inilexible  assertion  that  Christ  and  his 
Apostles  had  jDOSsessed  no  property,  and  no  right  of  disposal  or 
of  using  any,  was  condemned  as  contradictory  to  Holy  Writ,  and 
as  undermining  its  authority  ;  ^  on  which  accounts  it  was  declared 
heretical.  But  the  above-named  disputants  did  not  submit  to  this 
decision.  They  left  the  order,  and  joined  Louis  the  Bavarian, 
whom  they  greatly  assisted  in  the  warfare  he  carried  on  against 
the  Pope. 

In  the  beginning  of  the  fifteenth  century  the  first  great  reform  of 
the  order  took  place,  und6r  the  lead  of  St.  Bernardinus  and  John 
Capistranus.  The  Council  of  Constance  at  length  recognized  both 
the  ''  Fratres  conventuales  "  and  the  "  Fratres  regularis  (strictioris) 
observantiae."  The  former  are  sometimes  called  by  the  people 
"  Black  Franciscans  "  on  account  of  their  black  habit ;  the  latter  are 
also  called  the  Reformed  (Reformati),  or  Recollects. 

In  conclusion,  some  general  remarks  on  the  religious  orders  of 
the  ^Middle  Ages  may  be  useful. 

1.  All  the  ft)uuders  of  orders  were  saintly  men  who,  being  called  by  God 
in  a  miraculous  manner,  endowed  by  bini  with  many  personal  graces,  and 
by  him  animated  with  the  divine  fire  of  charity,  laid  the  foundation  of  their 
order,  the  recognition  and  supreme  supervision  of  which  they,  in  all  humility, 
committed  to  the  decision  of  tlie  Apostolic  See. 

2.  The  multiplicity  of  these  religious  associations  by  no  means  arises  from 
inconstancy  and  caprice,  but  has  its  origin,  on  the  one  hand,  in  the  various 
exigencies  of  humanity  which  called  these  orders  into  life,  and,  on  the  other 
hand,  in  the  capabilities,  the  character,  and  the  bent  of  individual  men,  which 
the  Church  would  not  deform  by  reducing  them  all  to  a  lifeless  uniformity, 
but  rather  seeks  to  transfigure  and  elevate  them  to  a  higher  unity,  by  devel- 
oping individual  faculties.  This  it  is  wliich  forms  the  peculiar  efficiency  of 
the  orders,  and  preserves  them  from  stagnation. 

3.  In  order  to  sketch  a  picture  of  monastic  life  in  few  words,  we  hero 
present  Dante's  description  of  Paradise  (Parad.  XXVII.  7,  XXX.  37). 

I  gazed  !     It  seemed  a  universal  smile 

Entranced  the  eye  :  e'en  as  that  harmony 
Did  heretofore  th'  enraptured  ear  beguile, 

Thrilling  the  soul  with  wondrous  ecstasy  ! 
Life  was  all  rapt  in  peace  ;  and  Love's  warm  glow 

Brought  greater  wealth  than  riches  can  bestow. 


Leader  alike  in  gesture  as  in  voice, 

Beatrice  spoke  :  now  are  we  come  to  Heaven, 

1  C.  4,  De  verb,  signif.  Extrav.  Job.  XXII.,  tit.  14. 


72  HISTORY   OF  THE   CATHOLIC   CHURCH. 

To  Light  embodied,  pure,  whence  all  rejoice  ; 

Through  whicli  all  sweetness  of  delight  is  given  ; 
Love  of  eternal  good  :  transcendent  bliss  !  — 

All  other  joys,  all  raptures,  yield  to  this. 

4.  The  means  of  enjoying  this  paradisiacal  happiness  on  earth  are  the 
rules  of  the  orders,  which,  with  all  their  immaterial  differences,  are  inspired 
by  the  spirit  of  a  faithful  imitation  of  the  life  of  Jesus  Christ,  chiefly  mani- 
fested in  the  observance  of  the  evangelical  counsels. 

5.  It  is  true,  assuredly,  that  the  life  led  in  several  monasteries  did  not 
always  correspond  to  the  ideal  conception  of  the  founder  (cf.  Dante,  Parad. 
XXII.  76),  and  that  complaints  on  the  decline  of  monastic  discipline  come 
repeatedly  from  ecclesiastical  superiors,  and  from  other  men  and  women  en- 
lightened by  God,  who  at  the  same  time  put  in  force  the  strongest  measures 
to  do  away  with  the  abuses  which  had  crept  into  the  religious  houses. 

6.  But  this  decline,  which  cannot  be  laid  to  the  charge  of  all,  nor  applied 
to  the  whole  order,  was  in  no  way  occasioned  by  the  interior  organization  uf 
the  order,  but  was  brought  about  by  the  unlawful  and  too  frequent  intermed- 
dling in  monastic  affairs  of  outsiders,  and  especially  by  the  injurious  practice 
called   "  commendam." 

7.  As,  however,  all  decline  had  been  occasioned  by  deviating  from  the 
letter,  or  from  the  spirit  of  the  rule,  so  all  the  attempts  at  reform  made  in 
the  fourteenth  or  fifteenth  centuries  consisted  in  inculcating  and  restoring 
the  original  rule,  by  various  decrees  of  the  synods  on  the  dress  and  employ- 
ment of  monks  and  nuns,  on  the  prayer  in  choir,  on  cloistral  discipline,  and 
particularly  on  the  observance  of  the  vow  of  poverty,  and  on  participatins'  in 
the  care  of  souls,  etc.     (Cf.  Hefele,  Hist,  of  the  Councils,  vols.  vi..  vii.) 

8.  The  efforts  to  reform  the  Benedictine  Order  were  very  eftective.  In 
the  year  1336  Pope  Benedict  XII.  caused  a  constitution  ("Benedictina'')  to 
be  drawn  up  for  the  monks,  according  to  which  the  order  was  divided  into 
thirty-six  provinces,  and  provincial  chapters  were  to  be  held  regularly  every 
three  years.  The  Council  of  Constance  also  occupied  itself  with  the  Bene- 
dictine Reform.  The  same  object  was  pursued  by  the  new  congregations 
of  St.  Justina  of  Padua,  afterwards,  by  order  of  Pope  Julius  II.,  called  C'on- 
grogatio  Cassinensis,  which  attained  importance  in  Spain  (congregatiini  of 
A^alladolid)  and  in  Germany  {Bnrhi,  Liber  de  initio  et  progressu  congreg. 
Benedict.  St.  Justinae,  etc.,  ap.  Fez.  Thesaur,  anecdot.  noviss.  ii.  268  sqq. ; 
Tosti,  Storia  della  badia  di  Monte  Casino,  iii.  235  sqq.)  ;  and  the  celebrated 
congregation  of  Bursfeld,  founded  by  Abliot  John  Dederoth  in  1433,  which 
spread  throughout  Germany  {Leuekfeld,  Anti(iuitates  Bursfeld.  Leips.  1713). 

On  monastic  life  and  efficiency  in  the  MidiUe  Ages,  see  Kenelm  Dighi/, 
Mores  Catholici,  vol.  x. 


THE    UNIVERSITIES.  73 

II.     DEVELOPMENT   OF   DOCTRIXE. 
1.    The  Achievkments  of  Learning  during  this  Epoch. 
§  138.   The  Universities.  —  Scholasticism  and  Mysticism. 

The  reawakening  of  the  religious  spirit  by  the  reformatory  meas- 
ures taken  by  Gregory  VII.  produced  a  very  gratifying  result  in 
the  impetus  -which  it  gave  to  the  elevation  and  progress  of  learning ; 
and  not  a  few  of  the  cathedral  and  cloistral  schools  attained  a  high 
reputation  for  scholarship  during  the  second  half  of  the  Middle 
Ages.^ 

The  higher  institutions  of  learning  already  existing  received 
another  accession  by  the  foundation  of  new  schools,  and  by  the 
universities,  which  originated  in  the  twelfth  century,  partly  grow- 
ing out  of  the  cloistral  schools,  and  partly  taking  their  prominent 
position  from  the  distinguished  teachers  who  conducted  their 
course. 

They  did  not  at  once  embrace  the  full  curriculum  of  scientific 
studies.  The  so-called  faculties  are  of  later  date  ;  each  university 
had  its  specialty,  —  at  Paris,  in  1206,  it  was  theology;  at  Bologna, 
in  1200,  it  was  jurisprudence ;  and  at  Salerno,  medicine.  The  name 
"  university  "  did  not  at  first  indicate  universal  knowledge,  but  a 
corporation  or  national  union  ("univ.  nationum").  The  constitu- 
tion of  the  University  of  Paris  was  essentially  aristocratic  ("  univ. 
magistrorum ") ;  that  of  Bologna  was  democratic  ("univ.  schola- 
rium").  The  teaching  institute  was  termed  "schola"  or  "studium 
generale." 

The  numerous  students,  from  every  country,  who  frequented  the 
high  schools  were  divided  according  to  their  nationalities.  At 
the  head  of  the  individual  provinces  stood  the  deans.  The  vari- 
ous nationalities  had  procurators,  who  elected  the  rector  of  the 
university. 

The  Popes  bestoAved  a  peculiar  and  special  care  on  the  higher 
institutions  of  learning,  whicli  in  the  Middle  Ages  were  stamped 
with  a  specific  ecclesiastical  character.  From  the  time  of  the  thir- 
teenth century  the  approval  of  the  Pope  was  solicited  before  the 

1  Cf.  §§  98,  99. 

^  "  Facultas-Disciplin."  The  course  of  discipline  in  vogue  usually  comprised 
Theology,  Jurisprudence,  Medicine,  and  Philosophy. 


74  HISTORY  OF   THE    CATHOLIC   CHURCH. 

foundation  of  a  luiiversity ;  but  even  previous  to  this,  the  older 
institutions  of  this  description  stood  under  tlie  supervision  of  the 
Apostolic  See,  who  exercised  his  right  through  tlie  medium  of  his 
representative,  the  chancellor  of  the  university. 

The  Popes  proved  their  high  regard  for  learning  and  knowledge, 
(1)  By  incorporating  ecclesiastical  benefices  with  the  universities, 
thus  providing  for  the  maintenance  of  the  professors ;  (2)  By  con- 
ferring great  privileges  on  teachers  and  students ;  and  (3)  By  ren- 
dering to  these  institutions  of  learning  other  and  material  aid  which 
was  far  from  insignificant.  This  predilection  of  the  Apostolic  See 
for  the  higher  institutes  of  learning  by  no  means  hindered  the 
Popes  from  forcibly  opposing  any  excesses  among  the  students,  or 
from  vigorously  repelling  any  encroachments  ou  the  part  of  the 
professors. 

Temporal  princes  imitated  the  example  of  ecclesiastical  superiors, 
and  in  like  manner  conferred  on  the  universities  various  revenues, 
rights,  and  privileges ;  still,  their  fundamental  mainstay  consisted 
in  the  property  of  the  Church.  The  "  Venia  legendi,"  as  well  as  the 
right  of  promotion,  was  also  the  gift  of  the  Popes  to  the  corporate 
body  of  professors.  The  conferring  of  degrees  (Baccalaureus,  Magis- 
ter,  Doctor)  took  place  with  religious  ceremonies,  often  in  the  Church 
and  at  the  hands  of  the  bishop.  An  academical  degree  obtained 
at  a  university  found  i.ecognition  everywhere. 

It  was  thus,  by  taking  the  freedom  of  learning  under  its  own  pro- 
tection, and  by  hindering  to  the  best  of  its  power  that  the  relations 
of  teachers  and  students  should  be  narrowed  to  the  limitation  of 
respective  nationalities,  that  the  splendor  of  the  mediaeval  univer- 
sities shone  forth  in  such  unexampled  grandeur;  before  the  year 
1517  the  number  of  these  institutions  in  Europe  was  sixty-six,  of 
which  sixteen  were  in  Germany.  But,  alas  !  this  splendor  grew 
pale  in  proportion  as  the  State  monopolized  instruction,  and  con- 
verted these  free  corporate  bodies  into  high  scliools  of  the  State, 
making  the  frequenting  of  them  a  condition  for  holding  office  under 
that  State. 

In  order  to  render  the  pursuit  of  knowledge  easier  for  students 
of  small  means,  colleges  and  purses  were  established.  The  oldest 
foundation  of  this  kind  was  that  of  Robert  of  Sorbonne,  Court 
Chaplain  of  Louis  IX.  in  1250. 

As  theological  studies  are  more  properly  the  subject  of  ecclesi- 
astical history,  they  will  form  more  exclusively  the  theme  of  our 
present  discussion. 


SCHOLASTICISM   AND   MYSTICISM.  75 

Mediaeval  theology  is  presented  mainly  under  two  different  as- 
pects, —  the  one  speculative,  the  other  contemplative,  —  Sc]tol<istkisni 
and  Mijstlcism.  The  object  of  scholastic  theology  is,  (1)  To  demon- 
strate the  interior  connection  of  the  several  dogmas  of  faith,  and 
thence  deduce  other  truths  ;  (2)  To  refute  the  objections  of  heretics  ; 
and  (3)  By  means  of  human  wisdom,  to  illuminate  and  strengthen 
the  truths  of  faith. 

Mystic  theology  ^  teaches  the  union  of  man  with  God  by  the  ex- 
traordinary gifts  of  intuition.^  It  belongs  to  theoretic  theology  in- 
asmuch as  many  mystics  discussed,  and  brought  more  closely  into 
connection  with  the  teachings  of  faith,  the  conceptions  or  revelations 
of  such  intuitions. 

Scholasticism  and  mysticism  are  therefore  agreed  in  the  principle 
whence  they  proceed ;  they  are  distinguished  only  by  the  manner 
in  which  they  seek  to  learn  the  truths  of  faith.  The  scholastic 
considers  the  matter  under  dialectic  forms  ;  the  mystic,  by  the  way 
of  intuition.  Scholasticism  is  the  way  of  discursive,  mysticism  of 
intuitive,  thinking.  There  exists,  then,  no  inimical  opposition  be- 
tween these  two  modes  of  seeking  truth ;  rather  are  they  mutually 
dependent  one  on  the  other. 

The  entire  distinction  between  scholastic  and  mystic  theology 
resolves  itself,  chiefly,  into  the  way  and  manner  in  which  they 
obtained  their  results.  A  further  difference  exists  in  the  form. 
The  scholastic  expresses  himself  in  terse  and  concise  terras,  and 
especially  favors  syllogisms ;  the  mystic,  on  the  other  hand,  prefers 
to  clothe  his  thoughts  in  figures.  Finally,  these  two  aims  differ 
in  their  tendency.  Scholasticism  is  pre-eminently  speculative  ; 
mysticism  is  ever  practical. 

The  reproaches  made  regarding  scholasticism  are  mostly  un- 
founded, especially  the  assertion  that  scholastics  chiefly  occupy 
themselves  with  useless  subtleties;  this  is  for  the  most  part  untrue. 
No  less  false  and  unfounded  are  the  objections  made  to  mysticism, 
—  for  these  do  not  apply  to  true  mysticism,  which  really  distin- 
guishes God  from  the  world ;  but  they  may  strike,  and  not  unfairly, 
that  false  mysticism  which  emanates  from  the  pantheistic  dreamers 
alike  of  the  Middle  Ages  as  of  these  more  modern  times. 

1  Mysticism  is  derived  from  the  Greek  word  txwLv,  "  to  instruct  in  sacred  things, 
to  initiate  ;  "  thus  referring  to  the  interior  life. 

2  "Vita  purgativa,  illuminativa  et  unitiva."     Cf.  Thorn.  11.,  ii.  qu.  188,  a.  5. 


76  HISTORY  OF   THE   CATHOLIC   CHURCH. 


§  139.   The  first  Times  of  Scholasticism. 

The  speculative  attempts  of  John  of  Damascus  found  imitators 
in  the  West,  where,  under  the  patronage  of  Charles  the  Bald  in  the 
ninth  century,  learning  and  science  were  in  a  flourishing  condition. 
Yet  the  productions  of  individuals  about  this  time  were  mere  isolated 
essays,  nay,  were  often  viewed  with  suspicion ;  and  this  the  more 
because  the  man  who  was  the  most  devoted  to  this  pursuit,  John 
Scotus  Erigena,  had  fallen  into  great  errors. 

It  was  towards  the  end  of  the  eleventh  century  that  speculative 
theology  first  became  more  cultivated ;  and  it  was  Lanfranc,  the  great 
bishop  of  Canterbury,  who  has  the  merit  of  its  revival.^  Yet  the 
actual  founder  of  scholastic  theology  is  St.  Anselm,  the  pupil  of 
Lanfranc.  He  was  born  at  Aosta,  in  Piedmont,  1033.  In  the  year 
1078  he  became  the  Abbot  of  Bee,  in  Normandy,  —  an  abbey  in  which 
he  had  studied  under  Lanfranc,  whom  in  1093  he  succeeded  in  the 
Archiepiscopal  See  of  Canterbury.  As  Primate  of  England,  he  not 
only  defended  the  rights  of  the  Church,  but  also  gained  great  re- 
nown as  a  learned  man.  He  was  a  diligent  student  of  the  writings 
of  St.  Augustine. 

Starting  from  the  principle  "  Fides  quaerit  intellectum,"  ^  or 
"Credo  ut  intelligam,"  the  holy  doctor  endeavors  in  his  most  in- 
teresting writings  to  explain  and  defend  Christian  dogma.  The 
most  important  and  influential  of  his  works  is  his  "Cur  Deus 
homo,"  in  which  he  adduces  reasons  for  the  incarnation  of  the 
Son  of  God.  In  his  Avork  "  Proslogium "  or  "  Fides  quaerens 
intellectum,"  he  deduced  the  existence  of  God  from  the  so-called 
ontological  argument,^  —  that  such  existence  is  proved  by  the  fact 
that  the  human  mind  has  an  idea  of  a  Being  infinitely  supreme, 
than  whom  no  higher  can  be  imagined  or  conceived  of.  This  argu- 
ment was  assailed  by  the  monk  Gaunillo  of  Marmoutiers. 

The  celebrated  doctor  also  took  part  in  the  learned  disputations 
of  the  times,  especially  in  the  controversy  which  again  broke  out  in 

1  Cf.  §§  98-100,  103,  104. 

2  "  Sicut  rectus  ordo  exigit,  ut  profunda  Christianae  fidei  credamus,  priusquam  ea 
praesumamus  ratione  discutere,  ita  negligentia  milii  videtur,  si  postquam  confirmati 
sumus  in  fide,  non  studemus,  quod  credimus  intelligere  "  (Cur  Deus  homo,  c.  2  ; 
cf.  Proslog.  c.  1). 

3  In  the  "Monologium"  Anselm  brings  forward  proofs  of  the  existence  of  God,  a 
posteriori. 


THE   FIRST   TIMES    OF  SCHOLASTICISM.  77 

the  eleventh  century  as  to  the  reality  of  universal  ideas.  The  great 
question,  which  was  frequently  the  occasion  of  much  acrimonious 
wrangling,  was:  "An  universalia  sint  realia?"  The  XoininoJlsts 
denied  the  objective  existence  of  universals,  and  declared  them  to  be 
empty  sounds  ("  nomina  flatus  vocis "),  or  simple  conceptions  of 
our  intellect,  which  have  no  corresponding  objectivity  in  reality 
(conceptualism).  The  Beallsts,  on  the  other  hand,  maintained  the 
reality  of  the  universal  ideas,  but  with  this  difference,  —  the  extreme 
Eealists  supposed  a  real  existence  of  universals  independent  of 
cognition,  whereas  the  orthodox  Realists  held  that  these  uni- 
versal ideas  are  abstractions  of  the  intellect,  which  have,  however, 
their  cause  or  origin  in  concrete  individualities ;  and  thus  they  at- 
tributed universality  to  the  entity  conrelved,  so  that  it  exists  fun- 
damentally ("  fundamentaliter  ")  in  individual  entities,  while  in  the 
mind  conceiving  them  it  exists  only  formally  {''  formaliter  "). 

These  philosophic  views  did  not  remain  without  influence  on 
theology.  The  Nominalist  Roscelllii,  Canon  of  Compiegne,  and 
the  Realist  Gilbert  de  la  Porree  (Porretanus),  first  professor  of 
theology  at  Paris,  and  then  Bishop  of  Poitiers,  starting  from  directly 
opposite  assumptions,  fell  into  the  same  error  regarding  the  Trinitj'', 
namely,  into  Tritheism. 

St.  Anselm  combated  the  former ;  and  Roscellin,  whose  errors 
were  condemned  by  the  Council  of  Soissons  in  1092,  was  obliged  to 
retract.  Gilbert,  who  made  a  distinction  between  Deity  ("Deltas") 
and  God  ("Deus"),  found  an  opponent  in  St.  Bernard,  who  con- 
victed him  of  his  mistake ;  on  which  the  Synod  of  Paris  in  1147, 
and  that  of  Rheims  in  1148,  rejected  the  erroneous  opinions. 

Peter  Abelard  ^  started  on  widely  different  principles  from  those 
of  St  Anselm,  —  that  is,  on  those  of  doubt,  or  scepticism.  He  was 
born  at  Palais,  near  Xantes,  in  1079,  and  received  his  education 
under  Roscellin  and  William  of  Champeaux,  the  founder  of  the 
cloister  school  of  St.  Victor,  who  died  in  1121,  as  Bishop  of  Chalons. 
Abelard  successfully  combated  the  false  realism  of  the  latter,  and 
after  completing  his  studies  taught,  first  at  Melun,  afterwards  at 

1  Remusaf,  Abelard,  Paris,  1845.  The  various  writings  of  Abelard  are  collected 
in  Mlg7ie,  1.  c.  t.  clxxviii.  Of  him  St.  Bernard  writes  :  "  Omnia  sibi  usurpat  in  illo 
humanum  ingenium,  nihil  fidei  reservat"  (Ep.  188).  Cf.  Abael.  Sic  et  non  :  "  Dubi- 
tando  ad  inquisitionem  venimus "  (Migne,  1.  e.  col.  1349).  "Quod  fides  humanis 
rationibus  sit  adstruenda  "  (Sic  et  non,  cap.  i.)  ;  but  he  also  takes  occasion  to  teach  : 
"  Fides,  quae  naturaliter  caeteris  prior  est,  tanquam  bonorum  omnium  fundamen- 
tum  "  (Epitome  theol.  Christ,  c.  2.     Cf.  Introdnct.  in  theol.  lib.  ii. ). 


78  HISTORY  OF  THE    CATHOLIC  CHURCH. 

Paris.  Here  he  made  the  acquaintance  of  tlie  Canon  Fulbert,  whose 
niece  Heloise  he  seduced.  In  order  to  regain  peace  of  soul,  Abelard, 
who  was  still  a  layman,  withdrew  into  the  monastery  of  St.  Denys, 
and  opened  a  new  school  in  one  of  the  priories  connected  with  it ; 
but  here  he  soon  experienced  great  difficulties,  and  drew  upon  liim- 
self  much  unpleasantness  by  the  form  he  gave  to,  and  the  errors 
he  inculcated  in,  his  "Introduction  to  Theology,"  ("Introductio  in 
theologian! ").  The  Synod  of  Soissons,  1121,  adjudged  this  work 
to  the  flames,  and  condemned  the  author  to  imprisonment  in  a 
monastery. 

After  regaining  his  liberty  he  aroused  the  indignation  of  the 
monks  of  St.  Denys  by  asserting  —  what,  in  point  of  fact,  is  the 
truth  —  that  St.  Denj-s  the  Areopagite  never  came  to  Paris  at  all. 
He  therefore  left  the  monastery,  and  betook  himself  to  a  solitude 
near  Nogent  on  the  Seine,  where  he  built  a  hermitage  called  the 
Paraclete.  His  pupils  followed  him  thither ;  but  in  1126  Abelard 
left  this  place  to  accept  the  abbacy  of  St.  Gildas  de  Khuys  in 
Brittany,  to  which  he  had  been  elected.  He  transferred  the  Para- 
clete to  Heloise,  who  had  taken  the  veil. 

As  the  monks,  however,  persistently  resisted  his  endeavors  to 
reform  them,  he  in  1136  laid  aside  his  official  dignity,  and  resumed 
his  lectures  at  Paris.  Here  he  again  brought  forward  his  old 
errors,  on  which  account  he  was  attacked  by  St.  Bernard  and 
William,  Abbot  of  Thierry.  The  Synod  of  Sens,  in  1140,  finally 
condemned  these  errors.  Abelard  appealed  to  Rome,  on  the  jour- 
ney to  which  place  he  himself  started  ;  but  while  yet  in  France,  the 
papal  decision,  condemning  his  doctrine  and  consigning  himself  to 
imprisonment  in  a  monastery,  reached  him.  Peter  the  Venerable, 
Abbot  of  Clugny,  kindly  received  him  into  his  cloister.  By  the 
interposition  of  his  good  offices,  he  obtained  for  him  absolution 
from  the  Pope  and  reconciliation  with  St.  Bernard.  He  then  gave 
Abelard  a  place  among  the  monks,  who  were  edified  by  his  piety. 
Abelard  died  at  the  age  of  sixty-three,  on  April  21,  1142,  in  the 
Priory  of  St.  IMarcel. 

Abelard's  mind  was  rather  dialectic  than  speculative.  His  vehe- 
ment, restless,  and  overbearing  character  often  betrays  itself  in  his 
writings,  on  which  St.  Bernard  passes  this  judgment :  "  Quum  de 
Trinitate  loquitur  sapit  Arium ;  quum  de  gratia,  sapit  Pelagium ; 
quum  de  persona  Christi,  sapit  Nestorium."  ^ 

1  Ep.  192. 


FLOURISHING   PERIOD    OF   SCHOLASriCISM.  79 

Xot  uniiuportant  are  the  following  names :  Robert  Pulleyne 
(Kobertus  PuUeuus),  an  Englishman,  successively  Professor  of 
Theology  at  I'aris  and  at  Oxford,  in  1144  Cardinal  and  Chancellor 
of  the  Roman  Church  ;  he  died  in  1153 ;  —  Robert  of  Melun,  Bishop 
of  Hereford  in  England,  from  the  year  1163 ;  —  Alanus  of  Ryssel 
("  ab  insulis  "),  monk  of  Clairvaux,  later  on  Bishop  of  Auxerre  ;  he 
composed  the  "  Ars  catholicae  fidei "  and  several  controversial 
works  against  the  Jews,  Pagans,  and  Mahometans  ;  he  died  as  a 
monk  in  1202. 

Peter  Lombard  of  Novara,  however,  acquired  a  special  celebrity. 
He  first  studied  at  Bologna ;  then,  in  pursuit  of  a  higher  education, 
he  frequented  the  schools  of  Rheims  and  Paris.  After  this  he 
taught  theology  in  the  last-named  city,  whose  bishop  he  became 
in  1159.     He  died  in  1164. 

The  principal  works  of  Lombard  ("Magister  sententiarum  ")  are 
his  Four  Books  of  Sentences,  which  became  of  great  importance  to 
the  scholasticism  of  the  INIiddle  Ages.-^  The  first  book  treats  of 
God,  of  his  attributes,  of  the  Trinity  ;  the  second,  of  the  creation, 
and  of  the  fall  into  sin ;  the  third,  of  the  incarnation  and  redemp- 
tion, of  virtues  and  sins ;  while  the  fourth  discourses  of  the 
sacraments  and  of  the  last  things. 


§  140.  Flourishing  Period  of  Scholasticism. 

The  Mendicant  Orders,  the  members  of  which  pursued  with  zeal 
and  success  the  studies  of  theology  and  philosophy,  became  of  high 
importance  in  promoting  learning  at  this  epoch. 

Aristotle  was  the  principal  guide  in  philosophy  for  the  scholastics 
(schoolmen).  They  explained  the  writings  of  the  Stagirite,  taking 
heed,  the  while,  of  the  errors  into  which  the  Arabian  ^  and  Jewish 
interpreters  had  fallen;  these  they  confuted  as  they  proceeded. 
Among  the  most  famous  men  of  this  time  are  :  — 

Alexander  of  Hales  (''Dr.  irrefragabilis,  fons  vitae"),  an  English- 
man of  the  Franciscan  Order ;  he  died  in  1245.  He  taught  at  Paris, 
and  beside  his  exegetical  and  philosophical  works,  he,  at  the  com- 
mand of  Pope  Innocent  IV.,  composed  a  "  Summa  theologiae,"  in 

1  Migne,  Patr.  lat.  torn,  cxci.,  cxcii. 

-  Avicenna  (Ibn.  Sina,  +1037),  Averroes  (Ibn.  Roschd.  -+- 1198).  Among  the 
Jewish  philosophers  are  Avicebron  (Ibn.  Gebriol,  -(-1070),  a  Neoplatonist,  and  Moses 
Maimonides  (-H  1204),  who  was  the  most  impoitaut  Aristotelian. 


so  HISTORY  OF   THE   CATHOLIC   CHURCH 

a  strictly  syllogistic  form,  taking  for  his  model  the  Seniences  of 
Peter  Lombard. 

Beatus  Alhertus  2Iafjnus,  Albert  the  Great,  of  the  family  of  Boll- 
stadt,  was  born  in  1193  at  Lauingen,  in  Suabia.  After  entering  the 
Dominican  Order  he  taught  at  Paris  and  Cologne ;  in  1254  he  was 
invested  with  the  dignity  of  provincial  for  Germany,  and  in  1260 
was  nominated  Bishop  of  Ratisbon.  Two  years  later  he  resigned 
this  latter  office,  and  died  at  Cologne  in  1280. 

Albert  had  a  thorough  knowledge  of  and  a  great  veneration  for 
Aristotle  ("alter  Aristoteles  "),  without,  however,  being  a  blind  admi- 
rer of  him.  The  value  of  his  work  on  the  physical  sciences  is  still 
acknowledged  by  naturalists.  He  also  greatly  distinguished  himself 
in  theology. 

Of  still  greater  importance  in  the  erudition  of  the  ^Middle  Ages, 
was  Albert's  renowned  pupil,  St.  Thomas  Aquinas,^  or  Thomas, 
Count  of  Aquino  ("  Dr.  angelicus  ").  He  was  born  at  Rocca  Sicca, 
near  Naples,  in  1225  or  1227,  and  was  confided  to  the  Benedictines 
of  Monte  Casino  for  his  early  education.  He  then  frequented  the 
University  of  Xaples,  where  he  remained  six  years,  during  which 
time,  amid  the  general  depravity  of  manners,  he  preserved  his  original 
innocence  and  piety.  Notwithstanding  the  opposition  of  his  parents, 
Thomas  entered  the  Order  of  St.  Dominic,  and  became  the  pupil  of 
Albertus  Magnus  at  Cologne.  After  completing  his  studies  Thomas 
taught  in  Cologne,  Paris,  Bologna,  and  Naples.  He  persistently  re- 
fused to  accept  the  ecclesiastical  dignities  offered  to  him,  including 
the  Archbishopric  of  Naples.  Pope  Gregory  X.  summoned  him  to 
attend  the  Fourteenth  (Ecumenical  Council  at  Lyons  in  1274.  The 
saint  died  at  Fossanova,  on  his  journey  thither.  Pope  John  XXII. 
canonized  the  great  doctor  in  1323;  and  Pius  V.  raised  him  to  the 
rank  of  "  Doctor  ecclesiae  "  in  1567. 

The  works  of  St.  Thomas  ^  are  distinguished  by  their  copious  flow 
of  thought,  their  depth  of  speculation,  and  by  clearness  of  state- 
ment. In  philosophy  he  adhered  to  Aristotle,  in  theology  to  St. 
Augustine.     The  writings  he  has  left  are  of  very  great  importance 

1  IVcrner,  St.  Thomas  of  Aquino.  3  vols.  Ratisbon,  1858.  Jourdain,  La 
philosophic  de  St.  Thomas  d'Aquin,  tom.  ii.  Paris,  1852.  Life  and  Labors  of  St. 
Thomas  of  Aquino,  by  the  Very  Rev.  Roger  Bcde  Vauglian,  O.S.B.,  in  two  volumes. 
London,  1871-1872. 

-  The  most  important  philosophical  work  of  St.  Thomas  is  the  "Summa  contra 
Gentiles"  or  "philosophica."  A  new  critical  edition  of  his  works  is  being  made  by 
onler  of  Leo  XIIT. 


FLOURISHING  PERIOD   OF  SCHOLASTICISM.  81 

to  pliilosopliy  and  theology ;  therefore  the  study  of  these  works 
has  been  repeatedly  recommended  by  Popes  and  Councils/  and  has 
lately  been  most  emphatically  urged  by  Pope  Leo  XIII. 

Lastly,  St.  Thomas  acquired  fame  as  a  poet ;  liis  hymns  ^  are  in 
high  repute  ;  while  in  his  work  "  De  regimine  principum  "  he  devel- 
ops and  defends  the  theory  of  Christian  Government.^ 

The  Franciscan  John  of  Fidanza,  or  St.  Bonaventure  ^  ("  Dr.  seraph- 
icus"),  is  not  less  distinguished  for  his  learning  and  piety.  He  was 
born  in  1221,  at  Bagnarea,  in  Tuscany,  but  for  his  education  fre- 
quented the  University  of  Paris,  where  as  early  as  1253  he  obtained 
a  professorship  of  theology,  and  at  the  age  of  thirty-five  years 
became  the  general  of  his  order,  the  interior  disorders  and  conten- 
tions of  which  he  brought  under  due  regulation.^  Pope  Clement  IV. 
wished  to  make  him  Archbishop  of  York,  but  desisted  at  the  request 
of  Bonaventure ;  on  the  other  hand,  Gregory  X.,  in  1273,  compelled 
him  to  accept  the  Bishopric  of  Albano.  In  the  year  following  Bona- 
venture attended  the  CEcumenical  Council  of  Lyons,  and  died  while 
it  was  still  in  session,  July  14,  1274. 

Bonaventure,  who  was  canonized  by  Sixtus  IV.  (1482),  and  whom 
Sixtus  V.  placed  among  the  doctors  of  the  Church,  acquired  great 
fame  by  his  mystical  writings.®  But  both  his  philosophical  and  scho- 
lastico-theological  works,  of  which  the  principal  ones  are  the  "  Bre- 
viloquium  "  and  the  "  Centiloquium,"  are  highly  esteemed,  although 
their  author  do|s  not  on  these  subjects  reach  the  level  of  St.  Thomas. 
As  a  mystic,  however,  he  surpasses  him. 

After  the  death  of  St.  Thomas  Aquinas,  the  doctors  of  the  Sor- 
bonne  in  1276  attacked  three  of  his  propositions  as  erroneous,  and 
in  the  following  year  the  professors  of  Oxford  censured  four  propo- 
sitions of  the  renowned  teacher.  Even  members  of  the  Dominican 
Order  took  exception  to  some  assertions  of  Brother  Thomas ;  they 
were  called  to  order  by  the  general  chapters  of  Milan  in  1278,  and 
of  Paris  in  1279.  Some  views  of  St.  Thomas  were  also  disputed 
by  the  Minorites,  whereas  the  general  chapter  of  1286  rendered  it 
imperative  on  all  Dominicans  to  disseminate  his  doctrines. 

1  Pope  John  XXII.  said  of  Thomas  :  "  Ipse  [S.  Thomas]  plus  illuminavit  ecclesiam 
quam  omnes  alii  Doctores  :  in  cujus  libris  plus  prolicit  homo  uno  anno,  quam  in 
alioruni  doetrina  toto  tempore  vitae  suae." 

■■2  See  §  150. 

3  JourdaAn,  1.  c.  i.  395  sqq.     Scluif-lcr,  Th.  Aq.,  etc.     Rome,  1874. 

*  Bertheaumicr,  Hist,  de  St.  Bonaventure. 

^  See  §  187.  ^  A  new  edition  of  his  complete  works  is  now  in  preparation. 

VOL.    II.  6 


82  HISTORY  OF   THE    CATHOLIC   CHURCH. 

The  most  proiuinent  opponents  of  the  Angelical  Doctor  from  the 
Order  of  the  ]\linorites  were  :  William  de  la  Marre,  professor  at 
Oxford,  and  William  Varrou  (Ware),  professor  at  Paris ;  and  more 
especially  the  pupil  of  the  latter,  John  Duns  Scotus  ("  Dr.  subtilis  "), 
—  from  whom  the  school  of  the  Scotists  deriv^es  its  name,  —  who  was 
born  between  the  years  1245  and  1266.  At  an  early  period  of  his  life 
he  entered  the  Franciscan  Order,  and  taught  theology  and  philosophy 
at  Oxford  and  Paris.  Subsequently  the  celebrated  doctor  was  sent 
to  Cologne  ;  but  he  died  in  1308,  shortly  after  his  arrival  there. 

The  manner  in  which  Scotus  states  his  propositions  is  obscure. 
He  lacks  the  unction  of  St.  Bonaventure  and  the  clearness  of  St. 
Thomas.  The  many  subtleties  he  makes  use  of  render  the  study 
of  his  works  difficult.^ 

Unhappily,  the  polemics  between  the  Thomists  and  Scotists  were 
not  always  conducted  in  a  tranquil  manner  and  by  means  of  learned 
arguments.  Too  often  the  controversialists  were  excited  by  passion, 
and  assailed  their  opponents  in  terms  of  bitterness  and  mockery, 
notwithstanding  which  the  discussion  proved  of  great  advantage  to 
the  studies  of  philosophy  and  theology. 

The  most  eminent  of  the  disciples  of  St.  Thomas  are :  the  Domini- 
can Peter  de  Tarentaise,  who  ascended  the  papal  throne  under  the 
name  of  Innocent  V.  (+  1276)  ;  the  Augustinian  hermit  iEgidius 
(Giles)  Colonna  of  Rome  ("  Dr.  fundatissimus '"),  Archbishop  of 
Bourges  (+1316);  and  Hervseus  Xatalis  (of  Xedellec),  General  of 
the  Dominicans  (+  1323),  who  was  the  special  opponent  of  Duus 
Scotus. 

Among  the  pupils  of  Scotus,  Anthony  Andrea  ("Dr.  dulcifluus," 
+  1320)  and  Francis  of  Mayronis  ("Magister  abstractionum,"  +  1325) 
acquired  great  celebrity. 

The  controversies  between  the  Thomists  and  Scotists  had  refer- 
ence chiefly  to  the  actuality  of  universals  ;  and  in  theology  to  the  doc- 
trines of  grace  and  of  liberty,  and  of  the  satisfaction  made  by  Christ, 
whicli  Thomas  affirmed  to  be  in  itself  superabundant  (•*  superabun- 
dans  "),  while  Scotus  makes  its  value  dependent  on  a  ''gratuita 
acceptatio  "  of  God  (theory  of  acceptation).  Then  Scotus  explains 
transubstantiation  by  the  annihilation  of  the  substance  of  bread, 
while  Thomas  affirms  that  the  glorified  body  of  Christ  is  adduced  or 
introduced  into  the  accidents  ("per  adductionem"  or  "introduc- 
tionem ")  ;  and  lastly,  came   the  reference  to  the  doctrine   of  the 

1  Op.  omn.  ed.   Wadding.     12  vols.  fol.     Lugd.  1639. 


FLOURISHING  PERIOD   OF  SCHOLASTICISM.  83 

Immaculate  Conception  of  the  Blessed  Virgin  Mary,  which  the 
Thomists  denied,  but  which  the  Scotists  rightly  affirmed. 

Roger  Bacon,  an  Englishman  ("  Dr.  mirabilis,"  +  1294),  was  a 
Franciscan,  a  man  distinguished  alike  for  learning  and  originality. 
He  occupied  himself  chiefly  with  mathematics,  the  physical  sciences, 
and  languages  ;  in  his  philosophical  studies  he  was  not  free  from 
error,  and  was  especially  addicted  to  astrology.  Like  John  of 
Salisbury,  his  countryman,  he  complained  th^at  scholasticism  was  too 
narrow  and  conservative.  He  advocated  a  great  reformation  in  the 
modes  of  studying  science,'  protested  against  a  too  scrupulous 
adherence  to  authority  and  to  the  prescriptions  of  custom,  favored 
freer  investigation  and  a  more  frequent  recourse  to  experiments, 
though  he  by  no  means  brought  forward  knowledge  as  couflicting 
with  faith. 

Neither  can  learning  and  originality  be  denied  to  the  Spaniard 
Raymond  Lullus  Q'  Dr.  illumi«atus  ").  He  was  a  self-constituted 
instructor,  in  whose  writings  rationalistic  views  and  cabalistic  teach- 
ings are  combined.^  Lullus  invented  the  "  great  art  "  ("  ars  univer- 
salis scientiarum"),  called  by  his  name.  It  was  to  enable  one  to 
obtain  information  in  all  questions  of  science  without  exertion  or 
study ;  it  is,  in  fact,  only  a  plaything,  a  work  got  up  for  sport. 
Some  of  his  errors  were  condemned  by  Gregory  XL  He  was 
martyred  by  the  Mahometans  in  1315. 

The  Dominican  Vincent  of  Beauvais  (+  1264),  who  was  tutor  to 
the  sons  of  Louis  IX.  of  France,  possessed  great  learning  and  exten- 
sive reading,  as  is  evident  from  his  "  Speculum,"  a  work  divided 
into  three  parts,  —  "  doctrinale,  historiale,  et  naturale." 

The  main  results  of  the  collective  achievements  of  medigeval 
erudition  are  given  as  clearly  as  they  are  correctly  in  the  "  Divina 
Commedia"  of  Dante,  which  can  in  truth  be  styled  a  poetical 
summary  of  mediajval  philosophy  and  theology.  The  learned  and 
genial  poet  ( +  1321)  selected  Thomas  Aquinas  as  his  principal 
guide,  and  quotes  entire  articles  of  the  Angelic  Doctor,  dressed  up 
in  a  poetical  garb.  Dante  also  proves  that  he  was  equally  con- 
versant with  the  writings  of  other  scholastic  theologians  and  phi- 
losophers, and  not  less  so  Avith  those  who  ranged  the  fields  of 
history  and  of  the  natural  sciences.  He  was  also  well  acquainted 
with  the  works  of  the  pagan  classics. 

1  Opus  maj.  (1266),  ed.  Sant.  Jchh.  London,  1733.  Dr.  J.  S.  Brewer  added 
"  Opus  tertium  in  com})endium  philosophiae."     3  vols.     London,  1863. 

2  Om.  cd.  Mogunt.  1721  sqq.     10  vols.  fol. 


84  HISTORY  OF   THE    CATHOLIC   CHURCH. 


§  141.    The  Mystics. 

Among  the  mystics  ^  of  this  age,  St.  Bernard  ("  Dr.  melliflmis  ") 
stands  prominently  forward.  He  was  born  in  1091,  at  Fontaine, 
near  Dijon,  and  his  universal  activity  has  already  been  described. 

The  principal  mystical  writings  '■^  of  St.  Bernard  are  his  six 
treatises,  <'  De  diligendo  Deo,"  "  De  gradibus  humilitatis,"  and  i)ar- 
ticularly  the  letter  addressed  to  Pope  Eugene  "  De  consideratione." 
His  sermons  are  also  full  of  profound  thought.  Bernard's  style  of 
writing  is  lively,  the  form  somewhat  exuberant,  yet  without  being 
obscure  and  liable  to  be  misunderstood. 

The  cloistral  school  of  St.  Victor  in  Paris,  founded  by  William 
of  Champeaux  (+  1109),  became  a  fruitful  nursery  of  mysticism. 
The  renowned  rectors,  Hugh  and  Rirhnrd,  strove  to  combine  scho- 
lasticism and  mysticism  into  one  harmonious  system. 

Hugh  ^  was  educated  in  the  monastery  of  Hamersleben,  in  the 
diocese  of  Halberstadt,  and  came  to  Paris  in  1118,  in  order  to 
complete  his  studies.  His  successful  career  in  the  pursuits  of 
knowledge  won  for  him  the  honorable  title  of  "  Alter  Augustinus." 
The  writings  of  Hugh  are  penetrated  throughout  by  contemplative 
mystical  aspiration.  His  most  important  scholastico-mystical  work 
is  his  treatise  on  the  Sacraments.  Avhich  is  as  valuable  from  its 
contents,  which  comprise  the  whole  theological  sphere,  as  from  its 
fascinating  style. 

Kichard  of  St.  Victor,  the  pupil  and  successor  of  Hugh,  was  in 
complete  harmony  with  his  predecessor.  He  was  a  native  of  Scot- 
land (+  1173),  and  was  not  less  given  to  speculation  than  to  contem- 
plation, as  is  shown  by  his  work  "  De  Trinitate  "  and  his  treatises 
"De  praeparatione  ad  contemplationeni "  and  "De  contemplatione." 

The  peculiar  inclination  of  Richard  to  mysticism  was  not  shared 
by  his  successor  Walter  de  St.  Vietor  ;  on  the  contrary,  he  manifested 
a  formal  opposition  to  scholastic  theology,  which  found  an  expres- 
sion in  his  work,  "  Contra  quatuor  Franciae  labyrinthos."  * 

John  of  Salisbury  is  also  to  be  reckoned  among  the  mystics.  He 
was  born  in  1110  or  1120,  and  was  the  companion  of  St.   Thomas 

1  Compare  the  works  on  mysticism  of  Gorres,  Helferick,  Noticlc,  and  Dcnifle. 

2  Op.  eil.  Mnbillmi.     Migne,  Patr.  lat.  torn,  clxxxii.-clxxxv. 

3  Hnurenu,  Hugiies  de  St.  Victor.     Paris,  1860. 

*  Migne,  1.  c.  torn,  cxcix.  The  four  labyrinths  are  :  Abelard,  Peter  Lombard, 
Peter  of  Poitiers,  and  Gilbert  de  la  Porr;'"'. 


SCHOLASTICS  AND  MYSTICS   IN  MIDDLE   ACES.       85 

a  Becket  in  his  sufferings.  He  died,  as  Bishop  of  Chartres,  in 
1180.  To  the  great  knowledge  of  theology  which  he  had  acquired 
in  France,  he  united  classic  culture,  yet  was  inclined  to  mysticism 
without  assuming  an  antagonistic  position  to  scholasticism.  In  his 
"  INIetalogicus  "  ^  he  only  seeks  to  prune  the  overgrowths,  while  he 
acknowledges  and  defends  the  value  of  logic  ;  but  he  censures  the 
use  to  wliich  it  is  put  by  modern  dialecticians,  and  chastises  their 
impudent  assumptions.  In  his  "  Polycraticus "  he  blames  the  life 
led  at  courts  in  his  time.  His  contemporary,  Walter  Map,  who 
was  archdeacon  at  Oxford  from  the  year  1197,  composed  a  similar 
work. 

To  conclude  the  list,  Abbot  Rupert  of  Deutz  (Tuitiensis,  +  1135), 
known  as  an  exegetical  writer,  and  Abbot  William  of  Thierry,  with 
the  Franciscan  David  of  Augsburg  (+  1270),  may  be  numbered 
among  the  mystics.  In  the  celebrated  and  influential  St.  Hildegard, 
who  was  so  highly  esteemed  by  her  contemporaries,  and  who  lived 
on  the  Rupertsberg  near  Bingen,  the  mystical  element  manifested 
itself  in  the  form  of  prophetic  ecstasy.  Her  supernatural  inspi- 
rations are  contained  in  her  book  "Scivias." 

§  142.   The  /Scholastics  and  Mystics  toioards  the  End  of  the 
Middle  Ages.  —  The  several  Branches  of  Learning. 

The  assertion  that  the  characteristic  of  scholasticism  in  what  is 
called  its  third  period  was  the  predominance  of  nominalism,  which 
ultimately  led  to  the  ruin  of  scholasticism,  is  not  true ;  for  history 
has  no  record  of  any  period  in  which  nominalism  was  universally 
predominant,  but,  on  the  contrary,  proves  that  this  same  nominalism 
was  always  contested,  and  that  its  interpreters  did  not  themselves 
deduce  from  its  doctrines  those  final  consequences  which  would,  it 
is  true,  have  led  to  the  overthrow  of  all  learning. 

The  principal  advocates  of  nominalism  are  :  Peter  Aureolus,  a 
Franciscan  professor  at  Paris  (+1321),  and  William  Durandus  of 
St.  Pourgain  ("  Dr.  resolutissimus  "),  a  Dominican  professor  at  the 
Sorbonne,  Paris,  from  the  year  1313,  later  on  Bishop  of  Meaux 
(+  1332)  ;  and  to  whom  may  be  added  William  of  Occam, ^  specially 
noted  for  taking  part  with  Louis  the  Bavarian  against  the  Church. 
He  was .  a  Franciscan  ;  at  first  the  pupil,  afterwards  the  opponent, 
of   Duns   Scotus,  and    professor  of   the  University  of  Paris  ("  Dr. 

1  Op.  ed.  Giles.     5  vols.     Oxon.  1848.     Migne,  Patr.  lat.  torn,  cxcix. 

2  See  §  124. 


86  HlSTOnV    OF    THE    CATHOLIC    CHURCH. 

singularis,  veuerabilis  inceptor,"  + 1347).  According  ta  his  views, 
universal  ideas  are  simply  the  product  of  the  human  mind,  creations 
of  the  imagination,  single  in  themselves,  and  universal  only  in  the 
sense  that  they  may  be  signs  ^  of  a  plurality  of  objects.  His  dis- 
ciples John  Buridan,  professor  at  Paris  and  Vienne,  Peter.  d'Ailly 
(+  1425),  as  well  as  Nicholas  of  Clemauge  (+  1440),  and  Gabriel 
Biel,  preacher  at  the  cathedral  of  Mentz  and  professor  at  Tubingen 
(+ 1495),  were  ISTominalists. 

Besides  Giles  (.Egidius)  of  Colonna,  two  Augustinian  monks, 
Gregory  of  Rimini  and  Thomas  of  Strasburg  ("de  Argentina," 
+  1357),  the  Dominican  Capreolus  (''Princeps  Thomistarum," 
+ 1444),  the  Carthusian  Denys,  and  others  undertook  the  defence 
of  orthodox  Kealism. 

The  works  of  Thomas  Bradwardine,^  professor  of  Oxford  from 
the  year  1325,  and  subsequently  Archbishop  of  Canterbury  (+  1349), 
are  not  free  from  error ;  he  revived  the  doctrine  of  the  Predesti- 
natians. 

The  Spanish  physician  and  jurist  Raymond  of  Sabunde,  sub- 
sequently priest  and  professor  at  Toulouse  (about  1436),  in  his 
"  Theologia  naturalis  "  makes  the  attempt  to  demonstrate  and  to 
defend  the  mysteries  of  Christianity  from  the  "  book  of  Nature  ; " 
but  in  doing  this  he  unwittingly  falls  into  rationalistic  errors. 

Mystical  theology  found  a  learned  advocate  in  John  Charlier  of 
Gerson,  usually  called  John  Gerson  ("Dr.  Christianissimus  "),  pro- 
fessor and  chancellor  of  the  University  of  Paris  (-|-  1429,  at  Lyons). 
He  took  great  interest  in  the  reformatory  efforts  of  his  time,  but 
unfortunately  was  himself  led  to  maintain  several  erroneous 
propositions. 

In  Germany  mysticism  received  special  cultivation  from  the 
brotherhood  called  "  The  Friends  of  God,"  who  by  word  and  exam- 
ple strove  to  promote  interior  piety.  Unhappily,  many  of  these 
departed  too  widely  from  positive  theology,  fell  into  a  false  sub- 
jectivism, and  did  not  escape  erroneous  views,  or  at  least  made  use 
of  incorrect  expressions. 

The  true  founder  of  German  mysticism  is  the  Dominican  Pro- 
vincial Master  Eckhart,  a  celebrated  preacher,  whose  writings, 
however,  contain  several  errors  which  drew  upon  him  a  censure 
from  Pope  John  XXII.^  (+1329). 

1  "Termini,  signa,  fictiones  quaedam." 

2  De  causa  adv.  Pelag.  ii.  3,  ed.  Savilius.     Loud.  1618. 
'  Denzinger,  Enchiridion,  p.  179  sqq. 


THE   SEVERAL    BRANCHES   OF  LEARNING.  87 

Amoug  his  pupils,  two  Dominicans  acquired  great  renown.  These 
were  the  profound  thinker  and  preacher  Jolm  Tauler,  born  1290 
(''Dr.  sublimis  aut  illuminatus,"  +  Strasburg,  VMSl),  and  the  poet 
Henry  Suso,  born  1800  ("  Amandns/' +  Ulm,  1365).  They  are 
r  Muarkable  for  their  great  interior  piety  and  depth  of  speculation ; 
'.)ut  in  expression  they  are  sometimes  vague,  and  liable  to  be  mis- 
understood. 

This  latter  remark  applies  in  a  still  higher  degree  to  John  Euys- 
broek  ^  ("Dr.  extaticus,"  +  1381).  He  was  prior  of  the  Canons 
regular,  at  Griinthal,  near  Brussels.  Many  of  his  own  contempo- 
raries took  exceptions  to  his  expressions,  which  sounded  so  pan- 
theistic that  afterwards  Gerson  also  became  the  opponent  of  his 
views. 

The  unknown  author  of  the  work  so  highly  prized  by  Luther, 
"German  Theology,"  deviated  yet  more  widely  from  the  beaten 
track  of  orthodoxy.  He  loses  himself  entirely  in  pantheistic 
dualism,  although  it  may  be  conceded  that  he  was  probably  more 
incorrect  in  his  manner  of  expression  than  heretical  in  thought.. 

The  most  influential  among  the  mystics  is  undoubtedly  the  pious 
Thomas  a  Kempis  (Thomas  Hamerken),^  whose  ''Imitation  of 
Christ  "  contains  the  purest  and  noblest  mysticism.  It  has  been, 
and  still  is,  the  guide  on  the  path  to  perfection  for  millions  of 
souls. ^ 

On  the  treatment  of  the  respective  branches  of  theology  we  would 
briefly  remark,:  The  scholastics  and  mystics  alike  occupied  them- 
selves with  the  interpretation  of  Scripture ;  but  the  former  directed 
their  attention  rather  to  the  meaning  than  to  the  letter  of  the 
Bible,  the   several  books   of  which  were  explained   in  a   fourfold 

1  Op.  omn.  ed.  Siirius.     Colon.  1.555. 

2  Op.  omn.  ed.  Somalius,  S.  J.,  revised  by  Amort.  Colon.  1759.  The  authorship 
of  the  "  Imitation  of  Christ"  is  contested.  Among  those  who  ascribe  it  to  Thomas 
a  Kempis  are  :  Amort  (Scntum  Kempense,  in  appendix  to  his  edition,  and  Deduc- 
tio  critica,  Aug.  Vind.  1761),  and  Malon  (Recherches  hist,  et  critiques  sur  le  veri- 
table auteur  de  I'lmitation.  Paris  et  Tournay,  1858).  As  early  as  the  fifteenth 
century  the  little  book  was  ascribed  to  Chancellor  G^'crsoii.  Gregory,  in  his  "  Me- 
moires  sur  le  veritable  auteur,"  etc.,  designates  the  Benedictine  John  Gerscn,  Abbot  of 
St.  Stephen,  near  Vercelli  (1240),  as  the  author.  The  "  Civilta  Cattol."  1875,  n.  590, 
595,  600,  declares  for  Gcrscn's  authorship.  The  defenders  of  the  latter  theory  of 
authorship  (see  Hergenrothcr,  v.  iii.  p.  318)  laid  a  special  sti'ess  on  the  "  Codex 
Vercell.  De  avocatis,"  found  at  Paris,  1839,  by  the  President  de  Gregorio. 

3  St.  Mechtildis  of  JIagdeburg  (-f-  between  1270  and  1280),  St.  Gertrude  of  Eisleben 
(-1-  1292),  and  her  sister  the  younger  Mechtildis,  as  also  Christina  Ebnerin  (+  1356), 
composed  mystical  writings. 


88  HISTORY  OF   THE    CATHOLIC   CHURCH. 

sense.-'  The  Holy  Scriptures  were  at  that  time  for  the  most  part 
read  in  the  Latin  Vvilgate. 

The  Council  of  Yienne,  however,  earnestly  recommended  the  study 
of  the  Oriental  languages.  Anselm  of  Laon  (+1117)^  and  Rupert 
of  Deutz  ^  (+ 1135)  were  celebrated  expositors  of  Holy  Writ ; 
together  with  Stephen,  Abbot  of  Citeaux,  who  amended  the  Vul- 
gate, and  Hugh  a  Sancto  Caro  (+1260),  who  composed  a  commen- 
tary ("  postillae")on  the  Holy  Scriptures  and  a  concordance  of  the 
Bible.*  The  clearness  with  Avhich  St.  Thomas  Aquinas,  in  his 
commentaries,  illustrates  the  profound  meaning  hid  in  the  Gos- 
pels and  in  the  Epistles  of  the  Apostles  is  in  a  manner  absolutely 
marvellous.^ 

In  the  fourteenth  and  fifteenth  centuries  the  most  celebrated 
expositors  were  Nicholas  of  Lyra  ("Dr.  planus  et  utilis,"  +  1341), 
named  the  Postillator,  who  rather  fell  back  on  the  literal  meaning 
of  the  sacred  books  than  rose  to  their  spiritual  sense ;  ®  Alphonso 
Tostatus,  professor  at  Salamanca,  and  subsequently  Bishop  of  Avila 
(+  llo-l)  ;  and  the  Carthusian  Denys  (+  1471). 

In  the  fifteenth  century  the  study  of  the  Oriental  languages 
received  a  new  impetus  in  Italy,^  Germany,^  and  Spain.  Here  the 
renowned  Cardinal  Ximenes  was  occupied  in  forwarding  the  pub- 
lication of  the  Complutensian  Polyglot  edition  of  the  Bible,  in  which 
several  Spanish  Orientalists  took  part.  Erasmus  took  charge  of  a 
new  edition  of  the  Greek  text  of  the  New  Testament,  which  he 
enriched  by  a  Latin  translation,  with  paraphrases  and  notes  taken 
from  Greek  expositors. 

Translations  of  the  Bible  in  the  vernacular  tongues  were  also 
made,  and  were  never  prohibited  by  the  Church,  as  the  bishops  of 

1  "  Litera  gesta  docet,  quid  credas  AUcgoria, 
Moralis  quid  agas,  quo  tendas  Anagogia." 

2  Glossa  interlinearis  in  Mignc,  Patr.  lat.  torn,  clxii. 

^  Op.  omn.  ap.  Migne,  Patr.  lat.  torn,  clxvii.-clxx. 

*  Cf.  Quctif  et  Echard.  Script,  ord.  Praedic.  i.  194  sqq.  Postil.  in  univ.  Bibl. 
7  vols.   fol.     Paris,  1548.     Concord,   sac.   Biblior.     Basil.   1551. 

6  "  Expositio  in  IV.  Evang."  also  called  "  Catena  aurea"  (the  golden  chain),  and 
"  Comment,  in  omnes  Div.  Pauli  Ap.  ejiis."    Newly  edited.     3  vols.     Leod.  1837  sqq. 

6  His  writings  were  specially  studied  by  Euther,  which  fact  gave  rise  to  the  saying  : 
"Si  Eyra  non  lyrasset,  Eutherus  non  saltasset." 

'  Cf.  Tirahoschi,  Storia  della  letteratura  Italiana,  torn.  vi.  2,  p.  119  sqq. 

8  The  Dominican  Peter  Schwartz,  in  1477,  composed  a  Hebrew  Grammar.  Reuchlin 
(see  §  160)  worked  with  a  special  zeal  for  the  study  of  this  language,  which,  however, 
had  before  his  time  been  introduced  into  several  universities. 


STUDIES    OF    THE   HUMANISTS.  89 

England  in  1826  publicly  declared.  l>efore  Luther's  time  Germany 
possessed  fourteen  editions  of  the  Bible  in  the  High  German,  and 
four  in  the  Low  German  dialect.  The  study  of  Christian  morals  was 
usually  combined  with  that  of  dogma.  St.  Thomas  Aquinas,  indeed, 
treated  of  the  one  separately  from  the  other.  The  work  of  Abelard, 
"  Scito  te  ipsum,"  or  "  Ethica,"  is  full  of  inaccuracies,  and  presents 
anything  but  a  Christian  morality.  William  Peraldus  ^  and  Ray- 
mond of  Pennaforte  -  composed  larger  works  on  Morals  (Casuistry). 

The  study  of  canon  law  was  also  ardently  pursued.  Among  the 
most  significant  of  the  canonists  of  this  era  were :  John  Gratian, 
professor  at  Bologna,  and  Raymond  of  Pennaforte  ;  to  whom  may 
be  added  the  Popes  Alexander  III.,  Innocent  III.,  Innocent  lY., 
Gregory  IX.,  with  Boniface  VIIL,  and  Archbishop  Tudeschi  of 
Palermo,  etc. 

The  Middle  Ages  have  but  few  works  on  universal  history ;  on 
the  other  hand,  they  abound  in  chronicles,  annals,  descriptions  of 
individual  countries,  biographies,  etc. 

The  philosophical  genius  of  Nicholas  of  Cusa  (born  1401  at  Cues, 
near  the  Moselle),  Dean  of  St.  Florin  in  Coblentz,  and  subsequently 
Cardinal  and  Bishop  of  Brixen,  whose  spirit  embraced  every  depart- 
ment of  human  knowledge,  was  renowned  as  a  reformer,  statesman, 
and  man  of  learning.  At  first  he  was  a  defender  of  the  principles 
of  the  Council  of  Basle ;  but  afterwards  he  changed  sides,  and 
became  an  ardent  upholder  of  the  rights  of  the  Apostolic  See. 
This  Prince  of  the  Church,  well  versed  as  he  was  in  philosophy  and 
theology,  as  also  in  the  physical  sciences  and  in  classical  studies, 
devoted  his  chief  attention  to  elevating  the  religious  standing, 
together  with  that  of  learning,  of  both  the  clergy  and  the  people 
of  Germany.  The  writings  he  has  left  behind  him  ^  contain  the 
most  profound  speculations,  in  which  the  results  of  scholasticism 
and  mysticism  are  laid  down  with  the  utmost  impartiality,  and  in 
a  classical  form. 

§  143.  Studies  of  the  Humanists.^ 

Classical  studies,  which  are  erroneously  termed  a  revival  of  learn- 
ing, form  a  beautiful  proof  of  the  aspiration  after  knowledge  which 
animated  the  Middle  Ages. 

1  Summa  de  virtutibus  et  vitiis.     Ed.  Paris,  1629. 

2  See  §§  130,  135.  He  wrote  "Summa  de  poenit.  et  matrimonio,"  also  called 
"Summa  Raymundiana."     Ed.  Kom.  1605. 

3  Ed.  Faber  Stapulens.     Paris,  1514  ;  Basil.  1565, 
*  See  Jansacns  rainous  Hist,  of  the  German  Peoi)Ie. 


90  HISTORY  OF  THE    CATHOLIC   CHURCH. 

Without  being  absolutely  neglected,  the  stud}^  of  the  pagan 
classics  had  during  the  mediaeval  times  taken  a  position  in  the 
background;  until  in  the  fifteenth  century  the  predilection  for  their 
works  awakened  a  more  general  and  zealous  study  of  classical 
antiquity.^ 

The  negotiations  for  the  union  of  the  Greeks  from  the  thirteenth 
century,  and  the  Greek  refugees  who  fled  to  Italy  after  the  con- 
quest of  Constantinople  in  1453,  greatly  contributed  to  stimulate 
the  study  of  the  literary  treasures  they  had  brought  with  them. 

These  expatriated  scholars  were  warmly  welcomed,  both  in  Rome 
and  Florence,  by  Cosmo  de'  ]\Iedici,  and  soon  gathered  around  them 
a  circle  of  learned  pupils  from  various  countries,  who  under  their 
direction  commenced  a  course  of  classical  studies. 

In  the  course  of  time  these  refugees,  being  particularly  patronized 
by  the  higher  orders  of  the  clergy  and  by  several  Popes,  spread 
themselves  over  Italy,  Spain,  France,  and  Germany,  everywhere 
meeting  with  friends  and  admirers  who  showed  them  kindness 
and  afforded  them  aid. 

As  the  study  of  the  pagan  authors  was  eulogized  as  the  source 
of  true  human  culture  (humanities),  its  promoters  were  called  Hu- 
manists. At  first  they  were  chiefly  occupied  with  the  profane 
sciences,  but  soon  they  turned  their  attention  also  to  theological 
discipline. 

The  study  of  the  pagan  classics  and  pagan  philosophy  was  not 
without  its  use  for  science,  nor  even  for  theology ;  yet  at  the  same 
time  it  exercised  an  injurious  effect  on  theological  studies  and  on 
religious  life. 

In  fact,  the  chief  use  of  humanistic  studies  was  to  restore  to  the 

1  See  §§  98,  99.  Daniel,  Classic  Studies  in  Christian  Society.  Dante  (-4-1321), 
Petrarch  (-t-  1374),  Boccaccio  (4- 1375),  and  others  were  well  versed  in  the  classical  lore 
of  antiquity.  Nicholas  of  Cusa,  who  brought  many  Grecian  manuscripts  from  Con- 
stantinople to  the  West,  was  well  read  in  ancient  literature.  At  the  Union  Synod,  held 
at  Florence,  1439,  John  Turrecremata,  the  Dominican  John  of  Ragusa,  and  the  Abbot 
of  the  Camaldolites,  Ambrosius  Traversari,  afforded  splendid  proofs  of  their  acquaint- 
ance with  Grecian  literature.  At  the  suggestion  of  Boccaccio,  Leontius  Pilatus,  a 
pupil  of  the  Greek  monk  Barlaam,  was  in  the  year  1350  installed  at  Florence  as 
teacher  of  the  Greek  language.  In  the  year  1390  the  Greek  Manuel  Chrysoloras  set- 
tled in  Italy,  iind  was  received  in  many  places,  of  which  the  last  was  Rome,  as  teacher 
of  Grecian  literature.  Among  other  distinguished  Greeks  who  emigrated  to  Italy 
were  Theodore  Gaza  (4- 1478),  George  of  Trebizond  (-J-  about  1484),  John  Argyropy- 
lus  (-f-1486),  Constantine,  and  J.  And.  Lascaris,  Gemistius  Pletho,  Bessarion,  and 
others,  concerning  whom  see  Tirahoschi,  Storiii  dclla  letteratura,  tom.  vi.  pp.  1,  2. 


STUDIES    OF   THE    Hi' MAX  I  ST  S.  91 

learned  a  classical  Latiuity,  which  supplanted  the  degenerate  and 
awkward  language  of  the  later  scholastics,  and  rendered  it  possible 
for  theologians  to  clothe  their  ideas  in  a  pleasing  and  graceful  form. 
The  Humanists  also  effected  much  good  in  the  fields  of  history 
and  of  patristic  literature;  and  this  because  they  opened  sources, 
and  placed  available  means  before  the  student,  which  had  not  been 
accessible  before. 

But  great  as  may  be  these  merits,  which  are  by  no  means  due  ex- 
clusively to  the  Humanists,  they  are  counterbalanced  by  the  evil 
which  resulted  from  humanism. 

One  fruit  of  humanistic  studies  was  an  almost  frantic  predilec- 
tion for  genuine  classical  expressions,  as  is  evidenced  in  a  truly 
ludicrous  manner  ^  in  the  writings  of  the  Humanists.  Not  less  dis- 
advantageous was  the  overrating  of  the  pagan  philosophers,  Plato  - 
and  Aristotle,^  whose  writings  were  by  some  Humanists  placed  on 
the  same  level  as  the  Holy  Scriptures ;  while  some,  like  Marsilius 
Ficinus,  even  wished  them  to  be  read  in  the  churches,  together  with 
the  Scriptures. 

Yet  Avorse  even  than  this  was  the  unworthy  warfare  waged  by 
these  worshippers  of  classic  antiquity  against  scholasticism.  They 
would  willingly  have  substituted  their  own  theological  works  —  bril- 
liant in  form,  but  for  the  most  part  worthless  and  insignificant  — 
in  the  place  of  the  profound  speculations  of  St.  Thomas  and  other 
scholastics  of  the  Middle  Ages,  which  they  designated  as  barbarous 
and  unfitted  for  the  age.'' 

1  Gaimie,  Le  ver  rongeur.  Many  Humanists  call  Christ  lleros  ;  the  Blessed 
Virgin  of  Loretto,  Dea  Lauretana,  Spes  Deoruni.  The  Sacred  College  they  name 
Patres  conscripti,  Latii  senatus  ;  the  priests,  Flamines  ;  the  bishops,  Archi-flamines. 
For  heaven  they  say  Olympus  ;  for  hell,  Erebus  ;  for  faith,  persuasio.  Bembo  de- 
scribes Christ  as  Minerva  e  Jovis  capite  orta;  the  Holy  Ghost  is  Aura  Zej^hyri  coelestis; 
and  so  on. 

2  The  Greek  Gemistius  Pletho  in  1440  founded  a  Platonic  Academy  in  Florence. 
The  most  prominent  Platonists  were  Marsilius  Ficinus  (-1-  1499),  who  kept  a  lamp 
burning  before  the  image  of  Plato  ;  John  Pico  of  Mirandola  ;  and  Angelus  Politianus, 
a  pupil  of  Ficinus.  See,  on  this  and  other  matters  of  science,  the  valuable  work  of 
Stock!,  History  of  the  Philosophy  of  the  Middle  Ages. 

3  Peter  Pomponatius,  professor  in  Padua  and  Bologna  (-f-  1526),  is  the  representa- 
tive of  the  new  disciples  of  Aristotle.  In  his  work  "  De  Immortalitate  "  he  contests 
the  immortality  of  the  soul.  He  also  attacks  the  doctrine  of  Providence,  and  denies 
the  existence  of  miracles.  To  excuse  this  contradiction  to  dogma,  he  maintained  that 
a  proposition  might  be  philosophically  false  and  theologically  true,  and  vice  versa. 
The  Lat.  V.  censured  these  views.     (Harcluin,  Acta  Cone.  ix.  1719.) 

*  Laurentms  Valla  (+  1456),  teacher  in  Naples  and  Rome,  wrote  some  short  and 


92  HISTORY  OF   THE    CATHOLIC   CHURCH. 

Humanism,  lauded  by  its  adherents  as  the  "golden  age,"  also  ex- 
ercised a  very  pernicious  influence  on  the  religious  life.  It  might 
be  true  that  many  Humanists  were  themselves  personally  religious 
men,  who  valued  their  linguistic  attainments  chiefly  for  their  use  in 
the  service  of  the  Church.  The  progress  of  the  vast  majorit}',  how- 
ever, was  to  religious  indift'erence  and  to  frivolity.  They  ridiculed 
and  derided  with  special  scorn  such  of  the  priests  and  monks  as 
withstood  their  heathenish  innovations.  Even  Erasmus  took  part  in 
these  polemics  by  his  "  Encomium  moriae ;  "  but  the  worst  that  was 
brought  forward  in  this  respect  were  the  "  Epistolae  obscurorum  viro- 
rum."  Not  a  few  of  the  Humanists  undermined  morality  by  their 
lascivious  writings,  and  not  infrequently  placed  themselves  in  a 
formal  opposition  to  the  Church.  This  is  distinctly  seen  in  the 
writings  of  the  infidel  and  immoral  Ulrich  von  Hutten.  Nicholas 
Machiavelli  of  Florence  (+1530),  a  Pagan  in  his  teachings  and 
morals,  reproduces  in  his  work  "  Del  Principe  "  the  faithless  policy 
of  ancient  Rome.  He  views  the  temporal  prince  as  the  source  of 
all  power,  and  proclaims  a  base  and  crafty  selfishness. 

Unhappily,  many  of  the  Coryphaei  (leaders)  of  Humanism  were 
destitute  of  every  noble  sentiment,  and  showed  themselves  as  men 
of  dubious  character,  who,  according  to  circumstances,  could  play 
the  part  of  servile  flatterers  or  of  shameless  calumniators,  but  who, 
alike  in  the  eulogies  they  bestow  and  in  the  invectives  they  pour 
forth,  are  equally  impudent  and  perverse. 

In  Germany  humanistic  studies  were  chiefly  pursued  at  the  University  of 
Erfurt.  Here  it  was  that  Maternus  Pistorius  taught,  —  "the  teacher  around 
whom  '  the  poets  '  ckistered."  Canou  Mutiau,  from  Gotha,  afterwards  under- 
took the  direction  of  tliese.  In  Coh)gne  and  Muuster  classic  literature  also  found 
friends.  Rudolph  Agricola  (1482)  taught  at  Heidelherg,  as  did  also  John 
Reuchlin  (+  1529),  a  great  proficient  in  the  Hebrew  language  (see  §  142),  who 
afterwards  became  professor  at  Ingolstadt ;  both  of  these  were  faithful  sons  of  the 
Church.  John  of  Dalberg,  Curator  of  the  University  of  Heidelberg,  and  subse- 
quently Bishop  of  Worms,  was  also  a  patron  of  the  humanities.  The  learned 
and  able  John  Trithemius  (+  1516)  prized  classical  studies,  without  losing  sight 
of  the  high  value  of  scholasticism.  But  the  most  celebrated  Humanist  of  his 
time  was  Desiderius  Erasmus  of  Rotterdam,  —  a  man  of  great  learning,  but  des- 
titute of  nobility  of  character,  and  of  uncertain  disposition.  He  was  first  the 
friend,  then  the  opponent,  of  Luther.     He  died  at  Basle  in  1536  (see  §§  161, 

superficial  remarks  on  the  original  text  of  the  Holy  Scriptures  and  a  treatise  on  Mo- 
rality, which  was  more  pagan  than  Christian.  The  dogmatic  of  Paul  Cortesius  is 
better.     {Tiraboschi,  vi.  1,  p.  98.) 


ATTEMPTS   TO  UNITE  THE  SCHISMATIC  CREEKS.      93 

166).  By  his  etUtiou  of  the  "  Fathers  (if  the  Church,"  he  (Hd  great  service  to 
patristic  literature.  (Op.  oinn.  eA.Beat.  Ehenan.  Basil.  1540  s»[.  ed.  Le  Clerc, 
Lugd.   1702  sqq.  10  vols,  fol.) 

Loyal  to  Catholic  principles  were  the  Spauiard  Louis  Vives  (+  1540)  aud 
the  Frenchman  William  Budaeus  (+  1542).  These  two,  with  Erasmus,  formed 
the  literary  triumvirate.  To  these  must  be  added  Fisher,  Bishop  of  Rochester ; 
John  Colet,  Dean  of  St.  Paul's,  London ;  Lilly,  professor  in  the  Cathedral 
School  of  St.  Paul's ;  and  the  statesman  Thomas  More. 


2.  Heresies  axu  Schisms. 

§  144.  Attempts  to  unite  the  Schismatic  Greeks.  —  The  Smaller 
Sects  of  the  East. 

The  attempts  at  reuniting  the  schismatic  Greeks,^  Avere  not  crowned 
with  enduring  success.  The  Council  of  Bari  (1098)  in  Lower  Italy 
brought  back  to  the  mother  Church  the  Greeks  living  there.  But 
neither  the  efforts  of  the  Archbishop  Chrysolanus  of  Milan,  who  was 
sent  to  Constantinople  by  Paschal  II.,  nor  the  colloquies  of  Bishop 
Anselm  of  Havelberg,  with  the  Archbishop  Nicetas  of  Nicomedia, 
nor  the  synod  held  in  Constantinople,  in  1166,  by  the  Patriarch 
Michael  Anchialus,  at  the  command  of  the  Emperor  Emmanuel 
Comnenus,  were  successful  in  influencing  this  haughty  and  schis- 
matic people  to  submit  to  the  Apostolic  See ;  for,  oppressed  as  they 
were  by  emperors  who  themselves  desired  to  impose  dogmas  on 
their  subjects,  they  had  lost  all  sense  of  what  constitutes  the  true 
religious  life.  Nor  did  the  Crusades  advance  the  work  of  union ; 
still  less,  the  establishment  of  the  Latin  Empire  in  Constantinople. 

The  colloquies  which  took  place  between  the  Patriarch  Germanus 
and  the  legates  of  Pope  Gregory  IX.^  served  only  to  bring  to  light 
the  deep  aversion  entertained  by  the  Greeks  to  any  measure  which 
would  bring  them  nearer  to  Rome. 

The  prospects  for  this  union  seemed  to  improve  after  the  down- 
fall of  the  Latin  Empire,  when  the  Greek  emperor,  Palseologus, 
desired  to  be  reconciled  to  Rome,  —  more,  however,  from  political 
than  from  religious  motives.  Yet  the  negotiations  with  Popes 
Urban  IV.  and  Clement  IV.  did  not  accomplish  their  purpose.     On 

1  See  §  101. 

2  Matthew.  Paris,  Hist.  Angl.  ann.  1237,  gives  the  letters  of  the  patriarch  to  the 
Pope  and  cardinals,  together  with  their  replies.  Cf.  Raynald,  Ad  ann.  1231,  n.  57  sqq. 
Harduin,  vii.  149  sqq.  For  the  transactions  which  treated  of  the  "  filioque  "  and 
the  "  Azyme,"  see  Raynald,  Ad  ann.  1233,  n.  5  sqq. 


94  HISTORY   OF   THE    CATHOLIC  CHURCH. 

the  other  hand,  the  desired  union  was  effected  at  the  Fourteenth 
(Ecumenical  Council  of  Lyons  (Lugd.  II.),  under  Pope  Gregory  X., 
1274,  in  forwarding  which  St.  Thomas  Aquinas  and  St.  Bonaventure, 
equally  with  the  learned  Grecian  Veccus,  were  particularly  instru- 
mental. Yet  the  schismatic  bishops  and  the  people,  who  had  been 
wrought  up  to  fanaticism  by  the  rough,  uncouth  monks,  were  so 
little  satisfied  that  under  the  reign  of  the  Emperor  Andronicus  II., 
the  son  and  successor  of  Michael,  the  union  which  had  been  con- 
cluded, together,  with  those  who  adhered  to  it  and  those  who  had 
brought  it  about,  were  anathematized. 

The  subsequent  negotiations  which  were  entered  into  from  fear 
of  the  Turks  led  to  no  better  result ;  because  the  Grecian  emperors 
were  more  intent  on  obtaining  assistance  from  the  West  against 
their  enemies  than  anxious  to  procure  the  termination  of  the  schism. 
Eor  this  reason  the  treaties  of  the  Emperor  Andronicus  III.  with  the 
Popes  John  XXII.  and  Benedict  XII. ,^  who  could  not  agree  to 
the  proposals  of  the  Grecian  monk  Barlaam,  and  those  of  the 
Emperor  John  V.  Palseologus,  with  Innocent  VI.  and  his  successors, 
had  to  be  again  given  up. 

At  length,  however,  the  moment  of  union  seemed  to  have  arrived. 
After  lengthy  discussions,  the  Emperor  John  VII.  Palseologus,  the 
Patriarch  Joseph  of  Constantinople,  and  many  illustrious  bishops 
of  the  East  appeared  personally  at  the  Council  of  Ferrara  (Florence), 
convoked  by  Pope  Eugene  IV. ;  and  after  long  and  tedious  debates, 
signed  the  document  of  the  union  on  the  6th  of  July,  1439.  Among 
those  who  took  part  in  these  momentous  debates  were  Cardinal  Julian 
Cesarini ;  Andrew,  Archbishop  of  Rhodes  ;  Louis,  Bishop  of  Forli, 
John  Turrecremata ;  the  Dominican  John  of  Ragusa ;  and  Ambrose 
Traversari,  Abbot  of  the  Camaldolites.  On  the  side  of  the  Greeks 
were  Bessarion,^  Archbishop  of  Xice ;  and  the  irreconcilable  foe  of 
the  union,  Marcus  Eugenicus,  Archbishop  of  Ephesus. 

1  .John  XXII.  in  1334  sent  two  bishops  to  Constantinople.  Kicephorus  Gregoras, 
the  Grecian  historian,  a  la3'nian,  on  whom  devolved  the  duty  of  conferring  with  the 
papal  legates,  because  the  clergy  were  for  the  most  part  too  ignorant,  evaded  every  dis- 
putation with  the  remark  that  syllogisms,  in  which  the  Latins  were  so  strong,  found 
no  place  in  the  teaching  regarding  the  Holy  Ghost.  Op.  ap.  Migne,  Patr.  graec.  torn, 
cxlviii.,  cxlix. 

-  Op.  ap.  MUjnc,  Patr.  graec.  torn.  clxi.  Bessarion,  from  the  year  1436  .Archbishop 
of  Nice,  was  at  first  opposed  to,  but  subsequently  in  favor  of,  the  union.  Isidore  of 
Kiew,  Metropolitan  of  Russia  (Mignc,  Patr.  graec.  toni.  clix. ),  also  labored  in  this 
cause.  Eugene  IV.  raised  both  prelates  to  the  cardinalate.  Bessarion  died  at  Eome 
in  1472. 


SMALLER   SECTS   OF   THE   EAST.  95 

The  majority  of  the  schismatics  refused  to  ratify  the  union ;  and 
even  as  early  as  the  year  1443,  the  Patriarchs  of  Alexandria,  Antioch, 
and  Jerusalem  anathematized  the  same. 

In  the  capital  city  itself  great  difficulties  were  experienced  in 
carrying  out  the  union.  The  new  patriarch  Metrophanes  of  Cyzicus 
(+  1443)  met  with  the  most  violent  opposition ;  and  his  successor, 
Gregorius  ^Mammas,  who  went  to  work  with  more  energy,  Avas  de- 
posed in  1450.  His  immediate  successors,  Arsenius  and  Gennadius, 
were  both  foes  to  the  union.  The  exertions  of  the  Emperor  Con- 
stantine  IX.  in  favor  of  the  union  were  useless.  Pope  Nicholas  V. 
sent  to  Constantinople  Isidore  the  Metropolitan  of  Kiew,  avIio  had 
been  banished  on  account  of  his  attachment  to  the  union.  The 
emi)eror  and  the  majority  of  the  clergy  accepted  the  union  ;  yet  the 
celebration  of  the  union  festival,  in  1452,  led  to  an  uproar  amoiig 
the  populace.  The  following  year  the  emperor  succumbed  to  the 
Sultan  ^Mahomet  II.,  who  conquered  Constantinople,  and  changed 
the  church  of  St.  Sophia  into  a  mosque.  With  this  the  last  hope 
of  union  vanished ;  and  in  the  vSynod  of  Constantinople,  1472,  under 
the  Patriarch  Symeon  of  Trebisond,  the  treaty  of  union  was  for- 
mally rejected. 

At  the  Council  of  Florence,  however,  a  union  with  the  schismatic 
Armenians  who,  under  Pope  Innocent  III.,  had  already  for  a  short 
time  returned  to  the  obedience  of  the  Apostolic  See,  was  effected. 
Being  invited  by  Eugene  IV.,  their  deputies  appeared  at  the  council, 
and  in  1440  renounced  their  errors.  They  adopted  the  Nicano- 
Constantinopolitan  Symbol  with  ''filioque,"  the  Synod  of  Chalce- 
don,  and  the  doctrine  of  the  two  natures,  as  also  that  of  the  two 
wills  and  two  modes  of  operation  in  Christ,  besides  the  seven  sacra- 
ments, the  Athanasian  Symbol,  the  Florentine  decree  of  union  with 
the  Greeks,  with  some  Latin  festival  days.  The  union,  however, 
was  violently  opposed  by  some,  and  only  a  part  of  the  Armenians 
accepted  it. 

This  example  was  followed  by  the  Jacobites  in  Egypt  (ninth  ses- 
sion, on  Feb.  4,  1442).  and  by  other  smaller  sects  of  the  East. 

Of  the  other  ancient  Oriental  sects,  the  jNIaronites  of  Mount  Leba- 
non had  returned  to  the  Church  as  early  as  the  year  1182.  The 
schismatic  Bulgarians  entered  into  a  temporary  communion  with 
the  Apostolic  See,  under  their  prince  Kalojohannes  in  1202,  at  the 
time  of  Innocent  III. 

Among  the  sects  of  the  Greek  Church,  besides  the  Paulicians  or 
Bogomiles,  whom  we  have  already  mentioned  (§  CO),  the  Hesychasts 


96  HISTORY   OF   THE    CATHOLIC    CHURCH. 

{■i](Tvxa(jTa[),  on  Mount  Atlios  in  Macedonia,  must  not  l)e  forgotten. 
Their  founder  was  the  Abbot  Symeou,  who  guided  the  monks  of  that 
place  to  a  false  quietism.  It  was  the  learned  abbot  Barlaam  who 
came  forward  as  the  chief  opponent  against  these  fanatics,  whom  he 
termed  Massalians,  Umbilicians,  Navel-souls  (dfxcfiaXoij/vxot).  Gregory 
Palamas,  afterwards  Archbishop  of  Thessalonica,  undertook  to  de- 
feud  them. 

The  Synod  of  Constantinople,  in  1341,  decided  against  Barlaam, 
who,  on  account  of  their  doctrine  concerning  the  "uncreated  liglit," 
had  accused  the  monks  of  believing  in  two  Gods,  — the  one  visible, 
the  other  invisible.  Two  other  synods  also  decided  in  favor  of  the 
Hesychasts  ;  and  they  found  a  special  protector  in  the  Emperor 
Kantakuzenus,  who  from  the  year  1355  lived  as  a  monk  on  Mount 
Athos. 


The  points  of  difference  which  were  discussed  at  Florence  principally  re- 
garded the  "filioque"  and  the  primacy,  together  with  the  doctrines  of  purga- 
tory, the  use  of  unleavened  bread  in  the  Eucharist,  and  the  special  invocation 
(cVt/cXr/cris')  of  the  Holy  Ghost  on  the  oblations  after  consecration. 

As  respects  the  "  Epiklesis,"  the  Greeks  declared  tliat  consecration  takes  place 
by  the  words  used  by  Christ,  and  that  the  "  Epiklesis,  "  lilve  to  the  "  Jube  haec 
perferri "  in  the  Latin  canon,  only  petitioned  '"that  the  Holy  Ghost  should 
descend  upon  us  and  in  us,  make  the  bread  into  the  precious  body  of  Christ 
.  .  .  that  it  may  be  to  the  recipient  for  the  purification  of  his  soul  and  the 
remission  of  liis  sins,  and  not  to  his  judgment  and  condemnation."  A  similar 
official  declaration  was  given  by  Bessari()n  on  the  5th  of  July,  in  the  name  of 
all  the  Greek  bishops.     (Hardmn,  ix.  403;  3Iansi,  xxxi.  1045.) 

The  question  of  the  "  Azyme"  was  disposed  of  by  the  declaration  of  the 
Greeks,  that  either  leavened  or  unleavened  bread  might  be  used  at  the  altar. 

As  respects  purgatory,  it  appeared  from  the  proceedings,  that  the  dift'erence 
did  not  consist  in  believing  in  the  existence  of  a  place  of  purification,  but  only 
appertained  to  the  kind  of  purification  and  the  manner  in  which  it  is  effected. 
(Harduin,  ix.  403.) 

The  discussions  on  the  addition  of  "  filioque  "  to  the  symbol  were  the  most 
vehement  of  all.  After  the  splendid  defence  of  this  addition  made  by  John  of 
Ragusa,  who  proved  its  correctness  from  the  Greek  Fathers,  especially  from 
St.  Basil  and  St.  John  Damascene,  and  by  Ambrose  Traversari,  the  Greeks 
finally  gave  up,  and  declared  that,  "as  the  Latin  Fathers  taught  that  the 
Holy  Ghost  proceeded  from  the  Father  and  the  Son  as  from  one  sole  principle 
and  by  one  spiration,  and  that  they  themselves  had  no  other  meaning  than 
that  of  those  Fathers  who  taught  that  the  Holy  Ghost  proceeds  from  the  Father 
through  the  Son,  therefore  all  obstacles  to  union  are  removed." 

The  prerogatives   of  the  Apostolic  See  were   also  acknowledged   by  the 


SMALLER    SECTS    OF    THE   EAST.  97 

Grci'lvs  ai'U'V  a  luug  disciissiuu  ;  but  this  was  done  witlioiit  iufringiug  on  the 
rights  of  the  Eastern  jiatriarchs.     (Hardtiin,  ix.  413.) 

The  decree  of  union  had  been  (hv.wn  up  by  Traversari,  and  after  some 
alterations  it  was  signed  by  the  Pope,  the  cardinals,  and  the  Western  bishops 
present ;  also  by  the  Greek  emperor  and  his  bishops,  with  the  exception  of 
Marcus  Eugenicus.  The  decisions  respecting  the  Primacy  run  thus:  "Item 
doiinimus  sanctam  Apostolicam  sedeui  et  Romanum  Pontiticem  in  universum 
orliciii  tenere  primatum  et  ipsum  Pontiticem  Romanum  successorem  esse  beati 
Pftri,  principis  Apostolorum  et  verum  Christi  vicarium  totiusque  ecclesiae 
ciiput  et  omnium  Christianorum  patrem  ac  doctorem  existere,  et  ipsi  in  beato 
Petro  pasceudi,  regendi  et  gubernandi  universalem  ecclesiam  a  Domino  nos- 
tro  Jesu  Christo  plenam  jxttestatem  traditam  esse :  quemadmodum  etiam  in 
gestis  o^cumenicorum  conciliorum  et  in  sacris  canonibus  continetur.  Renovan- 
tes  insuper  ordinem  tradituin  in  canonibus  ceteroruin  venerabilium  patriar- 
charum ;  ut  patriarcha  Constantiuopolitanus  secundus  sit  post  sanctissimum 
Romanum  Pontificem.  tertius  vero  Alexandrinus,  quartus  autem  Autiochenus 
et  quintus  Hierosolymitanus,  salvis  videlicet  privilegiis  omnibus  et  juribus 
eorum."' 

The  assertion  made  by  the  Galileans,  especially  by  De  Marca  (Concord, 
sacerd.  et  imper.  iii.  c.  8.  n.  5),  and  in  more  modern  times  repeated  by  Dbl- 
linger  and  others,  ^  that,  instead  of  "  quemadmodum  e<iam"  should  be  read 
"quemadmodum  et  .  .  .  et,"  —  is  dispn)ved  by  the  original  documents  and 
by  the  copies  of  the  decree  of  union,  which  have  "quemadmodum  etiam." 
The  Civ.  Cattolica,  Quad.  478,  ser.  7,  vol.  9,  with  additions  of  the  fac-simile 
of  the  codices  of  Florence  and  the  codex  of  the  Vatican.  The  original  codex 
extant  in  the  public  archives  at  Carlsruhe  has  etiam.  The  same  text  is  con- 
tained in  the  copies  in  the  various  libraries  of  Italy.  See  "'  Criticism  of  the 
Florentine  Decree  of  Union"  (Leips.  1870),  by  Theodore  Frommann,  a  Prot- 
estant scholar.  When  the  opponents  appeal  to  Flavins  Bhradus  (Biondi), 
the  secretary  of  Eugene  IV.,  in  whose  historical  work  et  stands  instead  of 
etiam  (lib.  10,  decad.  3),  this  can  prctve  nothing  when  brought  in  contact 
with  the  original  document;  the  reading  et  being  probably  a  mistake  of  the 
copyist. 

The  other  assertion  of  Ddllinger,  that  it  should  be  *'juxta  eum  modum," 
instead  of  "  quemadmodum,"  according  to  the  Greek  text  Kad'  ov  Tporrov,  is 
erroneous,  since  the  Latin  text  is  by  no  means  a  translation  from  the  Greek, 
but  is  the  text  agreed  upon  between  the  Greeks  and  Latins. 

Finally,  the  words  T6i>  'PcofxaiKov  ap^upea  fls  nncrav  ttjv  oiKovpfvrjv  to  TrpaTflov 
KUTtx^iv,  which  are  wanting  in  some  codices,  are  not  a  forgery,  but  are  found  in 
the  first  original  (the  Florentine  Codex  A)  and  in  most  manuscripts. 

Against  the  one-sided  representations  of  the  Florentine  proceedings  made  by 
Syropulus,  see  Leon  Allatii,  in  R.  Creyghton.  appar.  version,  et  notas  ad  hist, 
cone.  Florent.  script,  a  Sylv.  Syropul.  exercitationum,  P.  I.,  Rom.  1660. 


98  HISTORY  OF   THE    CATHOLIC   CHURCH. 


§  145.    The  Smaller  Sects  of  the    West. 

Among  the  less  important  leaders  of  the  sects  that  arose  at  this 
epoch  may  be  numbered  Arnold  of  Brescia,  the  demagogue,  whom 
we  have  already  mentioned,  —  he  fell  into  several  errors  of  faith  ;  — 
the  two  fanatics,  Tanchelm  (1115-1124),  who  carried  on  his  disorders 
first  in  Utrecht  and  subsequently  in  Antwerp,  where  he  was  success- 
fully opposed  by  St.  ]S[orbert;  and  Eudo  da  Stella  (Eon),  who  trav- 
elled through  Brittany  and  Gascony,  until  he  was  at  last  imprisoned, 
in  1148,  at  the  command  of  the  Council  of  Rheims. 

Peter  of  Bruys  (1104-1124),  the  impetuous  zealot  for  the  restora- 
tion of  Church  discipline,  founder  of  the  Petrobriisians,  fell  into  the 
error  of  rejecting  infant  baptism  and  the  holy  sacrifice  of  the  Mass  ; 
he  ordered  churches  and  altars  to  be  destroyed,  crucifixes  and  the 
like  to  be  burnt ;  and  at  St.  Gilles  he  publicly  ridiculed  the  com- 
mandment of  the  Church  to  abstain  and  fast  on  Good  Friday.  The 
infuriated  people  threw  him  into  the  flames  of  the  funeral  pile  he 
had  himself  erected. 

After  this,  Henry  of  Lausanne  placed  himself  at  the  head  of  a 
party  called  Henricians.  He  came  upon  the  scene  as  a  preacher  of 
penance,  and  was  at  first  received  in  a  friendly  manner  bj^  Bishop 
Hildebert  of  Le  Mans,  but  in  a  short  time  was  expelled  because  he 
enticed  his  hearers  to  the  performance  of  senseless  acts.  On  this 
he  joined  the  Petrobrusians,  to  whose  errors  he  added  others.  This 
induced  the  Bishop  of  Aries  to  bring  the  matter  before  the  Council 
of  Pisa,  in  1135,  as  heresy.  Henry  promised  to  amend,  but  did  not 
perform  his  promise,  on  Avhich  account  he  was  arrested  by  order  of 
the  Archbishop  of  Toulouse,  and  kept  in  prison  until  his  death  in 
1149.  His  errors  were  controverted  by  St.  Bernard  and  by  the 
cardinal  legate  Alberich. 

The  Apostolic  Brethren,  founded  in  1260  by  the  enthusiast  Ge- 
rard Segarelli  of  Parma,  Avas  professedly  intended  to  restore 
apostolical  simplicity  to  the  Church.  It  was  suppressed  by  Hono- 
rius  IV.  on  account  of  the  heretical  doctrines  put  forth  by  the 
members  of  this  association;  and  again  by  Nicholas  IV.,  in  1290, 
it  was  denounced  as  heretical.  Gerard  refused  submission  to  the 
papal  decision,  on  which  account  he  was  punished  as  an  obstinate 
heretic  (1300).  Then  Era  Dolcino  of  Milan  took  the  lead  among 
these  fanatics,  and  excited  them  to  so  great  a  degree  that  they  bar- 
ricaded themselves  at  Kovara  and  then  at  Vercelli  in  such  a  way 


THE   CATHARI.  99 

as  to  render  it  necessary  to  proceed  against  them  by  an  armed 
force  (1307;.  Dolcino  and  his  spiritual  sister  Margareta  were  put 
to  deatli. 

The  doctrine  of  the  Brethren  and  Sisters  of  the  Free  Spirit 
(Suestriones),  who  committed  acts  of  the  coarsest  licentiousness, 
was  practically  pantheistic ;  under  different  names  this  sect  sus- 
tained itself  to  the  fourteenth  century. 

Amaleric  of  Chartres  (Bena),  professor  at  Paris,  also  dissemi- 
nated pantheistic  views ;  his  disciples,  William  of  Paris  (the  gold- 
smith) and  David  of  Dinanto,  even  maintained  (1204)  that  God  was 
the  essential  matter  ("  esse  materiale ")  of  all  things,  and  they 
denied  that  any  difference  existed  between  virtue  and  vice. 

The  followers  of  Wilhelmina  of  Bohemia,  who  is  said  to  have 
given  herself  out  as  an  incarnation  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  and  who 
died  in  Milan  in  1282,  also  committed  great  excesses,  which  called 
forth  the  energetic  opposition  of  the  superiors  of  the  Church. 

The  Stedingers  of  Friesland  revolted  against  the  Archbishop  of 
Bremen  (1187),  refused  to  pay  tithes,  despised  the  doctrine  of  the 
Church,  and  murdered  the  priests.  In  the  year  1234  a  crusade  was 
inaugurated  against  them.  A  number  of  them  became  reconciled 
to  the  Church.  The  Passagians  (from  "  passagium,"  pilgrimage  ?), 
who  were  inclined  to  Judaism,  also  belonged  to  the  heretical  anti- 
ecclesiastical  party  of  this  time. 

§  146.     Tlie  Catliari  (^Albigenses  and  Waldenses). 

That  family  of  the  sects  of  the  Middle  Ages  which  bore  the  name 
of  Cathari  ^  (KaOapoC)  was  characterized  by  an  opposition  against  the 
Church  combined  with  gnostic  errors.  Under  the  specious  pretext 
of  wishing  to  restore  Christianity  to  its  original  form,  they  made 
war  against  the  Church,  which,  according  to  them,  was  disfigured 
by  riches. 

The  opinio:!  that  these  destructive  sects  took  their  rise  from  an 
antipathy  conceived  by  some  Grseco-slavic  monks  against  some  Latin 
mqde  of  worship  which  had  been  imposed  upon  them,  is  not  correct. 
The  case  is  contrariwise  ;  these  se'-ts  originated  from  a  union  of 
the  gnostic  sects  of  the  East,  the  so-called  Paulicians  or  Bogomiles, 
with  some  unquiet  spirits  who  had  been  scandalized  at  a  rich  and 
powerful  Church.  This  assertion  is  not  only  supported  by  exterior 
reasons,  but  also  by  the  peculiar  doctrines  and  regulations  of  these 

1  Schmidt,  Hist,  et  doctrine  des  C'athares  ou  Albigeois.    2  vols.     Paris,  1849. 


100  HISTORY  OF   THE   CATHOLIC   CHURCH. 

sects,  which  so  greatly  contradict  Christian  teaching  in  every  point 
as  to  make  it  scarcely  possible  to  consider  them  Christian  at  all. 

The  doctrine  of  the  Cathari  is  Dualism.  They  rejected  the  princi- 
pal dogmas  of  Christianity,  —  the  most  holy  Trinity,  the  creation, 
original  sin,  the  incarnation  and  redemption.  They  looked  on  souls 
as  fallen  spirits  ;  and  the  resurrection  was  to  them  the  reunion 
with  its  heavenly  body,  of  the  soul,  now  imprisoned  in  an  earthly 
body. 

The  Cathari  rejected  the  holy  sacraments,  together  with  the 
dogmas  of  the  Church.  Only  by  name  they  retained  the  Last 
Supper  (blessed  bread)  and  confession  ("  Servitium,  appareillamen- 
tum  ").  Instead  of  baptism  by  water,  they  had  what  they  called 
the  baptism  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  or  the  Consolanientum  (consolation), 
which,  according  to  their  doctrine,  frees  the  receiver  from  all  sin 
without  any  kind  of  contrition.  Most  of  the  Cathari  put  off  receiv- 
ing the  Consolanientum  till  their  life  drew  to  its  close.  In  case 
the  receiver  fell  back  into  sin,  —  as,  for  example,  ate  meat,  —  he 
must  again  have  recourse  to  this  (reconsolation).  To  avert  this 
danger,  the  "consoled"  ("  consolati  ")  frequentl}-  had  recourse  to 
the  "  Endura,"  —  a  process  by  which,  through  starvation,  bleeding, 
poison,  or  other  means,  they  put  an  end  to  their  lives. 

Moreover,  all  the  Cathari  were  opposed  to  the  ecclesiastical  hi- 
erarchy, to  the  veneration  of  pictures  and  of  saints,  to  pilgrimages, 
etc.  On  the  other  hand,  they  had  a  hierarchy  of  their  own,  an  eso- 
teric and  exoteric  doctrine  ;  and  they  were,  divided  into  two  classes, 
the  perfect  and  the  believing  ("  perfecti  et  credentes  "),  being  in 
this  like  the  old  Manichaeans,  to  whose  doctrine  their  system  of 
morals  had  great  resemblance. 

Like  them,  the}'  forbade  every  touch  of  matter,  rejected  matri- 
mony, prohibited  the  use  of  flesh,  the  killing  of  animals,  all  inter- 
course with  worldly-minded  people,  and  all  warfare,  while  they  kept 
strict  fasts.  But  all  this  was  only  for  the  perfect ;  the  imperfect 
had  a»  more  extended  license,  —  they  might  eat  meat,  perform  mili- 
tary service,  contract  marriage,  etc.  According  to  the  testimony  of 
Rainer  Sachoni,  —  who  for  sixteen  years  was  bishop  of  this  sect, 
but  subsequently  became  a  convert  and  an  inquisitor,  —  many  of 
the  Cathari  practised  the  most  filthy  impurities,  and  taught  that 
sin  was  not  thereby  committed. 

In  order  to  diffuse  their  errors,  the  leaders  of  this  sect  made  use 
of  every  means  at  their  disposal.  They  found  friends  and  adherents 
alike  among  the  laity  and  the  clergy,  especially  in  southern  France, 


THE  CAT  HA  HI.  101 

where  a  variety  of  causes  contributed  to  facilitate  the  propagation 
of  this  heresy. 

The  Cathari,  who  received  the  name  of  Albigenses  from  the  city 
Albi,  or  Albigua,  found  powerful  protectors  in  many  French  counts, 
—  chiefly,  Raymond  VI.  of  Toulouse,  and  the  Viscount  Roger  II.  of 
IJeziers,  —  and  soon  became  so  dangerous  to  Church  and  State  that 
Pope  Innocent  III.  was  fully  justified  in  saying,  "  The  Albigenses 
are  worse  than  the  Saracens." 

To  put  a  stop  to  their  devastations,  the  Church  made  use  of 
various  means.  Synods  repeatedly  opposed  them  by  severe  edicts ; 
and  ecclesiastical  superiors  set  missions  on  foot  for  the  conversion  of 
the  seduced  people.  Nevertheless,  the  heresy  continued  to  enlarge 
its  boundaries. 

The  legates  Rainer  and  Guido  were  sent  by  Innocent  III.  to  the 
south  of  France,  where  also  St.  Dominic  began  his  missionary 
labors.  They  were  succeeded  by  Raoul  and  Peter  of  Castelnau, 
two  Cistercian  monks.  The  latter  pronounced  excommunication  on 
Raymond  VI.,  who,  contrary  to  his  promise,  favored  the  heretics. 
Soon  afterwards  the  legate  was  assassinated  (1208). 

Innocent  III.  then  had  recourse  to  the  king  and  barons  of  France 
to  put  an  end  to  such  disorderly  proceedings,  and  commissioned  the 
Abbot  Arnold  of  Citeaux  to  preach  a  crusade,  the  necessity  of  which 
Count  Raymond  V.  of  Toulouse  had  already  pointed  out.  A  con- 
siderable army  of  Crusaders  was  soon  in  array,  under  the  conduct 
of  the  brave  Simon,  Count  of  Montfort,  to  wage  war  with  the  prin- 
cipal protectors  of  the  heretics,  Raymond  VI.  of  Toulouse,  and 
Roger  II.  of  Beziers.  The  former  sought  to  avert  the  impending 
danger  by  petitioning  for  absolution  from  the  excommunication. 
This  was  granted  to  him  after  he  had  promised,  on  oath  at  St.  Gilles, 
to  comply  with  the  demands  of  the  papal  legate  IVIilo. 

Roger,  on  the  contrary,  who  remained  obstinate,  was  defeated 
by  the  Crusaders;  and  the  conquered  domain  of  the  viscount  was 
surrendered  as  a  fief  to  their  leader,  Simon  de  Montfort. 

After  this,  Raymond  VI.,  who  to  save  appearances  had  also 
assumed  the  cross,  received  the  command  to  expel  the  Cathari  from 
his  dominions ;  but  this  he  refused  to  do,  on  which  account  he  was 
excommunicated  by  the  papal  legate.  On  this,  the  Count  betook 
himself  to  Innocent  III.,  who  received  him  very  kindly,  and  at  his 
request  released  him  from  the  ban.  But  on  his  return  from  Rome 
he  resumed  his  ambiguous  position,  rejected  the  demands  which 
were   placed   before   him    at    Aries   by  the   papal    legate   Magister 


102  HISTORY  OF   THE   CATHOLIC   CHURCH. 

Theodosius,  and  secretly  assisted  the  Cathari  who  were  besieged  in 
Lavaur.  This  resulted  in  a  combat  between  him  and  the  Crusaders. 
At  first  the  latter  were  not  successful.  The  siege  of  Toulouse  had 
to  be  given  up,  and  Simon  was  reduced  to  great  distress  because 
Peter  of  Aragon  came  to  the  assistance  of  Count  Raymond.  But 
at  length  the  Crusaders  were  the  conquerors.  Peter  fell  in  battle, 
near  Muret,  1213,  and  Simon  came  into  possession  of  the  whole 
country. 

Innocent  III.  would  willingly  have  preserved  the  paternal  inheri- 
tance for  the  young  count  Raymond  VII.,  but  the  King  of  France 
and  the  Fourth  Council  of  the  Lateran  (convened  in  1215)  adjudged 
the  territory  to  the  victor,  Simon  de  Montfort,  as  the  lawful  lord. 
His  son  Amaleric,  however,  ceded  .it  to  King  Louis  VIII. ;  and 
Louis  IX.,  at  the  intercession  of  Pope  Gregory  IX.,  finally  restored 
it  to  Count  Raymond  VII.  as  the  patrimony  of  his  father. 

The  sect  called  the  Poor  of  Lyons,  or  the  Leonists,  is  of  less  impor- 
tance. It  arose  neither  in  the  time  of  Pope  Sylvester  I.,  nor  had  it 
for  its  founder  either  Claudius  of  Turin  or  Agobard  of  Lyons  ;  it 
dates  from  the  twelfth  century.  The  spiritual  father  of  this  sect 
is  Peter  Waldus,  a  rich  merchant  of  Lyons  ;  and  from  him  its  adhe- 
rents are  called  Waldenses.  Terrified  by  the  sudden  death  of  a 
friend,  Waldus  renounced  the  pleasures  of  the  world,  and  made  the 
study  of  the  Scriptures  (which  he  caused  to  be  translated  by  two 
clergymen)  his  principal  occupation.  Subsequently  he  with  some 
companions  started  forth  as  preachers  of  penance.  The  Archbishop 
of  Lyons  forbade  their  preaching.  The  new  preachers  of  penance 
appealed  to  Pope  Alexander  III.,  but  were  not  listened  to ;  neither 
did  they  obtain  a  hearing  from  his  successor  Lucius  III.,  who  even 
excommunicated  them  as  heretics  in  1184.  After  their  attempts 
with  Innocent  III.  in  1212  had  also  failed,  the  Waldenses  organized 
themselves  into  a  sect,  and  to  their  former  errors  added  others  that 
were  new  ;  ^  that  is,  they  adopted  many  errors  of  the  Cathari,  with 

1  Pseudo-Kein.  contr.  Waldenses,  c.  5  (Grdscr,  xii.  pp.  2,  28).  The  Wal- 
denses principally  attacked  the  Church  as  having  from  the  time  of  Pope  Sylvester  I. 
departed  from  apostolic  maxims,  and  declared  the  Pope  to  be  the  head  of  all  errors. 
They  also  abused  the  clergy.  Their  sole  source  of  faith  was  the  Scriptures.  The  sec- 
tarians were  divided  in  their  views  on  baptism  and  the  Eucharist.  They  rejected 
the  sacrifice  of  the  Mass,  and  made  the  validity  of  the  sacraments  depend  on  the 
worthiness  of  the  dispenser.  They  rejected  the  sacraments  of  extreme  unction  and  of 
matrimony,  as  also  the  ecclesiastical  ceremonies,  pilgrimages,  purgatory,  prayer  for 
the  dead,  and  only  acknowledged  three  hierarchical  degrees,  —  the  episcopate,  the 
presbytery,  and  the  diaconate.     Denzinger,   Eiichir.   p.   l.'>9. 


ECCLESIASTICAL   AND    SPANISH    I XllC ISITION.        103 

\vhoni  they  now  united.  By  their  affectation  of  piety,  their  attacks 
on  the  clergy,  and  other  means  of  a  like  description,  these  sectarians 
found  followers,  who  Avere  united  not  so  much  by  their  agreement 
in  doctrine  as  by  their  hatred  to  the  Church.  The  sect  spread  in 
southern  France,  particularly  in  Provence  and  in  Dauphine ;  it 
made  its  way  also  into  Lombardy  in  the  valley  of  the  Cottian 
Alps  ;  it  also  sought  to  obtain  followers  in  Germany.  In  order  to 
escape  persecution,  they  outwardly  conformed  to  Catholic  usages, 
frequented  the  churches,  and  even  received  the  Holy  Eucharist. 
In  consequence  of  their  uniting  with  the  Hussites,  they  adopted 
many  of  the  errors  of  these  latter.  In  the  sixteenth  century  they 
joined  the  Protestants,  whose  system  of  teaching  they  then  made 
their  own.  As  such,  they  still  exist  in  Piedmont.  In  the  seven- 
teenth century  their  writings  were  greatly  interpolated,  in  order  to 
give  them  the  appearance  of  being  forerunners  of  Luther. 

§  147.  Ecclesiastical  and  Spanish  Liquisition. 

The  Christian  State  could  not  be  indifferent  to  the  admixture 
of  error  with  the  divine  revelation.  Necessarily  it  was  compelled 
to  consider  every  attempt  of  this  nature  as  an  attack  on  the 
highest  good  possessed  by  the  human  race,  and  one  which  called 
for  repression.^ 

Starting  from  this  principle,  which  in  itself  is  correct,  the  Chris- 
tian Roman  Emperor  declared  heresy  to  be  also  a  crime  against  the 
State,  and  threatened  obstinate  defenders  of  the  heresies  condemned 
by  the  Church  with  such  punishments  as  imprisonment,  banishment, 
confiscation  of  property,  and  in  some  cases  even  with  death.  This 
view  was  predominant  in  the  jVIiddle  Ages,  and  found  expression  in 
the  laws  of  the  empire,  which  inflicted  special  punishments  on 
obstinate  heretics.  The  amount  of  punishment  was  determined,  (1) 
By  the  heinousness  of  the  doctrine  and  morality  taught  by  the 
sectaries  ;  and  (2)  By  the  character  of  the  legislation  itself.  From 
the  time  of  the  Emperor  Frederic  II.  death  by  fire  was  the  usual 
punishment  of  heresy.  This  punishment,  which  at  that  time  was 
blamed  by  some  and  defended  ^  by  others,  had  its  origin  principally 

1  See  §  48,  Cod.  Theod.  xvi.  5,  40  :  "Voluinus  esse  publicum  crimen  [scl.  haeresis 
Mauicb.  et  Priscill.],  quia,  quod  in  religione  divina  committitur,  in  omnium  fertur 
injuriaiii."     This  was  so  ordained  hy  Theod.  II.  in  the  year  407. 

^  Thorn.  Aquin.  II.  ii.  qu.  11,  art.  3.  "  Haeretici  possunt  uon  solum  excommu- 
nicari,  sed  et  juste  occidi." 


104  HISTORY   OF   THE  CATHOLIC   CHURCH. 

in  the  danger  to  Churcli  and  State,  essentially  inherent  in  the  heret- 
ical maxims  of  the  sects  of  the  Middle  Ages.^ 

The  decision  as  to  whether  any  particular  person  was  to  be  con- 
sidered as  an  obstinate  heretic  was  left  to  ecclesiastical  superiors, 
and  belonged,  of  its  own  nature,  to  the  bishops  whose  special  sphere 
of  business  it  was  to  guard  the  purity  of  faith  in  their  diocese. 

As,  however,  in  the  regions  of  the  south  of  France,  of  Upper  Italy, 
etc.,  in  which  such  dangerous  heresies  had  been  so  secretly  spread 
that  ordinary  means  and  ordinary  measures  did  not  suffice  to  check 
their  destructive  progress,  Pope  Lucius  III.  (after  the  Third  Lat- 
eran  Council,  c.  27),  at  the  Council  of  Verona,  1184,  issued  strict 
ordinances  against  the  heretics  and  those  who  favored  them,  and 
at  the  same  time  commanded  the  bishops  to  visit  their  dioceses 
either  personally  or  by  substitute  for  the  purpose  of  judicial  inspec- 
tion. These  ordinances  were  repeated  and  rendered  more  severe 
by  Pope  Innocent  III.,  especially  at  the  Fourth  Lateran  Council, 
1215.  Yet  even  at  this  time  it  was  not  precisely  a  tribunal  of  the 
Inquisition  that  was  established. 

It  was  not  till  the  war  with  the  Albigenses  was  at  an  end 
that  the  ecclesiastical  Inquisition  was  established  by  the  Council 
of  Toulouse  (1229),  which  in  canons  1-3  decreed  that  the  bishops 
should  authorize  a  clergyman  and  some  laymen  in  every  parish 
to  watch  over  the  parishioners  and  to  denounce  those  suspected  of 
heresy. 

P>efore  the  time  of  Innocent  IV.  Dominican  monks  had  been  em- 
ployed as  inquisitors  in  particular  oases  ;  but  it  was  this  Pope  who 
first  specially  intrusted  them  with  this  business,  without,  however, 
interfering  with  the  rights  of  the  bishops. 

The  duties  of  the  office  of  inquisitor,  which  were  equally  burden- 
some and  dangerous,  consisted,  (1)  In  examining  whether  any  per- 

1  Of.  Lat.  iii.  c.  26  :  "Licet  ecclesia.stica  disciplina,  sacerdotal!  contenta  judicio, 
cnientas  non  efficiat  ultiones  :  catholicorum  tamen  princii^uni  coiistitutionibus  adju- 
vatur,  ut  saepe  quaerant  homines  salutare  I'emedium,  dum  corporale  super  se  metimnt 
evenire  suppliciuin.  Ea  propter  quia  in  Gasconia,  Albegisio,  et  partibus  Tolosanis 
et  aliis  locis,  ita  haereticorum,  quos  alii  Catharos,  alii  Patrinos,  alii  Publicanos, 
alii  aliis  nominibus  vocant,  invaluit  damnata  perversitas,  ut  jam  non  in  occulto, 
sicut  aliqui,  ne(piitiam  suam  exej'ceant,  sed  suiim  errorem  publice  inanifestent  et 
ad  suum  consensum  simplices  attraliant  et  infirmos  :  eos  et  defensores  eorum  et 
receptores,  anathemati  deceniimus  subjacere,"  etc.  Of  the  devastations  caused  by 
other  heretics,  the  same  canon  says  :  "Tantam  immanitatem  exercent,  ut  nee  eccle- 
siis  nee  monasteriis  deferant,  non  viduis  et  pupillis,  non  senibus  et  jiueris  nee  cuilibet 
parcant  aetati  aut  sexui  sed  modo  paganorum  omnia  perdant  et  vastent." 


ECCLESIASTICAL    AND   SPAXISII    IX(2UISIT[0X.       105 

son  were  a  heretic  or  not;  (2)  In  reconciling  those  convicted  of 
heresy  to  the  Church ;  (3)  In  delivering  up  obstinate  heretics  to  the 
secular  power,  which  pronounced  the  sentence  against  the  criminal 
and  also  executed  it. 

As  in  the  Middle  Ages  heresy  was  considered  a  more  grievous 
crime  than  high-treason  itself,  the  same  sentence  decreed  for  those 
convicted  of  high-treason  fell  upon  those  convicted  of  heresy.  This 
explains  many  customs  ^  of  inquisitorial  proceedings  which  were  by 
no  means  conducted  in  a  cruel  or  arbitrary  manner.  At  the  worst, 
the  reproach  of  cruelty  applies  rather  to  some  individual  inquisitors 
than  to  the  Inquisition  itself,  by  the  institution  of  which  the  number 
of  victims  was  lessened,  not  enlarged.  Besides  which,  the  condemned 
had  always  the  resource  of  appealing  to  the  apostolic  chair,  which 
not  only  pow^erfully  protected  the  innocent,  but  kept  a  watchful 
eye  over  the  judicial  proceedings  of  the  inquisitors,  and  was  ever 
anxious  to  temper  their  judgments  by  recommending  milder 
measures. 

The  Ecclesiastical  Inquisition  is  to  be  distinguished  from  the 
Spanish  Inquisition,-  first  appointed  by  Ferdinand  the  Catholic  and 
Isabella  for  Castile  and  afterwards  extended  to  Aragon.  This, 
although  it  may  not  be  considered  as  a  mere  State  institution,  was 
yet  dependent  on  the  temporal  rulers  ;  its  object  was  to  break  the 
might  of  the  higher  aristocracy  and  at  the  same  time  to  detect  and 
punish  those  who  used  the  pretence  of  being  converted  as  a  mask, 
whether  Jews  (Maranos)  or  Mahometans  (Moriscoes).  The  first 
tribunal  was  erected  in  1481  at  Seville.  How  little  the  apostolic 
chair  approved  of  this  institution  of  the  State  is  seen  by  the  letter 
of  Sixtus  IV.  of  Aug.  2,  1483. 

Ferdinand  would  not  be  dissuaded  from  his  purpose.  He  ap- 
pointed the  Dominican  Torquemada  as  Grand  Inquisitor  of  Castile, 
and  afterwards  of  Aragon,  to  which  finally  the  Pope  consented ; 

1  Cf.  Xic.  Eymerici,  Directorium  inquisitorum  cum  comment.  F.  Pegna,  Rom. 
1578.  As  in  the  case  of  high-treason,  eveiy  citizen,  even  one  without  honor,  or  who 
had  been  guilty  of  the  same  crime,  was  bound  to  denounce  heresy.  The  names  of 
the  witnesses  were  kept  secret.  But  the  accused  might  name  his  enemies,  who  were 
then  excluded  from  giving  testimony.  The  rack  and  tortures  were  used  not  only  in  the 
case  of  high-treason  and  of  heresy,  hut  for  other  crimes  also.  Confiscation  of  property 
was  also  the  punishment  of  treason  ;  many  laws  were  passed  respecting  the  disposition 
of  property  that  had  been  confiscated.     See  Hcrqcnrothcr,  p.  587. 

^  Lloraitc,  Hist,  critique  de  I'lnquisition  d'Espagne.  Paris,  1817.  4  vols.  See 
p.  520,  n.  1,  De  Maistre,  Lettres  a  un  gentilhomme  Russe  sur  I'lnquisition  Espagnole. 
1839. 


106  HISTORY   OF   THE    CATHOLIC   CHURCH. 

whereupon  Torquemada  erected  four  tribunals  of  inquisition  —  at 
Seville,  Cordova,  Jaen,  and  Villa  Real  (subsequently  transferred  to 
Toledo)  —  and  sketched  the  statutes  for  the  inquisitors,  who  were 
all  appointed  by  the  king.  By  a  bull  of  February,  1485,  Innocent 
VIII.  confirmed  the  approbation  already  given  by  his  predecessor. 

The  banishment  decreed  by  Ferdinand  in  1492  of  all  the  Jews 
and  Moors  who  refused  to  receive  baptism,  brought  a  number  of 
sham  Christians  into  the  Church,  and  extended  the  sphere  of  action 
for  the  Inquisition.  During  the  reign  of  Philip  II.  this  institution 
prevented  Protestantism  from  being  smuggled  into  the  kingdom ; 
and  during  the  reign  of  the  Bou.rbons  it  was  its  mission  to  punish 
gross  crimes  against  morality,  to  prevent  the  importation  of  infidel 
writings  into  Spain,  and  to  confirm  royal  absolutism.  Joseph  Bona- 
parte abolished  the  Inquisition.  Ferdinand  VII.  re-established  it 
in  1814 ;  but  the  revolutionary  Cortes  in  1820  renewed  the  sup- 
pression of  its  office  and  its  power. 

The  accusations  which  the  notorious  Lhrente  brings  against  the 
Spanish  Inquisition  lose  their  force  when  the  character  and  conduct 
of  this  man  are  brought  under  inspection.  The  assertions  made  by 
some  learned  men,  that  this  institution  was  unpopular,  and  that  it 
had  caused  the  ruin  of  knowledge  and  science  in  Spain,  are  in  plain 
contradiction  to  history.  According  to  Balmez,  in  introducing  the 
Inquisition,  the  Catholic  rulers  acted  in  accordance  with  the  wishes 
of  the  people,  but  against  those  of  the  nobility  and  of  the  higher 
clergy.  How  little  learning  and  knowledge  were  checked  may  be 
ascertained  from  the  fact  that  the  most  flourishing  era  for  Spanish 
literature  falls  precisely  in  the  time  of  the  Spanish  Inquisition; 
while,  on  the  other  hand,  the  dominion  of  liberalism  in  Spain  was 
very  unfruitful  in  literary  or  scientific  productions. 

Again,  the  reproaches  made  respecting  the  regulations  and  the 
judicial  proceedings  of  the  Inquisition  are  either  unfounded  or  exag- 
gerated. The  mode  of  carrying  on  the  prosecution  in  the  Inquisi-- 
tion  was  milder  and  more  circumspect  than  that  pursued  in  other 
courts  of  justice.  The  prisons  were  more  cheerful  than  those  in 
other  countries ;  the  rack  might  be  used  only  once,  while  in  the 
usual  courts  of  justice  this  torture  was  repeated.  The  number  of 
those  who  suffered  is,  on  examination,  proved  to  be  greatly  reduced 
from  the  usual  amount  given. 

The  "  San  benito  "  ("  Saccus  benedictus  ")  corresponds  to  the  gar- 
ment of  penance  in  use  there  and  elsewhere.  The  Autos-da-fe 
("  Actus   fidei '')  were   not   awful   scenes  of   horror.      They   often 


JOHN   WYCLIFFE   AND  HIS   HERESY.  107 

resulted  in  the  innocent  being  set  free,  and  in  a  penance  being 
laid  on  the  repentant  sinner ;  they  were  rather  acts  of  mercy  than 
of  cruelty. 

It  is  equally  unlawful  and  uufair  to  judge  either  the  Ecclesiastical  or  the 
Spanish  Inquisition  according  to  the  standard  of  our  own  century.  The  duty 
of  tlie  secular  power  to  punish  hei-etics  was  still  recognized  in  the  sixteenth 
century,  alike  hy  Catholics  and  Protestants. 

On  the  '27th  of  Octoher,  1553,  Calvin  liad  the  Spanish  physician  Michael 
Servetus  burnt  as  a  heretic;  and  to  justify  himself,  wrote  a  treatise  in  which 
he  pnjves  "jure  gladii  coercendos  esse  haereticos."  Melauchthon  praises  him 
for  this  execution,  and  writes  to  the  Genevan  reformer:  "Tuo  judicio  prorsus 
assentior.  Affirmo  etiam,  vestros  magistratus  juste  fecisse,  quod  hominem 
hiasphemum,  re  ordine  judicata,  interfecerunt "  (Inter  Calv.  ep.  187).  Beza, 
Calvin's  disciple,  wrote  "'De  haereticis  a  civili  magistratu  puniendis."  The 
so-called  reformers  would  have  suhjected  Catholics  to  civil  punishments,  even 
that  of  death.  See,  for  instance,  Melanchthon  (Corp.  reform,  ed.  Bretschneider, 
ix.  77),  and  Calvin  (Ep.  Genev.  1579,  p.  40).  How  Protestant  princes  treated 
their  Catholic  suhjects  will  be  shown  in  §  165  sqq.  The  immoral  principle 
"  Cujus  regio  illius  et  religio  "  was  set  up  hy  the  German  States  of  the  Empire, 
and  followed  out. 


§  148.    John    Wycliffe  and  his  Heresy. 

About  the  middle  of  the  fourteenth  century  the  Church  of  Eng- 
land, which  until  then  had  kept  itself  free  from  heresy,  was  seri- 
ously threatened  in  that  respect  by  John  "Wycliffe,  whose  heresy 
seemed  to  embrace  and  conciliate  every  element  of  false  philosophy 
and  theology  then  current  throughout  the  whole  Clmrch  of  the  West.^ 

He  was  born  at  the  village  of  Wycliffe,  in  Yorkshire,  in  1324, 
and  studied  philosophy,  theology,  and  law  at  Oxford,  where  the 
celebrated  though  ofttimes  erring  Thomas  Bradwardine  was  teach- 
ing ;  here  he  acquired  fame  for  extensive  knowledge  and  acumen. 
Wycliffe  had  already  showed  signs  of  ill-will  to  Rome,  when  in  the 
year  1360  he  entered  vehemently  into  the  controversy  which  the 
University  of  Oxford  was  carrying  on  against  the  Mendicant  Orders, 
and  soon  assumed  a  position  hostile  to  the  Apostolic  See.  When, 
in  1365,  Urban  V.  sent  to  demand  from  King  Edward  III.  the 
feudal  tribute  which  had  been  paid  to  Rome  from  the  time  of  John 
Lackland,  Parliament  decided  against  the  payment,  as  unlawful  in 

1  Hcfelc,  Hist,  of  the  Councils,  vi.  810  aqq.  The  work  of  the  Superintendent  and 
Professor  LecMcr,  "  Wycliffe  and  History  before  the  Reformation,"  Leipsic,  1873,  is  a 
one-sided  glorification  of  Wycliffe,  Huss,  etc.     Stevenson,  The  Truth  about  J.  Wyclif. 


108  HISTORY  OF   THE    CATHOLIC   CHURCH. 

itself,  dangerous  to  the  independence  of  England,  and  contrary  to 
the  coronation  oath  taken  by  the  king.  This  parliamentary  decision 
was  eagerly  taken  up  and  defended  by  Wycliffe ;  and  thus  he  gained 
the  favor  of  the  crown.  This,  in  1372,  obtained  for  him  the  degree 
of  Doctor ;  and  he  became  professor  of  theology  at  Oxford,  to  which, 
in  1375,  the  rectory  of  Lutterworth  was  added. 

In  the  mean  time  a  new  accusation  was  brought  forward  against 
the  Papal  See,  respecting  the  collation  of  benefices  in  England. 
Wycliffe  was  one  of  the  royal  commissioners  sent  to  Bruges  in  1374, 
to  confer  with  the  papal  legates  on  the  pending  questions.  \Yhile 
on  this  mission  he  was  informed  of  the  disorderly  state  of  affairs 
at  the  Papal  Court  of  Avignon :  and  when  he  returned  to  England 
he  used  every  exertion  in  vehemently  denouncing  the  Mendicant 
Orders,  the  clergy,  the  hierarchy,  and  more  especially  the  Pope, 
against  whom  he  declaimed  in  very  abusive  language. 

The  English  hierarchy  could  not  remain  silent.  At  the  instance 
of  William  Courtnay,  Bishop  of  London,  Wycliffe  was  summoned 
to  appear  before  a  synod  held  in  February,  1377.  He  appeared  in 
the  company  of  Duke  John  of  Ghent,  son  of  Edward,  whose  friend- 
ship he  had  acquired  at  Bruges,  and  in  that  of  Lord  Percy,  Earl 
Marshall.  Their  rude  and  boisterous  behavior  interfered  with  the 
proceedings  of  the  synod,  which  therefore  contented  itself  with 
enjoining  silence  on  Wycliffe, — an  injunction  with  which  he  did 
not  comply. 

The  opponents  of  Wj^cliffe  sent  nineteen  propositions,  drawn  from 
his  letters,  writings,  and  sermons,  to  Pope  Gregory  XL,  who,  on 
May  22,  1377,  ordered  a  new  examination  into  the  matter. 

Soon  after  the  bull  of  the  Pope  arrived  in  England,  King  Edward 
III.  died  (June  21).  The  Duke  of  Lancaster  (John  of  Ghent)  be- 
came regent,  as  guardian  of  Richard  II.,  then  a  minor.  Therefore 
the  order  of  the  Pope  could  not  immediately  be  carried  into  effect. 
The  heretic  became  bolder;  and  to  the  question  asked  by  the 
Government,  whether  it  was  allowable  to  forbid  the  exportation  of 
money  from  the  kingdom  even  when  threatened  with  ecclesiastical 
censures,  he  resolutely  replied  in  the  affirmative. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  year  1378  the  examination  that  had  been 
commanded  took  place  in  the  chapel  of  Lambeth  Palace,  at  which 
Wycliffe  appeared;  but,  owing  to  intimidation,  the  bishops  con- 
tented themselves  with  enjoining  silence  on  him,  who  meantime  had 
given  to  his  declarations  a  more  reserved  and  somewhat  sophistical 
interpretation. 


JOHN    WYCLIFFE   AXD   IIIS    HERESY.  109 

But  neither  admonitiou  nor  reproach  availed  to  change  the  dispo- 
sition of  Wycliffe.  The  deplorable  schism  that  broke  out  in  1378 
offered  him  the  opportunity  he  desired,  and  which  he  used  under 
the  mask  of  zeal  for  the  Church,  to  calumniate  the  Holy  See.  His 
ill-feeling  towards  Rome  soon  developed  into  opposition  to  the 
Church  generally.  Witlunit  knowledge  of  Greek  and  Hebrew,  he 
began,  in  1380,  to  translate  the  Bible  into  English,  omitting  the  deu- 
tero-canonical  books.  He  declared  the  Bible  to  be  the  only  source 
of  faith,  denied  the  freedom  of  the  will,  and  the  dogma  of  tran- 
substantiation.  Further,  he  defended  the  doctrine  of  unqualified 
predestination,  and  taught  that  the  papacy  and  episcopacy  are  not 
of  divine  institution  ;  nay,  he  went  so  far  as  to  say  that  all  power, 
spiritual  as  well  as  temporal,  is  dependent  on  the  state  of  grace, 
and  that  the  Church  is  only  the  communion  of  the  predestined. 

The  teachings  of  the  reformer,  whose  disciples,  —  among  whom 
were  the  communistic  preachers.  Jack  Straw  and  John  Ball, — clad 
in  coarse  garments  ("  russetum "),  went  up  and  down  the  country 
preaching  the  new  doctrines,  soon  bore  their  fruit.  These  revolu- 
tionary sermons  of  John  Wycliffe's  adherents  excited  the  insurrec- 
tions of  the  peasants  in  1381,  which  were  suppressed  by  the  energy 
of  Richard  II. 

When  William  Courtnay,  Bishop  of  London,  was  raised  to  the 
archl)ishopric  of  Canterbury,  he,  in  May,  1382,  convoked  a  provincial 
synod  at  London,  at  which  twenty-four  articles,  drawn  from  the 
writings  of  Wycliffe  and  the  sermons  of  his  followers,  were  con- 
demned, —  ten  as  heretical  and  fourteen  as  erroneous.  ^  The 
archbishop   had   the  decision  solemnly  proclaimed,    after  which  it 

1  The  propositions  condemned  as  heretical  were:  "(1)  Quod  substantia  panis 
materialis  et  vini  maueat  post  consecrationem  in  sacramento  altaris.  (2)  Item, 
quod  accidentia  non  maneant  sine  subjecto  post  consecrationem  in  eodem  sacra- 
mento. (3)  Item,  quod  Christus  non  sit  in  sacramento  altaris  identice,  vere  et 
realiter  in  propria  praesentia  corporali.  (4)  Item,  quod  si  episcopus  vel  sacerdos 
exsistat  in  peccato  mortali,  non  ordinat,  conficit,  nee  baptizat.  (5)  Item,  quod  si 
homo  fuerit  debite  contritus  omnis  confessio  exterior  est  sibi  superflua  vel  inutilis. 
(6)  Item  pertinaciter  asserere  non  esse  fundatum  in  evangelic,  quod  Christus  Missam 
ordinaverit.  (7)  Item,  quod  Dens  debet  obedire  diabolo.  (8)  Item,  quod  si  Pajia  sit 
praestigiator  et  mains  homo  ac  per  consequens  membrum  diaboli,  non  habet  potestatem 
supra  fideles  Christi  ab  aliquo  sibi  datam  nisi  forte  a  Cesare.  (9)  Item,  quod  post 
Urbanum  VI.  non  est  aliquis  recipiendus  in  Papam,  sed  vivendum  est  more  Graecorum 
sub  legibus  propriis.  (10)  Item  asserere,  quod  est  contra  sacram  scripturam,  quod 
viri  ecclesiastici  habeant  possessiones  temporales."  On  this  synod,  cf.  Harduin,  torn, 
vii.  p.  1899  sq.     Mansi,  torn.  xxvi.  p.  695. 


110  HISTORY  OF   THE    CATHOLIC   CHURCH. 

received  the  sanction  of  the  civil  authority.  Wycliffe  tried  to  re- 
gain the  favor  of  the  court  by  his  petition  to  Parliament,  in  which, 
among  other  things,  he  called  upon  the  crown  to  confiscate  the 
goods  of  the  Church.  But  he  did  not  attain  his  end.  He  was 
deprived  of  his  professorship  at  a  second  synod  (that  of  Oxford, 
Nov.  18,  1382),  and  withdrew  to  his  parish,  Lutterworth.  Here 
he  preached  frequently,  and  composed  his  principal  work,  entitled 
"  Trialogus,"  in  four  books;  in  which  he  introduces  Truth,  Falsehood, 
and  Prudence  (Aletheia,  Pseudis,  I'hronesis)  in  conversation  one  with 
the  other,^  and  develops  his  doctrinal  system,  which  is  a  composite 
of  gross  pantheistic  realism,  fatalism,  and  predestinationism. 

On  Dec.  28,  1384,  he  was  present  at  the  Mass  said  by  his  chaplain 
John  Purney,  when,  at  the  time  of  consecration,  he  was  struck  by 
apoplexy,  deprived  of  the  use  of  his  tongue  and  of  his  limbs,  and 
three  days  afterwards  (December  31),  was  a  corpse.  He  had  made 
no  recantation,  had  not  complied  with  a  summons  inviting  him  to 
Rome,  but,  on  the  contrary,  occupied  himself  to  the  last  in  develop- 
ing his  system  and  defending  his  errors. 

The  sect  did  not  die  out  with  the  death  of  the  founder ;  on  the 
contrary,  it  was  increased  by  the  zeal  with  which  itinerant  preachers 
went  about  distributing  their  Bibles  and  their  pamphlets,  and  in 
the  very  spirit  of  Wycliffe  declaiming  against  the  ruling  Church 
and  the  clergy.  They  and  their  followers  were  called  Lollards. 
Many  of  them  were  clownish,  unmannerly  advocates  of  revolution. 
At  their  head  stood  Nicholas  Hereford,  Doctor  of  Theology-  at 
Oxford,  with  whom  John  of  Aston,  parish  priest  in  the  diocese  of 
Worcester,  coalesced.  Then  came  John  Purney,  Wycliffe's  most 
intimate  friend  and  chaplain,  John  Parker,  Robert  Swinderly, 
William  Smith,  and  others.  The  principal  seats  of  the  Wycliffites 
at  first  were  the  dioceses  of  London  and  Lincoln,  then  of  Worcester 
and  Salisbury.  In  1388  a  royal  mandate  commanded  that  the 
Wyclifhte  writings  should  be  delivered  up,  but  this  produced  little 
effect.  Henry  IV.,  with  the  Parliament,  took  more  energetic 
measures  against  the  sectaries  than  Richard  II.  had  done.  Their 
errors  were  condemned,  also,  at  a  Roman  Synod  under  John  XXIII. 
and  at  the  Council  of  Constance.^  The  condemnation  of  forty-five 
articles  of  Wycliffe  was  confirmed  by  Martin  V. 

1  Ed.  Frcfrt.  et  Leips.  1753.  Concerning  his  other  works,  see  Lcicis,  who  writes 
from  a  Protestant  point  of  view.     Of.  Hefele,  Hist,  of  the  Councils,  vi. 

^  Cf.  Denzinger,  Enchiridion,  p.  186  sqq.  Thomas  JFa/de7isis  (+  1431),  Provincial 
of  the  Carmelites  and  private  secretary  of  Henry  V.,  in  an  excellent  dogmatical  work 


THE    HERESY   OF  JOHN  HUSS.  Ill 

John  Oldcastle,  Lord  Cobliam,  was  a  strong  upholder  of  the 
Wycliffites,  and  an  obstinate  defender  of  their  errors.  For  a  long 
time  he  snjoyed  the  favor  of  Henry  IV.  ;  but,  having  organized  a 
conspiracy,  he  was  finally  taken  prisoner  and  condemned  to  death, 
iinder  Henry  V.,  in  1417.  From  that  time  forth  the  sect  of  the 
Lollards  withdrew  more  and  more  from  the  public  view ;  many  of 
them  had  been  burnt  as  heretics,  and  gradually  they  were  almost 
entirely  suppressed. 

§  149.    The  Heresy  of  John  Huss. 

John  Huss,  an  ardent  defender  of  the  errors  of  Wycliffe,  was  born 
at  Husinecz  in  1369.  He  was  a  professor  at  the  university,  and  a 
Bohemian  preacher  at  the  Church  of  Bethlehem,  in  Prague,  who 
made  use  of  his  office  in  both  these  capacities  to  spread  these  errors 
in  learned  and  unlearned  circles.^  While  proclaiming  these  errors 
he  took  occasion  to  make  the  most  odious  attacks  on  the  clergy, 
whose  shortcomings  he  assailed  in  the  most  unsparing  and  exagger- 
ated manner.  The  disorders  in  Prague  and  the  dissensions  between 
the  Germans  and  the  Slavonians  (Czechs)  in  the  university,  which 
had  been  founded  in  1348,  favored  the  views  of  the  Bohemian 
heretic,  who  also  undertook  to  play  the  part  of  a  reformer.  Huss 
found  many  adherents  among  the  Czechs,  with  whose  nationality 
he  identified  the  purpose  he  had  in  hand. 

The  censure  of  the  forty-five  propositions  of  Wycliffe  by  the  uni- 
versity in  1408,  and  the  prohibition  issued  by  the  Archbishop 
Sbinko  (Zbynek)  against  reading  the  writings  of  Wycliffe,  inflamed 
still  more  the  wrath  of  the  Czechian  reformer  against  the  Germans, 
who  had  been  instrumental  in  procuring  the  judicial  reprobation  of 
Wycliffe's  propositions  by  the  university ;  and  he  now  set  every 
lever  in  motion  to  throw  the  preponderance  of  power  on  the  side 
of  the  Czechs.  In  this  he  succeeded.  By  a  decree  of  the  18th  of 
January,  1409,  King  Wenceslaus,  contrary  to  existing  regulations, 
granted  three  votes  to  the  Czechs,  and  to  the  other  nations  — 
namely,  to  the  Saxon,  Bavarian,  and  Polish  —  but  one.  In  con- 
refuted  the  heresy  of  Wyclitfe.  Cf.  Thomas  JValdensis,  Doctrinale  antiquitat.  eccl. 
Cath.  Ed.  Venet.  1757  sqq.  3  vols.  fol.  To  him  are  also  ascribed  the  "Fasciculi 
Zizaniorum  magistri  J.  Wyclif  cum  tritico  (ed.  Schirley  in  Rerum  Britannicanim  medii 
ae\'i  scriptores)."     Lond.  18.58. 

1  Hist,  et  monumenta  J.  Hus  ct  Hicron.  Prag.  Norimb.  1558.  Ed.  ii.  1715. 
2  vols.  Documenta  M.  J.  Hus,  ed.  Palacky.  Prag.  1869.  Hcfeh,  Hist,  of  the 
Councils,  vol.  vii.  Division  1. 


112  HISTORY   OF    THE    CATHOLIC   CHURCH. 

sequence  of  this  injustice  thirty  thousand  students  left  Prague ; 
and  the  university,  renowned  hitherto  as  belonging  to  the  world, 
sank  into  a  Czechian  institution,  the  university  of  a  single  country. 

In  order  to  nullify  beforehand  the  probable  censures  of  the  Pope, 
Huss  and  his  followers  induced  the  king  to  renounce  obedience  to 
Gregory  XII.,  and  to  give  in  his  adherence  to  the  Council  of  Pisa. 
This  took  place  shortly  after  the  issue  of  the  above-named  decree. 

Encouraged  by  these  results,  Huss,  who  on  every  occasion  showed 
himself  a  bitter  enemy  of  the  Germans,  now  proceeded  in  a  still 
more  reckless  way  against  the  clergy,  while  he  publicly  and  unre- 
servedly preached  the  erroneous  ideas  of  Wycliffe,  whose  "  Tria- 
logus  "  he  had  already  translated  into  the  Bohemian  language. 

The  heretic  endeavored  to  escape  from  the  censures  of  the  arch- 
bishop by  an  appeal  to  the  Pope  of  Pisa,  Alexander  V. ;  but  this 
Pope  confirmed  the  judgment  of  Sbinko,  on  which  the  archbishop 
commanded  that  the  Wycliffian  writings  should  be  delivered  up, 
and  the  preaching  of  Huss  suppressed  in  the  subordinate  churches. 
Huss  surrendered  the  writings,  but  protested  against  the  suppression 
of  his  preaching,  and  brought  a  complaint  against  his  ecclesiastical 
superior,  before  John  XXIII.,  the  successor  of  Alexander. 

The  archbishop's  command  to  burn  the  heretical  writings  had 
caused  considerable  excitement  among  the  heretical  Czechs,  which 
assumed  a  more  serious  character  under  Archbishop  Albik;  but 
it  was  the  publication  of  the  crusade  bull  which  John  XXIII. 
had  issued  against  Ladislaus  of  Naples,  that  called  forth  their 
indignation  and  aroused  their  fury.  Huss  also  preached  with  great 
vehemence  against  the  bull  of  Indulgence,  which  his  followers,  with 
Jerome  of  Prague,  first  held  up  to  the  mockery  of  the  vulgar,  and 
then  publicly  committed  to  the  flames. 

The  immoderate  vehemence  of  Huss  —  who  was  now  opposed 
even  by  his  former  Czechian  friends,  Stanislaus  and  Peter  of  Znaim, 
Stephen  of  Palecz,  with  Andrew  of  Broda,  and  others  —  brought 
upon  him  the  excommunication  of  John  XXIII.,  who  at  the  same 
time  laid  Prague  under  an  interdict  for  so  long  as  the  heretic  should 
remain  in  the  place. 

Huss  left  Prague  in  December,  1412,  at  the  command  of  King 
Wenceslaus,  appealing  the  while  from  the  judgment  of  the  Pope 
to  that  of  Christ ;  thenceforth  he  took  up  his  abode  at  the  castles 
of  his  friends  among  the  nobility.  Here  he  composed  several 
works,  particularly  his  principal  theological  treatise,  "  Tractatus  de 
Ecclesia." 


THE    HERESY   OF  JOHN   HUSS.  113 

According  to  the  confused  and  self-contnulictory  assertions  of 
Huss,  the  Church  is  the  congregation  of  the  predestinated  ;  repro- 
bates belong  to  the  Church  only  exteriorly.  The  only  head  is  Christ ; 
therefore  the  Church  does  not  need  the  papacy.  St.  Peter  was  not 
elected  by  Christ  as  the  fundamental  rock  of  his  Church,  and  the 
Koman  Bishop  owes  his  dignity  to  the  imperial  favor  which  he  has 
enjoyed  since  the  time  of  Constantine  the  Great.^  The  Pope  and 
the  bishops  are  therefore  the  true  representatives  of  God,  and  the 
successors  of  Peter  and  of  the  Apostles,  only  when  their  conduct 
corresponds  to  the  divine  law  ;  and  their  ordinances  have  the  force 
of  law  only  when  they  are  conformable  to  the  ordinances  of  God.^ 

It  would  follow  from  this,  that  the  subject,  although  inferior,  has 
the  right  to  examine  the  commands  of  the  superior,  as  to  whether 
such  commands  correspond  to  the  commands  of  God  or  not ;  in  the 
first  case  obedience  becomes  a  duty,  but  in  the  latter  resistance  is 
a  holy  obligation. 

This  applies  not  only  to  ecclesiastical  superiors,  but  to  the  secular 
authority  in  like  manner,  as  every  power  is  dependent  on  being  in 
a  state  of  grace. ^ 

It  cannot  therefore  be  affirmed  that  the  Pope  is  the  head  of  the 
Church,  since,  if  he  be  a  reprobate,  he  is  not  even  a  member  of  it. 

A  pious  priest  who  possesses  the  requisite  knowledge  for  the 
office,  and  feels  himself  impelled  to  preach  the  Word  of  God,  may 
do  so  in  utter  disregard  of  the  censures  of  the  Church  ;  for  suspen- 
sion and  interdict  are  null  and  void  before  God.  Ecclesiastical 
obedience  is  altogether  an  invention  of  the  priests,  against  the 
express  decision  of  Holy  Writ,  which  Huss  declared  to  be  the  only 
source  of  faith. 

With  respect  to  the  Most  Holy  Eucharist,  Huss  does  not  seem 

1  Among  the  assertions  of  HusS  censured  by  the  Council  of  Constance,  are  the  fol- 
lowing :  "  Unica  est  sancta  universalis  ecclesia,  quae  est  praedestinatorum  universi- 
tas  (1).  Petrus  non  est,  nee  fuit  caput  Ecclesiae  sanctae  Catholicae  (7).  Papalis 
digiiitas  a  Caesare  inolevit,  et  Papae  perfectio  et  institutio  a  Caesaris  potentia  emana- 
vit  (9).  Xou  est  scintilla  apparentiae,  ijuod  oporteat  esse  unum  caput  in  spiritualibus 
regens  Ecclesiani,  quod  semper  cum  Ecclesia  ipsa  militante  conyersetur  et  conservetur 

(27)." 

-  "  Nemo  gerit  vieem  Chiisti  vel  Petri,  nisi  sequatur  eum  in  moribus  :  cum  nulla 
alia  sequela  sit  pertinenrior,  nee  aliter  recipiat  a  Deo  procuratoriam  potestatem  ;  quia 
ad  illud  officium  vicariatus  requiritur  et  morum  conformitas  et  instituentis  auctoritas 
(12)."     Cf.  prop.  1.3,  14. 

3  "  NuUus  est  dominus  civilis,  nuUus  est  Praelatus,  nullus  est  Episcopus,  dum  est 
in  peccato  mortali  (30)." 

VOL.    II.  8 


114  HISTORY   OF   THE    CATHOLIC    CHURCH. 

to  have  adopted  the  doctrine  of  Wycliffe.  On  the  other  hand,  he 
denies  the  priest  the  power  to  absolve  from  sin,  conceding  to 
him  only  the  office  of  aanounciug  that  God  has  remitted  the  peni- 
tent's sins. 

After  the  resignation  of  Albik,  Conrad  of  Vechta  became  Arch- 
bishop of  Prague.  He  was  not  more  successful  than  had  been  his 
predecessor  in  quieting  the  disturbances  that  had  arisen.  In  order 
to  restore  peace,  the  German  king  Sigismund,  with  the  consent  of 
Wenceslaus,  cited  the  obstinate  heretic,  who  had  continued  to  preach 
nothwithstanding  the  ecclesiastical  inhibition,  to  appear  before  the 
Fathers  assembled  in  council  at  Constance,  in  order  to  defend  him- 
self. Huss,  who  had  already  appealed  to  an  oecumenical  council, 
agreed  to  this  willingly,  and  set  out  for  Constance,  being  provided 
with  a  letter  of  safe-conduct  from  King  Sigismund  ;  and  here  too 
came  his  two  adversaries,  Professor  Stephen  of  Palecz  and  the 
parish  priest  ]\[ichael  Deutchbrod,  commonly  called  De  Causis. 

At  first  the  council  treated  the  heretic  very  mildly.  John  XXIII. 
even  permitted  him  to  attend  divine  service.  He  was,  however,  still 
under  suspension,  in  spite  of  which  he  continued  to  celebrate  Mass 
and  to  preach  his  errors.  It  was  this  disobedience  that  was  the 
principal  cause  of  his  arrest.  Huss  was  taken  to  the  Dominican 
Monastery,  which  place  of  abode  was  afterwards  exchanged  for 
the  Castle  Gottlieben,  and  subsequently  for  the  monastery  of  the 
Minorites. 

After  a  long  preliminary  examination  the  public  trial  of  Huss 
took  place  on  the  5th,  7th,  and  8th  of  June.  The  greater  part  of 
the  propositions  taken  from  his  writings  he  acknowledged  as  his ; 
others  he  repudiated  as  forgeries  or  as  adulterated.  Hereupon  the 
council  rejected  the  heretical  opinions  of  Huss,  who  nevertheless 
refused  to  revoke  them,  on  which  account  he  was,  on  the  6th  of  July, 
degraded  from  his  sacerdotal  dignity,  and  handed  over  to  the  secular 
power  for  punishment.  Once  again  did  Sigismund  attempt  to  pre- 
vail on  him  to  recall  his  errors.  Huss  continued  immovable  ;  he 
declared  the  council  to  be  an  assembly  of  Pharisees,  and  died  at  the 
stake,  with  a  fortitude  worthy  of  a  better  cause,  on  the  16th  of  July, 
1415.  His  friend  Jerome  of  Prague  underwent  the  same  fate  on  the 
30th  of  May,  1416. 

After  the  death  of  Huss  the  formidable  Hussite  war  broke  out. 
A  considerable  number  of  Bohemian  noblemen,  who  coveted  the 
goods  of  the  Church,  united  with  the  Hussite  Czechs.  They  formed 
a  powerful  party,  whose  device  was  to  demand  the  cup  for  the  laity. 


THE  HERESY  OF  JOHN  HUSS.  115 

iu  other  words,  Holy  Communion  under  both  species,  —  which 

requirement,  though  Huss  had  not  been  the  one  to  introduce  it,  he 
had  approved. 

Nicholas  of  Husiuecz  and  John  Ziska  were  at  the  head  of  the 
rebels.  On  the  30th  of  July,  1419,  the  insurrection  broke  out  in 
Prague  with  the  procession  of  the  chalice.  The  Hussite-Bohemian 
party,  who  shortly  before  had  held  a  very  numerous  assembly  on 
Tabor,  a  city  and  fortress  founded  on  the  hill  Hardisstin  by  Nic  of 
Husinecz  as  a  centre  for  the  extreme  Hussites,  took  possession  of  the 
capital,  and  committed  the  well-known  atrocities  in  the  court-house. 
This  was  followed  by  the  plundering  of  the  churches  and  by  the 
persecution  and  expulsion  of  the  Catholic  clergy,  whose  places  were 
filled  by  the  Utraquists. 

After  the  death  of  Wenceslaus  the  condition  of  the  Catholics  iu 
Bohemia  became  even  worse.  The  Hussites  refused  to  acknowl- 
edge Sigismund  as  king,  and  under  the  lead  of  Ziska  (+  1424)  in- 
vaded the  adjoining  countries.  The  efforts  of  Sigismund  and  of 
Pope  Martin  V.  were  in  vain  ;  the  crusaders  were  defeated,  and  the 
negotiations  with  the  Hussites  were  again  broken  off  because  the 
Church  could  not  consent  to  the  demands  of  Ziska,  —  (1)  Free 
preaching  of  the  pure  gospel ;  (2)  Communion  under  both  species 
("  sub  utraque  "  )  ;  (3)  Renunciation  of  all  worldly  possessions  on 
the  part  of  the  clergy ;  (4)  Punishment  of  mortal  sin,  whether  com- 
mitted by  clergy  or  laity,  by  the  secular  power. 

The  bloody  strife  began  over  again  ;  but  after  the  death  of  Ziska 
the  divisions  of  the  rebels  among  themselves  brought  some  of  them 
after  a  while  to  desire  reconciliation  with  the  Church.  They  had 
separated  into  Taborites  under  Procope  the  Elder,  and  Orphans 
(those  who  had  lost  their  father  iu  Ziska)  under  Procope  the 
Younger ;  into  the  Horebites  and  the  Calixtines  of  Prague.  To  these 
were  added  divers  Manichaean  sects  (Adamites),  who  had  settled 
in  Bohemia.  Wrought  upon  by  the  disasters  occasioned  by  these 
divisions,  the  more  moderate  Hussites,  called  Calixtines,  or  Utra- 
quists, were  finally  induced  to  seek  reconciliation  with  the  Church. 
For  this  purpose,  after  long  consultations,  they  sent  deputies  to  the 
Council  of  Basle,  among  whom  were  Procope  the  Elder  and  the  Cal- 
ixtinian  Rokyczana;  but  after  long  and  protracted  debates  the  Bo- 
hemian ambassadors  left  the  council  without  having  come  to  any 
definite  result.  The  synod,  however,  sent  legates  to  Bohemia ;  and 
these,  on  the  30th  of  November,  1433,  finally  succeeded  in  bringing 
about  the  union  with  the  Hussites,  which  is  called  the  Compact  of 


116  HISTORY   OF   THE    CATHOLIC    CHURCH. 

Prague.  The  four  articles  above  enumerated  were  accepted  with 
some  modifieatious.  The  Church  permitted  Holy  Communion  under 
both  species  to  the  Utraquists,  who  on  their  side  promised  to  believe 
and  to  teach  that  the  reception  of  the  Holy  Eucharist  imder  both 
species  was  not  necessary  to  the  full  efficacy  of  the  Sacrament. 
The  third  article  was  so  far  modified  as  to  decree  that  the  j)roperty 
of  the  Church  should  be  used  according  to  the  precept  of  the  Church. 
In  regard  to  the  first  article  the  preaching  was  to  be  under  the 
superintendence  of  the  bishop  ;  and  the  fourth  article  was  modified 
into  the  proposition  that  mortal  sin  should  be  punished  by  those 
who  had  legitimate  authority  so  to  do. 

The  Taborites  were  not  satisfied  with  this  treaty ;  but  on  the  30th 
of  March,  1434,  they  suffered  a  complete  defeat  at  Bcilimischbrod. 
Sigismund  was  now  universally  acknowledged  as  king ;  and  by  the 
Treaty  of  Iglau,  1436,  the  Compact  of  Prague  obtained  the  force  of 
law.     Yet,  lierewith,  peace  was  not  altogether  restored. 

The  Bohemian  Brethren  sprang  up  from  the  Utraquists  in  Bohe- 
mia and  IMoravia.  Their  first  head  was  Michael  Bradacz,  Utraquist 
parish  priest  at  Zamberg.  The  members  of  this  sect,  who  wished  to 
restore  the  Church  to  its  ancient  simi)licity,  rejected  transubstantia- 
tion  and  some  other  dogmas.  The  sect  spread  throughout  Germany, 
principally,  however,  in  Saxony.  At  a  later  period  its  adherents 
made  common  cause  with  the  Protestants, 

I.  The  charge  made  against  Sigisinuml  of  n<it  having  kejit  the  word  he  had 
given  to  Huss,  inasmuch  as  the  royal  letter  of  safe-conduct  was  violated  by 
the  condeniuation  and  chastisement  of  the  holder  of  that  letter,  is  utterly 
unfounded;  for  Sigismund  neither  would  nor  could  graut  the  heretic  a  safe- 
conduct  in  the  sense  of  perfect  freedom  and  impunity. 

1,  The  truth  of  this  assertion  is  proved  by  the  very  k'ttor  itself,  wliicli  runs 
thus:  "  Sigismuu(his  Dei  gratia  Rouiauorum  rex  .  .  .  uuiversis  et  singulis 
principibus,  ecclesiasticis  et  secularibus,  ducibus,  marchiouibus,  coniitibus, 
nobilibus,  proceribus,  miuisterialibus,  niilitibus,  cMentibus,  cajiitaneis,  potesta- 
tibus,  guberuatoribus,  praesidibus,  teleouariis,  tributariis  et  otficialibus  quibus- 
cunque,  civitatum,  oppidorum,  villarum  etlocoruui  commuuitatibus  ac  rectoribus 
eorundem  ceterisque  nostris  et  imperii  sacri  subditis  ac  iidelibus,  ad  quos  prae- 
sentes  pervenerint,  gratiam  regiam  et  omne  bonum.  Venerabiles,  illustres  et 
fideles  dilecti !  Honorabilem  magistrum  Johannem  Huss,  sacrae  theologiae 
baccalaureum  formatum  et  artiuin  magistrum,  pi'aesentium  ostensorem,  de 
regno  Bohemiae  ad  concilium  generale  in  civitate  Coustautieusi  in  proximo 
transeuntem,  quern  etiam  in  nostram  et  sacri  imperii  pmtectionem  recejiimus 
et  tutelam,  vobis  omnibus  et  vestrum  cuilibet  pleno  recommendamiis  atfectu, 
desiderantes,  quatenus  ipsum.  dum  ad  vos  perveiierit,  grate  suscipere,  favora- 


THE   HERESY   OF  JOHN  HUSS.  117 

biliter  tractare,  ac  in  his,  quae  celeritatem  ac  securitatein  ipsius  couccrnunt  iti- 
neris,  tain  per  terrain  quain  per  aqiiam,  proniotivam  sil»i  velitis  et  dcbeatis 
ostendere  voluntatem,  nee  iiou  ipsuin  cuin  fainulis,  equis  valisiis  [portmanteau, 
valise]  et  aliis  rebus  suis  singulis  per  quuscuuquc  passus,  portus,  pontes, 
terras,  doininia,  districtus,  jurisdictiones,  civitates,  oppida,  castra,  villas,  et 
quaolibct  loca  alia  vestra  sine  aliquali  solutione  datii  [toll  or  taxes]  pedagii 
[travelling  fee]  tributi  et  alio  quovis  solutionis  onere  oninique  prorsus  iinpedi- 
niento  reinoto  transire,  stare,  inorari  et  redire  libere  permittatis,  sibique  et  suis, 
duin  opus  fuerit,  de  securo  et  salvo  velitis  et  debeatis  providere  couductu  ad 
lionorem  et  reverentiam  nostrae  regiae  majestatis.  Datum  Sj^irae  anno  domiui 
MCCCCXITII.  XVIII.  die  Octobris  regnoruin  nostroruin  anno  Hungariae,  etc. 
XXXIII.  Romauoruin  vero  V.  Ad  mandatum  Domini  regis :  Micliael  de 
Prziest  canonicus  Vratislaviensis."     (Documenta,  p.  237.) 

a.  Even  the  heading  of  tliis  document,  addi'essed  as  it  is  to  the  spiritual  and 
temporal  princes  and  officials  of  Germany,  and  not  to  the  members  of  tlie 
council,  contradicts  the  interpretation  put  upon  the  articles  it  contains  by  the 
accusers  of  Sigismund. 

h.  The  wording  of  the  safe-conduct  likewise  bears  witness  that  the  king  only 
granted  to  Huss  protection  against  unlawful  power  and  exemption  from  t(dls 
and  expenses  by  the  way  ;  not  a  syllable  indicates  that  Sigismund  intended  to 
withdraw  him  from  the  jurisdiction  of  the  council. 

c.  Although  the  words  in  the  safe-conduct  stand  thus,  "  Ipsum  .  .  .  transire, 
stare,  inorari,  et  redire  permittatis,"  this  is  but  a  usual  formula,  which  has  no 
special  significance  in  this  case,  and  certainly  is  not  intended  to  restrict  the 
authority  of  the  lawful  judge. 

d.  The  letter  of  safe-conduct  can  so  little  be  explained  as  an  assurance  of 
impunity,  that  in  it  there  is  not  the  sliglitest  allusion  made  to  any  process  by 
law  nor  to  any  judicial  act.  Besides  whicli,  Huss  was  not  summoned  to  appear 
before  the  council;  he  went  to  Constance  of  his  own  free-will,  in  order  to  set 
the  Bohemians  free  from  any  suspicion  of  heresy. 

e.  Lastly,  for  the  due  interpretation  of  this  safe-conduct,  it  is  well  to  remem- 
ber that  the  Fathers  of  the  council  passed  sentence  on  John  XXIII.,  and  had 
him  arrested  and  deposed,  although  he  was  in  possession  of  a  safe-conduct  from 
Sigismund  and  from  the  imperial  city  Constance  ;  and  this  without  John  XXIII. 
or  any  other  person  complaining  of  any  violation  of  the  safe-ctmduct. 

/.  This  safe-conduct  of  John  Huss  was,  according  to  its  contents,  neither 
more  nor  less  than  a  passport,  which  had  no  power  to  prevent  the  council 
or  any  other  proper  authority  from  bringing  the  holder  of  it  to  justice,  or  from 
punishing  him  if  convicted  of  crime. 

2.  This  acceptation  of  the  letter  of  safe-conduct  is  corroborated  by  some 
important  facts  :  — 

a.  The  legislation  of  the  Middle  Ages,  both  civil  and  ecclesiastical,  was  based 
on  the  principle  that  the  Church  has  the  riglit  to  pass  judgment  on  and  punish 
a  heretic. 

h.  How  greatly  Huss  himself  was  imbued  with  this  principle  is  seen  from 


118  HISTORY   OF  THE   CATHOLIC    CHURCH. 

the  invitatiou  he  addressed  tu  his  adversaries  to  suffer  a  like  "  peiii"  (torture), 
aud  from  the  expression  that  he  wished  "  ignis  iuceudio  enieudare,"  in  case  he 
shouhl  be  found  guilty.  When  at  a  later  period  he  wrote  from  Constance 
that  Sigismund  should,  in  reference  to  his  letter  of  safe-conduct,  declare  to  the 
Fathers  of  Constance:  "  Si  ergo  ipse  [Huss]  non  vult  pati decisiouem  Concilii, 
ego  remittam  eum  Regi  Bohemiae  cum  sententia  vestra  et  attestationibus,  ut 
ipse  cum  suo  clero  ipsum  dijudicet,"  it  is  manifest  here,  that  he  does  not 
interpret  the  safe-couduct  in  the  sense  of  perfect  impunity,  but  only  asks  to  be 
judged  in  Bohemia,  where,  however,  the  same  laws  against  heretics  existed  as 
were  found  elsewhere,  and  where  even  several  judgments  had  already  been 
passed  against  Huss. 

3.  Sigismund  demanded  that  the  heretic  should  submit  to  the  decisions  of 
the  council  at  Constance,  and  declared  on  that  point :  ''  Nullum  volo  haereti- 
cuin  defendere,  imo  si  unus  vellet  in  sua  haeresi  esse  pertinax,  ego  solus  vel- 
lem  succendere  et  comburere  ignem."  The  king  could  not  have  spoken  thus  if 
he  had  promised  Jolm  Huss  perfect  impunity,  either  by  the  letter  of  safe-conduct 
or  by  word  of  mouth  through  Henry  Letfl. 

4.  The  interpretation  of  the  letter  in  tlie  sense  given  above  has  its  founda- 
ti(m  in  the  nature  of  things.  Huss  wished  to  defend  his  doctrine  before  the 
council  to  which  he  belonged,  both  as  priest  and  on  account  of  his  appeal.  In 
this  case  he  could  do  no  other  than  submit  to  their  decision,  and  could  not  appeal 
to  a  higher  tribunal.  If  then  Sigismund  had  at  that  time  assured  the  heretic 
of  perfect  exemption  from  punishment,  he  would  then  have  {a)  far  exceeded 
his  authority,  (h)  have  rendered  it  impossible  to  bring  the  controversy  to  an 
end,  and  (c)  have  fostered  the  fire  of  discord. 

5.  Finally,  the  Bohemian  adherents  of  Huss  only  complain  of  the  arrest  of 
Huss,  before  his  public  trial,  as  a  vicdation  of  the  safe-conduct,  remarking 
expressly  that  Huss,  "  si  convictus  fuerit,  pertinaciter  aliquid  contra  scriptu- 
ram  sacram  et  veritatem  asserere,  quod  id  juxta  decisionem  et  instructionem 
concilii  debeat  emendare."     (Documenta,  p.  257.) 

6.  But  the  letter  of  safe-conduct  was  not  violated  even  by  the  arrest  and 
imprisonment  of  Huss,  because  («)  It  was  customary  to  keep  under  arrest 
those  who  were  being  prosecuted  for  heresy  ;  (h)  By  his  conduct  in  Constance, 
in  disregarding  the  suspension  under  which  he  was  placed,  and  in  diffusing  his 
errors,  Huss  had  forfeited  his  right  to  the  safe-conduct  given  him  by  Sigis- 
mund. iVIoreover,  the  letter  of  safe-conduct  did  certainly  not  give  permission 
to  the  heretic  to  commit  again,  on  his  journey  to  Constance,  the  same  crimes 
whicli  he  had  previously  committed  at  Prague. 

II.  The  assertion  that  the  council  decreed  that  it  was  allowed  to  break  one's 
word  to  a  heretic  is  best  disproved  by  the  words  of  the  decree,  which  runs 
thus  :  "  Praesens  sancta  Synodus  ex  quo  vis  salvo  conductu,  per  imperatorera, 
Reges  et  alios  saeculi  Principes  haereticis  vel  de  haeresi  diffamatis,  putantes 
eosdem  sic  a  suis  erroribus  revocare,  quocunque  vincuhj  se  astrinxerint,  con- 
cesso,  nullum  fidei  catholicae  vel  jurisdictionis  ecclesiasticae  praejudiciura 
generari,  vel  impedimentum  praestari   posse  seu  debere,  declarat,  quominus 


THE  HOLY  EUCHARIST. —PENANCE.  119 

salvo  (licto  coiuluctu  uon  obstante  liccat  judici  competenti  ecclesiastico  de 
hiijiis  modi  personaruni  erroribus  iiiquirere,  et  alias  contra  eas  debit*  pro- 
cedere,  easdenique  punire,  quantum  justitia  suadebit,  si  sues  pertinaciter 
recusavcrint  revocare  errores,  etiamsi  de  salvo  conductu  confisi  ad  locum 
venerint  jiidicii  alias  nou  venturi  ;  nee  sic  jiromittentem ,  cum  alias  fecerit  qtwd 
in  ipso  est,  ex  hoc  in  aliquo  remansisse  obligatum." 

This  decree  thus  declares  only  that  a  letter  of  safe-conduct  given  by  the 
temporal  power  is  no  hindrance  to  ecclesiastical  authority  (1)  In  instituting  an 
investigation  regarding  the  heresy  of  a  man,  and  (2)  In  punishing  convicted 
heretics  who  persist  in  their  heresy.  In  this  the  council  does  not  maintain 
that  tlie  person  who  confers  a  safe-conduct  has  no  obligations  towards  the 
person  on  whom  it  is  conferred  ;  on  the  contrary,  such  obligati()ns  are  clearly 
and  pointedly  expressed  in  the  words  printed  in  italics,  concerning  all  matters 
which  are  not  contrary  to  the  rights  of  the  Church. 

The  other  edict  cited  by  Gieseler,  "  De  salvo  conductu,"  is  spurious,  and  is 
only  found  in  the  "  Codex  Dorrianus  "  at  Vienna. 


III.   WOESHIP   AND  DISCIPLINE. 
§  150.   The  Holy  Eucharist.  —  Penance. 

In  order  to  express  clearly  and  with  precision  the  ancient  Catholic 
doctrine  concerning  the  real  presence  of  Christ  in  the  Holy  Eucha- 
rist, by  the  change  effected  in  the  substance  of  the  bread  and  wine 
through  the  words  of  consecration,  the  Fourth  Council  of  the  Lateran 
first  affirmed  the  word  "transubstantiation,"  which  had  been  already 
in  vogue  among  the  scholastics,  and  is  appropriately  used  for  this 
particular  purpose. 

From  the  twelfth  century  the  elevation  of  the  consecrated  Host 
during  Mass  was  introduced,  and  a  signal  on  the  bell  given.  The 
custom  of  giving  Communion  to  children  gradually  ceased.  To 
protect  the  sacred  blood  from  irreverent  treatment,  Holy  Com- 
munion under  one  species  only  then  became  a  general  custom. 
According  to  the  determination  of  the  Council  of  Florence,  the 
Greeks  were  to  celebrate  the  Eucharist  in  leavened  bread,  the 
Latins  in  unleavened.  The  Slavic  and  Mozarabian  liturgies  were, 
from  the  time  of  Gregory  VIL,  superseded  by  the  Koman. 

In  1245  Bishop  Robert,  incited  thereto  by  a  vision  of  St.  Juliana 
of  Liege,  introduced  a  special  feast  in  honor  of  the  Blessed  Sacra- 
ment ("  Festum  corporis  Christi "),  which  in  consequence  of  a 
miracle    being    worked    at    a   Mass    celebrated    in    Bolsena,   near 


120  HISTORY  OF   THE   CATHOLIC   CHURCH. 

Orvieto  (1264),  was  sanctioned  for  the  whole  Church  by  Pope 
Urban  IV.  In  1311  Pope  Clement  V.  at  Vienne  fixed  the  Thurs- 
day after  Trinity  Sunday  for  the  day  of  its  celebration.  His  succes- 
sor John  XXII.  is  said  to  have  instituted  the  procession  with  the 
Blessed  Sacrament  in  1317.  St.  Thomas  Aquinas  wrote  the  mag- 
nificent office  of  the  Feast,  and  the  hymns,  ^'Pange  lingua  glo- 
riosi,"  "  Sacris  solemniis,"  •'  Verbum  supernum,"  "  Adoro  te  devote 
latens  Deltas,"  with  the  sequence  "  Lauda  Sion  Salvatorem,"  which 
last  is  famed  alike  for  dogmatical  precision  and  poetical  perfec- 
tion. This  indeed  may  be  said  of  the  hymns  and  of  the  office 
also,  which  excel  in  dogmatical  equally  as  in  aesthetical  respects. 

With  respect  to  the  sacrament  of  penance,  the  Fourth  Lateran 
Council  (canon  21)  commanded  all  the  faithful  who  had  come  to  years 
of  discretion,  to  confess  their  sins  at  least  once  a  year  to  their  parish 
priest,  or  with  his  permission  to  some  other  priest.^ 

From  this  canon  it  is  obvious  that  confession  had  always  been  in 
the  Church,  and  was  not  introduced  at  this  juncture.  This  is  also 
attested  b}^  the  unanimous  voice  of  Christian  antiquity  as  to  the 
institution  of  confession  being  of  divine  origin.^ 

Pul)lic  penances  were  still  practised  at  this  epoch.  They  gradually, 
however,  become  more  unfrequent,  and  at  length  ceased  entirely. 
Absolution  for  secret  sins  was  given  to  the  contrite  penitent  before 
satisfaction  had  been  made.  The  conscientious  administration  of 
the  sacrament  of  penance  was  strictly  enjoined  on  the  pastors  of 
souls  by  the  synods.  For  the  confessions  of  the  clergy  very 
definite  directions  were  given. 

How  earnestly  the  Church  regarded  the  confession  of  venial  sins 
may  be  known  bj^  the  numerous  examinations  of  conscience  put  forth 
at  this  period  which  are  still  extant. 

The  father  confessor  was  allowed  to  commute  the  canonical  pen- 
ances into  fasting,  pilgrimages,  and  almsgiving.  In  like  manner 
penances  were  shortened  or  entirely  remitted  by  indulgences,^  plen- 
ary and  partial,  which  were  now  more  frequently  conceded  than  they 
had  been  formerly.     They  could  also  be  applied  to  the  dead.^ 

1  "  Omiiis  utriusque  sexns  fidelis,  postquam  ad  annos  discretionis  pervenerit, 
omnia  sua  solus  peccata  confiteatur  fideliter  saltern  semel  in  anno  proprio  sacerdoti 
...  si  quis  auteni  alieno  sacerdoti  volueiit  justa  de  causa  confiteri  peccata,  licentiam 
prius  postulet  et  obtiueat  a  proprio  sacerdote,"  etc. 

•  See  §  35. 

^   Thorn.  Aquin.  Supplem.  (p.  iii. )  quaest.  25. 

*  Cf.  Thorn.  Aquin.  in  iv.  dist.  c.  45,  quaest.  2,  art.  3. 


CHURCHES  AND    THEIR    ORNAMENTATION.  121 

Under  Boniface  VIII.  the  lirst  centenary  Jubilee,  witii  the  in- 
dulgences attached  to  it,  was  introduced  in  the  year  1300.  In  order 
to  participate  in  the  blessings  promised,  hundreds  of  thousands  of 
■uen  undertook  the  toilsome  journey  to  Rome  as  pilgrims  from  all 
parts  of  the  known  world ;  and,  notwithstanding  the  immense  num- 
ber attracted  thus  to  the  Eternal  City,  the  greatest  order  prevailed. 
The  Jubilee  celebration  was  to  be  renewed  after  the  lapse  of  every 
century  ;  but  Clement  VI.  shortened  the  time  to  every  fiftieth  year, 
Urban  VI.  to  every  thirty-third,  and  Paul  II.  to  every  twenty-fifth 
year. 

The  impediment  of  consanguinity  to  marriage  was  limited  to  the 
lirst  four  degrees.  Publication  preceded  marriage.  The  marriage 
was  to  take  place  in  the  church  before  the  parish  priest  of  the 
bridal  people  ("parochus  proprius").  Clandestine  marriages  were 
forbidden.^  The  "closed  or  forbidden  time"  reached  from  Septua- 
gesima  Sunday  to  the  Octave  of  Easter,  and  from  the  first  Sunday 
in  Advent  to  the  Octave  of  the  Epiphany. 

During  a  fearful  plague  in  the  thirteenth  century  the  so-called 
Flagellants  arose  into  being.  These  Avere  a  band  of  enthusiasts  who, 
proceeding  from  a  quite  correct  view,  saw  in  the  calamities  of  the 
age  the  chastisements  of  God  for  the  sins  of  the  people,  and  sought 
to  avert  the  wrath  of  God  by  practices  of  extreme  penitential 
severity.  The  first  procession  of  Flagellants  took  place  in  Perugia 
in  1260 ;  hnt  between  1348  and  1350,  in  consequence  of  the  Black 
Plague,  numerous  troops  of  such  deluded  enthusiasts  went  about, 
scourging  themselves.  Later  on,  the  boisterous  conduct  and  heretical 
tendencies  of  many  Flagellants  called  forth  strong  measures  on  the 
part  of  the  Inquisition,  which  resulted  in  the  suppression  of  such 
processions  by  authority  of  the  Church. 

The  Inquisition  also  took  strong  measures  against  the  so-called 
Dancers  (St.  Guy's  or  St.  John's  Dancers),  who  committed  great 
excesses  on  the  Rhine,  in  the  Netherlands,  in  Alsatia,  etc.,  in  the 
fourteenth  and  fifteenth  centuries. 


§  151.   Churches  and  their  Ornamentation.  —  Religious  Art. 

The  depth  of  religious  feeling  in  the  Middle  Ages  is  manifested 
in  a  manner   not   to   be   mistaken  by  the  majestic  worship   then 

^  Lateral!  IV.  can.  50,  51.     The  ecclesiastical  legislation   on    marriages   was  not 
carried  into  effect  among  the  Slaves  until  the  twelfth  century. 


122  HISTORY  OF   THE   CATHOLIC   CHURCH. 

offered  up,  —  a  worship  which  was  by  no  means  a  merely  outward 
demonstration,  but  was,  on  the  contrary,  a  plastic  representation  of 
the  mysteries  of  faith,  the  profound  depths  of  which  were  in  some 
measure  laid  open,  as  it  were,  to  the  human  spirit,  by  scholasticism 
and  mysticism. 

For  the  worthy  celebration  of  the  sacred  mysteries,  clerics  and 
laymen  vied  with  each  other  in  erecting  magnificent  churches, 
which  bear  witness  to  the  ardent  faith  of  those  who  contributed 
the  material  means  for  their  erection  and  of  those  who  devised 
the  grand  architectural  designs.  In  ecclesiastical  architectiire  the 
Roman  or  round-arch  style,  and  from  the  middle  of  the  twelfth 
century  the  Germanic,  also  called  the  Gothic  or  pointed-arch,  was 
used.  The  time  in  which  the  latter  chiefly  flourished  was  in  the 
thirteenth  and  fourteenth  centuries.  The  former  style  is  an  expres- 
sion of  heavenly  repose  and  perfection ;  the  latter  symbolizes  the 
longing  aspiration  of  humanity  to  the  celestial  Jerusalem. 

It  was  towards  the  end  of  the  Middle  Ages  that  the  so-called 
Renaissance  took  place.  This  was  practically  a  return  to  the  lore 
of  antiquity,  and  fitly  symbolizes  the  restless  and  inconstant  spirit 
of  the  world,  which  seeks  to  intrude  itself  into  the  very  sanctuary  of 
the  Church. 

The  inner  and  outward  ornamentation  of  the  churches  corre- 
sponded to  the  style  in  which  they  were  built,  whether  Roman  or 
Gothic.  The  smallest  ornament  stands  in  perfect  harmony  with  the 
whole ;  and,  besides  this,  each  object  is  perfect  in  itself. 

The  ground  plan  of  the  churches  was  then,  what  formerly  it  had  also 
been,  —  the  cross.  The  main  entrance  was  through  a  portal  adorned 
with  pictorial  scenes  from  biblical  history ;  symbolical  images  and 
sculptured  leaves  and  blossoms  of  plants, — the  emblematic  signs 
of  some  truth.  The  surface  of  the  walls  inside  the  church,  and 
the  glass  windows,  were  frequently  adorned  with  pictorial  represen- 
tations of  scenes  from  the  Bible  or  from  the  lives  of  the  saints. 
The  high  towers  (at  least  in  the  countries  north  of  the  Alps ;  in 
Italy  the  cupola  being  more  in  vogue)  which  pointed  to  heaven 
formed  the  crowning  glor}'  of  the  whole  edifice,  on  the  outside  of 
which  were  delineated  various  ornaments  of  animals  and  plants,  but 
also  of  fantastical  figures,  such  as  dragons  and  demons,  to  signify 
that  the  Church  of  God  ruled  over  the  whole  material  world,  and 
was  the  conqueror  of  spirits. 

At  first  it  was  chiefly  the  monks  who  attended  to  church  build- 
ing ;  afterwards  the  laity  took  their  share  therein.     The  brotherhood 


RELIGIOUS  ART.  123 

of  MasonS;  which  was  organized  in  the  fourteenth  or  fifteenth 
century,  had  its  origin  as  a  religious  institution. 

A  very  particular  care  was  expended  on  the  providing  of  the 
necessary  articles  for  the  celebration  of  Mass.  Many  altars  are 
real  models  of  artistic  finish.  The  chalice  was  for  the  most  part 
of  gold  or  of  silver,  and  was  frequently  ornamented  with  precious 
stones  and  beautiful  carving  in  relievo.  The  vestments  for  Mass 
—  stoles,  chasubles,  etc.  —  were  constructed  of  the  most  costly 
material,  embroidered  in  beautiful  patterns  and  adorned  with  pearls 
and  valuable  stones.  The  Mass-books  of  these  times  still  excite 
the  admiration  of  those  who  are  connoisseurs  in  art. 

The  Holy  Eucharist  was  preserved  in  vessels  of  gold,  silver,  or 
ivory,  or  even  in  the  corporal,  according  to  the  ecclesiastical  direc- 
tions, and  then  placed  in  a  secure  position  either  in  the  church 
or  in  the  sacristy.  Tabernacles,  monstrances,  and  pyxes  for  expos- 
ing, preserving,  and  carrying  the  Blessed  Sacrament  came  gradually 
into  use. 

The  plastic  art  and  that  of  painting  were  alike  revived  by  Chris- 
tianity, and  enlisted  in  the  service  of  the  Church.  The  plastic 
art  produced  the  beautiful  sculptures  and  bas-reliefs  in  stone,  metal, 
ivory,  and  other  material  for  ornamenting  churches  and  sacred  ves- 
sels ;  while  painting  exemplified  the  mysteries  of  faith,  and  the 
history  appertaining  to  them,  thereby  teaching,  edifying,  and  in- 
spiring the  minds  of  Christians.  The  real  birthplace  of  these  arts 
is  Italy,  where  sculpture  and  painting  were  carried  to  a  marvellous 
degree  of  excellence,  and  attained  the  height  of  perfection  in  the 
fifteenth  century,  from  which  epoch  they  gradually  fell  into  decay. 

Of  the  masters  in  the  art  of  painting  belonging  to  the  School  of  Florence  we 
may  enumerate:  Cimabue  (-f-  1300),  Giotto  (+  133G),  Masaccio  (-f  1443), 
the  angelically  pure  Dominican  John  da  Fiesole  (-|-  1455),  Dominicus  Ghir- 
landajo  (+  1495),  Leonardo  da  Vinci  (-[-  1519),  Fra  Bartolomeo  (+  1517), 
and  pre-eminently  Michael  Angelo  Buonarotti  (-1-  1564),  who,  like  Giotto,  was 
also  an  excellent  sculptor  and  architect. 

The  most  important  masters  of  the  schools  of  Umbria  and  Siena  were  :  Peter 
Perugino  (Vanueci,  -|-  1524)  and  his  great  pupil  Raphael  Sanzio  (-(-  1520). 

The  School  of  Lombardy,  though  inferior  to  the  preceding,  was,  like  them, 
intimately  connected  with  the  Church. 

Of  the  Venetian  School  the  pruicipal  representatives  are  Correggio  (-f- 1534), 
Titian  (-)-  1576),  and  Bellini  (+  1516). 

As  in  Italy,  so  in  Germany,  painting  was  used  for  the  glory  of  religion. 
One  of  the  most  eminent  works  of  religious  art  is  the  picture  in  the  cathedral 
of  Cologne,  probably  the  production  of  the  master  Stephen  (about  1410). 


124  HISTORY   OF   THE    CATHOLIC    CHURCH. 

The  representatives  of  the  Netherlaud  Schtx)!  are  Hubert  (+  1426),  and 
John  van  Eyck  (+  1445),  who  invented  the  mixing  of  colors  with  oil,  instead 
of  using  the  yoli\  of  egg  for  that  purpose.  The  celebrated  Albrecht  Dilrer  be- 
longed to  the  Frankish  School  (+  15'28).  To  the  Suabian  School  belonged 
Martin  Schou  (+  1499),  and  Hans  Holbein  the  Elder  (+  1507),  and  his  son 
Hans  Holbein  the  Younger  (-f  1543). 

Miniature  painting  was  chiefly  confined  to  the  cloisters.  It  flourisheil  in 
the  fifteenth  century.  Two  distinguished  miniature-painters  of  Italy  in  the 
thirteenth  century  were  Oderisi  of  Agubbio,  and  Franco  of  Bologna.  (Cf. 
Dante,  Purgatorio,  xi  79  sqq.) 

Besides  Giotto  and  Michael  Augelo,  the  most  celebrated  sculptors  of  Italy 
were  Nicholas  of  Pisa  (+  1274),  James  della  Querela  (-f-  1438),  Lorenzo 
Ghiberti  (-|-  1445),  who  carved  the  two  bronze  gates  of  St.  John's  baptistery 
at  Florence,  and  his  pupil  Luca  della  Robbia  (-f-  1481).  The  works  of 
Donatello  of  Florence  (+  14(3(3),  a  pupil  of  the  celebrated  architect  Brunelles- 
chi,  lose  a  good  deal  of  tlieir  religious  character  by  their  imitation  of  the  pagan 
masters. 

Germany  could  also  boast  of  her  sculjitors  in  the  Middle  Ages,  though  here 
sculpture  lield  a  subordinate  position  to  that  of  architecture.  Among  the 
names  we  may  mention  are  those  of  Hadrian  Krafft  (-f-  1507),  a  master  of 
the  Frankish  School,  and  Peter  Vischer  (-)-  1520),  who  wrought  the  beautiful 
sepulchral  monument  of  St.  Sebastian  in  Nuremberg. 

England  and  France  possess  a  very  large  literature  on  religious  art. 
Nortlicote's  Life  of  Titian,  with  Anecdotes  of  the  Distinguished  Persons  of  liis 
Time.  2  vols.  London,  1830.  Vasari's  Vite  de'  Pittou  has  been  translated 
into  English. 

§  152.   Church  Hymns  and  Canticles. —  Veneration  of  Saints. 

The  faith  and  religious  spirit  of  the  nations  in  the  Middle  Ages  are 
beautifully  reflected  in  the  Latin  hymns  and  sequences, ^  as  also  in  the 
religious  hymns  in  the  mother-tongue,  which  are  alike  distinguished 
for  correct  dogma  and  poetical  elevation  ;  these  contributed  not  a 
little  to  enhance  the  solemnity  of  the  festivals. 

Before  the  so-called  Reformation  Germany  already  possessed  a 
whole  collection  of  German  hymns,  wdiich  were  chanted  by  the 
people  at  the  public  services  of  the  Church,  at  processions,  pilgrim- 
ages, and  the  like. 

1  For  instance,  the  simple  yet  exalted  "Victimae  paschali  laudes,"  which  is 
ascribed  to  St.  Peter  Damian  ;  the  lovely  *' Jesu  dulcis  memoria,"  of  St.  Bernard  ; 
the  "  Veni  sancte  spiritus,"  which  is  .said  to  have  been  written  by  King  Robert  of 
France  (+1031)  ;  tbe  deeply  affecting  "Dies  irae,"  of  Thomas  of  Celano  (+ about 
1250)  ;  the  pathetic  "  Stabat  mater  dolorosa,"  of  Jacopone  da  Todi ;  the  hymns  of  St. 
Thomas  Aquinas,  etc. 


VEXEIIATION   OF   SALXTS.  125 

The  Church  also  bestowed  great  care  and  exercised  her  zeal  in 
the  cultivation  of  the  chant  of  the  Church.  John  XXII.  issued  a 
special  decretal  ^  for  this  purpose.  In  some  dioceses  a  particular 
feast  was  introduced  in  honor  of  the  Most  Holy  Trinity.  John 
XXII.  (+  1334)  extended  the  observanc^e  of  this  feast  to  the  whole 
Church. 

-  The  veneration  of  saints,  especially  that  of  the  Mother  of  God, 
remained  a  cherished  object  of  Christian  faith  and  piety.  Among 
the  legends  of  the  saints,  the  golden  legend  of  the  Dominican  James 
of  Voragine,  Archbishop  of  Genoa  (+  1298),  was  the  most  noted,  and 
was  translated  into  all  the  popular  languages  of  the  West. 

Learned  theologians  and  inspired  poets  ^  rivalled  each  other  in 
treatises,  sermons,  and  poems  in  order  to  celebrate  the  name  and 
high  dignity  of  the  heavenly  Queen;  in  wdiose  honor  the  Church 
instituted  new  feasts,  —  that  the  universal  love  and  veneration  of 
Mary  might  find  a  corresponding  expression.  The  most  celebrated 
shrine  of  the  Blessed  Virgin  was  Loreto.^ 

To  the  festivals  already  observed.  Innocent  IV.  (1245)  added  that 
of  the  Nativity  of  Mary ;  and  the  Visitation  of  ^lary,  Avhich  Urban 
VI.  raised,  in  1389,  to  a  festival  of  the  whole  Church.  The  feast 
of  the  Immaculate  Conception  of  Mary,  which  had  already  been 
solemnized  in  the  East  for  a  long  time,  was  first  celebrated  in  1140 
by  the  canons  of  Lyons ;  and  in  despite  of  the  vehement  controversy 
between  the  Thomists  and  Scotists  respecting  the  "  immaculata 
conceptio,"  it  still  continued  to  spread  in  the  West  till  Clement  XL 
ordered  its  celebration  by  the  whole  Church.  In  1854,  on  Decem- 
ber 8,  Pope  Pius  IX.  finally  issued  a  dogmatical  decision  *  respecting 
the  article  of  faith  on  which  the  observance  of  that  festival  is 
founded. 

Other  feasts  in  honor  of  Mary  were  first  introduced  in  particular 
dioceses,  and  at  a  later  period  were  rendered  obligatory  for  the 
v/hole  Church.  The  rapid  spread  of  the  devotion  of  the  Rosary 
and  of  the  prayer  called  the  Angelical  Salutation  (the  Angelus 
Domini),  bear  witness  to  the  high  reverence  entertained  for  the 
Blessed  Virgin,  Mother  of  God,  in  the  Middle  Ages. 

1  Cap.  Docta  sctr.  patruni,  etc.     Extrav.  comm.  iii.  1. 

2  Cf.  Dante,  Parad.  Cant.  33. 

3  The  Holy  House  of  Loreto,  by  Most  Rev.  F.  E.  Kenrick,  D.D. 

^  The  bull  "  Ineffabilis  Deus  "  (Acta  Pii  IX.  i.  597).  Cf.  Passaglia,  De  immac. 
Deiparae  semper  Virg.  conceptu  comraentarius.     Rom.  1854.     3  vols. 


126  HISTORY   OF   THE    CATHOLIC    CHURCH. 


§  153.    Various  Forms  of  Superstition. 

The  various  superstitions,  the  practices  of  astrology,  necromancy, 
witchcraft,  magic,  sorcery,  and  the  like,  which  are  neither  the  spe- 
cific products  of  this  epoch  ♦nor  even  peculiar  to  it,  since  these  evils 
not  only  had  a  previous  existence,  but  have  continued  subsequently 
to  exist  in  all  succeeding  centuries,  were  nevertheless  forcibly  and 
energetically  opposed  by  the  spiritual  ^  and  civil  authorities  of  the 
age,  although  they  did  not  succeed  in  entirely  extirpating  them. 

The  most  rigorous  measures  were  pursued,  alike  by  Church  and 
State,  against  the  sinful  attempts  made  to  practise  witchcraft  by 
the  help  of  demons.  This  gave  rise  to  the  strict  and  severe  laws 
enacted  against  magic  and  sorcery. 

The  prosecution  of  those  accused  of  sorcery  also  took  place  in  the 
civil  courts  up  to  the  thirteenth  century,  when  Pope  Innocent  VIII., 
in  his  bull  ("Summis  desiderantes  affectibus")  of  the  year  1484 
assigned  the  examination  of  such  cases  to  the  spiritual  courts  alone. 
The  object  of  the  Pope  in  this  decree  was  to  eifect  a  greater  order 
in  the  judicial  proceedings  against  witchcraft. 

Although  the  processes  against  witches  were  by  no  means  limited 
to  Germany,  but  were  carried  on  in  other  countries  also,  it  is  yet 
an  historical  fact  that  it  was  principally  there  that  such  cases  oc- 
curred ;  -  and  it  is  equally  certain  that  in  th^^  seventeenth  century 
the  jurisdiction  against  sorcery  came  again  within  the  jurisdiction 
of  the  civil  courts,  both  in  Protestant  and  Catholic  countries,  and 
that  it  was  prosecuted  with  great  cruelties,  and  that  a  great  number 
of  the  accused  were  condemned  to  death. 

It  is  beyond  doubt  that  among  the  victims  were  many  innocent 
persons,  who,  overpowered  by  the  terrible  tortures  inflicted  on  them, 
confessed  crimes  which  they  had  never  committed.  On  the  other 
hand,  neither  the  possibility  of  a  criminal  alliance  with  demoniac 
powers,  nor  the  fact  that  such  has  at  times  taken  place,  can  be 
denied. 

The  credit  of  having  exercised  an  effectual  opposition  to  the  in- 

1  Against  alchemy  John  XXII.  issued  a  bull  (c.  unic.  Extrav.  comm.  v.  6).  The 
papal  ordinances  against  sorcery,  see  L.  5,  Tit,  12,  De  maleficis  et  incantoribus  in 
VII.  (Corp.  jur.  can.  ed.  Boehmer  in  Apend.  p.  171  sqcj). 

2  Spee,  Cautio  criminalis.  Dub.  15  :  "  Itali  eerte  et  Hispani,  qui  ad  speculandas  res 
et  meditandis  proniores  a  natura  videntur  esse,  cum  non  obscure  videant,  quam  si 
Germanos  imitari  velint  innumeram  innocentum  turbam  simul  abrepturi  sint,  recte 
abstinent  et  solis  nobis  urendi  hanc  provinciam  committunt." 


CHRISTIAN  INSTRUCTION.  127 

human  procedures  in  trying  those  accused  of  sorcery  belongs  to 
Cornelius  Loos  (+  1593),  in  Mentz ;  chiefly,  however,  to  the  Jesuits 
Adam  Tanner  (+  1632)  and  Frederic  von  Spee  (+  1635) ;  while  the 
Protestant  Carpzov  (+  1666)  defended  the  prosecutions  for  witch- 
craft. At  all  events,  such  prosecutions  were  in  vogue  longer  in 
Protestant  than  in  Catholic  Germany. 

§  154.   Christian  Instruction. 

The  duty  of  preaching  and  of  explaining  the  truths  of  faith  at 
the  public  services  of  the  Church,  by  sermons  and  catechetical 
instructions,  was  frequently  urged  upon  the  pastors  of  the  Church 
by  synods  ^  and  bishops. 

That  preaching  was  not  neglected  in  the  Middle  Ages,  as  has 
often  been  falsely  asserted,  is  seen  even  in  the  formularies  of  the 
examination  of  conscience  of  this  time,  in  which  the  questions 
occur,  whether  they  (the  faithful)  have  been  present  at  the  sermon 

^  "  Manuals  Parochialium  "  of  the  year  1255  says  :  "  Ipsi  presbyteri  curati  sanctae 
praedicationi  in  ecclesiis  suis  insistant  pro  viribus,  xit  sic  et  verbo  praedicent  et  ex- 
emplo.  Alioquin  ultionem  diviiiam  debent  admodum  formidare.  Ait  enini  Doniinus 
ad  Ezechielem  prophetam  ;  Fili  hominis  speculatorem  dedi  te  domui  Israel.  Audiens 
ergo  ex  ore  meo  sermonem  annunciabis,"  etc.  (Daniel,  Theol.  Controversy.  Halle, 
1843,  p.  80.)  Cf.  Cone.  /?iSit/(i?m??i  [Isle  near  Avignon]  (1251),  c.  1:  "  Prinmni  capi- 
tulum  de  fide  Catholica  frequenter  praedicanda,  scl.  secundum  quod  in  Arelatensi  con- 
cilio  olim  noscitur  constitutum  "  (Harduin,  vii.  433).  Cone.  Albiense  (1254),  c  17. 
"  Praecipimus,  quod  sacerdotes  parochiales  per  se  vel  per  alios  saejjius  studeant  expo- 
nere  populo  diebus  Dominicis  et  festivis  artieulos  fidei  simpliciter  ac  distincte  .  .  .  et 
ad  hoc  idem  in  sua  dioecesi  frequentiiis  et  diligentius  faciendum  quilibet  episcopus  sit 
intentus,  etc.  (L.  c.  vii.  460.)  Cone.  Lambeth  (1281.)  Cone.  Mocjunl.  (1310). 
Cone.  Vaarense  (Lavaur,  1368).  Cmic.  Basil.  (1433)  commands  :  "  Ut  hi  quibus  ani- 
marum  cura  coramissa  est,  diebus  Dominicis  et  aliis  solemnitatibus  plebem  subjectam 
doctrinis  et  monitis  salutaribus  instruant."  {Hard.  viii.  1169).  This  injunction  was 
repeated  by  the  diocesan  and  provincial  synods  of  the  fifteenth  century.  The  ascetic 
writings  and  homilies  of  this  era  also  inculcate  the  necessity  that  exists  that  the  pas- 
tors of  souls  should  attend  to  the  duty  of  preaching.  Surgant,  Manuale  curat,  (ed. 
Argent.  1506)  Prolog,  says:  "Quilibet  rector  ecclesiae  parochialis  habet  officium 
praedicandi  de  jure  conimuni  in  eccl.  sua  per  se  vel  alium  .  .  .  cura  enim  et  regimen 
animarum  praecipue  m  verbo  Dei  consistit,  cum  in  ista  instructione  docetur  via,  per 
quam  pergendum  est  ad  regnurn  coelorum,"  etc.  The  faithful  were  admonished  to 
attend  the  sermon  diligently.  Of.  Si/rr/ant,  1.  c.  Consid.  4,  fol.  8  :  "  Xon  minus 
enim  reus  est,  qui  verbum  Dei  negligenter  audierit,  quam  qui  corpus  Christi  in  terram 
cadere  permiserit."  A  synod  of  York  (1360)  declares  :  "On  Sunday  to  listen  to  the 
Word  of  God  in  the  mother-tongue  is  better  than  to  be  present  at  several  Masses." 
{Collier,  Eccles.  Hist,  of  Great  Britain,  iv.  28.     Lond.  1852.)     Cf.  Janssen,YoL  I,  b.  1. 


128  HISTORY   OF   THE    CATHOLIC   CHURCH. 

and  Holy  Mass,  and  whether  they  have  afforded  those  belonging  to 
them  and  those  dependent  on  them  the  opportunity  of  hearing  the 
sermon. 

A  further  witness  for  the  diligent  performance  of  the  preaching 
office  is  afforded  by  the  abundant  literature  of  sermons  handed 
down  to  us,  —  manuals  of  homilies,  model  sermons,  preachers'  lexi- 
cons, and  similar  works,  —  several  editions  of  which  are  yet  extant, 
and  effectually  disprove  the  arrogant  assertion  that  the  sermons  of 
the  Middle  Ages  were  shallow  and  superficial. 

Lastly,  in  almost  every  city  benefices  were  set  apart  for  preachers. 
Contemporaries  bear  witness,  and  Luther's  adherents  could  not  deny, 
that  preaching  was  by  no  means  neglected  in  the  Middle  Ages. 

The  Holy  Scriptures  were  recommended  to  the  preachers  of  the 
Middle  Ages,  by  the  Church  and  in  homiletic  instructions,  as  the 
sources  whence  to  take  their  text.  The  sermons  were  delivered  in 
the  mother-tongue,  though  for  the  most  part  composed  in  Latin. 
During  Lent  it  was  usual  to  preach  every  day  in  the  cities,  and 
often  in  several  churches ;  in  the  country  there  was  preaching 
three  times  a  week  at  this  season.  On  Good  Friday  the  history  of 
our  Lord's  passion  was  expounded,  which  made  the  sermon  of  that 
day  unusually  long. 

Catechetical  instruction,  the  giving  of  which  the  Church  imposed 
as  a  duty  on  parents,  teachers,  and  pastors,  was  frequently  united 
with  the  instruction  given  for  confession,  and  extended  to  the  Ten 
Commandments,  sacraments,  etc.,  which  Christian  truths  were  also 
thoroughly  explained  in  the  numerous  manuals  circulated ;  some 
being  destined  for  the  clergy  and  others  for  the  people. 

There  were  also  popular  religious  books,  expositions  of  the  Gos- 
pels and  Epistles  (Plenaries),  which,  with  pictorial  representations 
from  the  Old  and  New  Testaments,  served  to  teach  and  edify  the 
faithful.  The  Poor  Man's  Bible  ("  Biblia  pauperum  ")  made  them 
acquainted  with  the  principal  events  of  the  Old  and  Kew  Testaments. 
The  allegorical  representations  "The  Art  of  Dying"  ("Ars  mo- 
riendi")  and  ''The  Dance  of  Death  "  ^  were  intended  to  convince 
them  of  the  nothingness  of  this  life,  and  to  direct  their  aspirations 
to  the  heavenly  fatherland. 

What  is  said  in  this  paragraph  may  suffice  to  refute  the  bold  as- 
sertion that  before  Luther's  time  the  grossest  ignorance  prevailed 
among  clergy  and  people. 

1  Donee's  The  Dance  of  Death.     London,  1833. 


MORAL  AND  RELIGIOUS   LIFE.  129 

Among  the  most  eminent  preachers  of  the  Middle  Ages,  besides 
those  mentioned  in  §§  139-142,  are  the  two  Dominicans  John  of 
Vicenza  and  Joi-danus  of  Saxony,  with  Berthold  of  Ratisbon,  St. 
Vincent  Ferrer,  who  combated  heresy  in  Spain  and  preached  penance 
in  other  places,  and  St.  John  Capistranus,  who  defended  the  faith 
against  the  Hussites  and  incited  the  Christians  to  light  against  the 
Turks. 

Among  the  preachers  of  the  fifteenth  century  may  be  mentioned  : 
Gabriel  Marietta  (about  1470),  Jerome  Savonarola  (see  §  155),  Ga- 
briel Biel,  the  Hungarian  Franciscan  Pelbart  (about  1500),  and 
Geiler  of  Kaisersberg  (+ 1513),  at  Strasburg. 

§  155.  Moral  and  Religious  Life. 

In  considering  the  spiritual  condition  of  the  clergy  and  laity  of  the 
Middle  Ages,  we  are  reminded  of  the  picture,  in  Matt.  xiii.  24  sqq., 
drawn  by  our  Savior,  of  his  Church  ;  for  the  political  and  domestic 
life  of  that  time  presents  us  at  one  and  the  same  time  with  a  bril- 
liantly lighted  picture  and  one  of  a  darkly  shadowed  aspect. 

The  genuine  Christian  life  of  this  period  is  portrayed  in  the  Cru- 
sades ;  in  the  pilgrimages  to  Palestine  and  other  holy  places ;  in 
the  newly  founded  monastic  brotherhoods,  the  members  of  which 
met  with  so  loving  a  recognition  among  all  classes  of  people  ;  in 
the  building  and  adorning  of  innumerable  churches  in  all  parts 
of  the  Christian  world ;  in  the  numerous  bequests  to  churches  o.nd 
cloisters,  as  also  in  the  care  taken  of  the  poor ;  and,  lastly,  in  the 
guilds  and  fraternities  of  craftsmen,  which  at  first  bore  a  thoroughly 
religious  stamp,  however  much,  at  a  later  period,  the  principle  of 
combination  for  a  definite  purpose  may  have  been  abused. 

Even  the  theatrical  entertainments  and  popular  amusements  of 
the  ^Middle  Ages  were  pervaded  by  a  religious  spirit.  The  richly 
ascetic  literature,  in  which  the  "  Following  of  Christ "  ("  Imitatio 
Christi ")  holds  a  prominent  place,  served  to  foster  and  promote 
the  true  virtue  of  an  interiorly  pious  life. 

In  the  Middle  Ages  the  number  of  saints  who  reached  the  high- 
est degree  of  perfection  is  very  great ;  but  not  less  remarkable  is 
the  vast  host  of  such  souls,  who  by  their  lives  and  works  present  a 
faithful  imitation  of  the  divine  example,  though  in  a  lower  degree. 
The  power  and  grace  of  God  manifested  themselves  in  an  extraordi- 
nary manner  in  St.  Hildegardis ;  St.  Elizabeth  of  Thuringia;  St. 
Angela  of  Foligny  (-{- 1309)  ;  in  the  Maid  of  Orleans,  Joan  of  Are 


130  HISTORY  OF   THE   CATHOLIC   CHURCH. 

(+ 1431),  the  savior  of  her  country,  who,  alas  !  met  with  so  tragical 
an  end ;  in  St.  Catherine  of  Siena  (+  1380),  and  her  contemporary 
St.  Bridget  of  Sweden  (+  1373),  with  her  daughter  Catherine 
(+ 1381),  St.  Catherine  of  Genoa  (+  1510),  Nicholas  of  Fllie,  etc. 

Christian  piety  and  Christian  discipline  prevailed  also  in  the  do- 
mestic life  of  private  families,  although  it  is  not  to  be  denied  that 
tepidity  and  religious  indifference  had  laid  hold  of  many  hearts,  and 
taken  possession  of  the  understandings  of  many  Christians.  This 
was  the  case  in  the  hfteenth  century,  more  than  in  the  preceding 
ages,  and  was  mainly  attributable  to  an  obscene  literature  composed 
and  spread  by  the  Humanists.  However  severe  a  judgment  may  be 
passed  on  these  spiritual  and  moral  aberrations,  it  must  at  least  be 
conceded  that  the  disorders  so  strikingly  manifesting  the  ignorance, 
frivolity,  etc.,  of  the  age,  were  not  by  any  means  universal ;  they 
were  but  exceptions,  not  affecting  the  great  majority. 

How  unfounded  are  the  accusations  that  the  Church  has  done 
nothing  for  the  religious  education  of  the  people,  and  that  she 
has  withheld  the  Scriptures  from  the  laity,  is  amply  proved  by  the 
ninety-eight  printed  Latin  editions  of  the  Bible,  and  the  numerous 
translations  into  the  mother-tongue  which  were  made  before  the 
appearance  of  Luther.^ 

Regarding  the  clergy,  the  historian  may  neither  make  use  of  the 
unreliable  and  inconsistent  Walter  von  der  Vogelweide  or  of  other 
minnesingers,  nor  yet  of  the  frivolous  Humanists,  as  sources  whence 
to  draw  his  information  in  this  respect ;  rather  must  he  have  re- 
course to  the  decrees  of  the  councils,  the  writings  of  trustworthy 
clerics  and  laymen,  and  the  undeniable  facts  of  history :  these  alone 
will  enable  him  to  form  a  correct  judgment. 

From  these  historical  documents  it  appears  that  a  considerable 
number  of  the  secular  and  regular  clergy  did  not  honor  their  State 
either  by  their  learning  or  by  their  virtuous  conduct,  and  that  eccle- 
siastical discipline  had  greatly  declined  in  many  cloisters  of  both 
monks  and  nuns. 

Impartial  history  informs  us  that  this  decline,^  which  has  been 

1  GcffcJcen,  a  Protestant  writer,  also  rejects  this  gi-oss  and  unfounded  accusation. 

2  The  assertion  of  some  historians  that  the  decline  among  the  clergy,  regular  and 
.secular,  in  science  and  morals  had  incontestably  been  one  of  the  chief  causes  of  the 
rapid  spread  of  Protestantism,  is  contrary  to  history,  which  proves  that  a  great  part 
of  the  clergy  oi>posed  an  energetic  resistance  to  the  innovations  of  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury. That  the  so-called  Old  Religious  Orders  were  not  in  a  state  of  general  degenera- 
tion and  moral  depravity,  as  these  are  sometimes  represented  to  have  been  at  the  time 


MORAL  AXD   RELIGIOUS   LIFE.  131 

greatly  exaggerated,  among  the  clergy  was  usually  caused  by  dis- 
regarding the  canonical  laws  concerning  the  education  and  appoint- 
naent  of  bishops,  and  by  elevating  unworthy  sons  of  the  nobility 
to  the  episcopal  chair  or  to  the  cathedral  chapter  without  reference 
to  their  knowledge  or  capability  of  fulfilling  the  duties  of  their 
office,  as  also  by  setting  at  nought  the  ecclesiastical  precepts  regard- 
ing the  qualifications  necessary  for  admission  into  the  clerical  state 
or  the  monastic  life,  and  by  the  want  of  a  proper  supervision  of 
the  inferior  clergy  on  the  part  of  their  superiors. 

To  remedy  these  disorders,  synods  and  statutes  of  particular 
bishoprics  renewed  their  ancient  ordinances  concerning  the  deport- 
ment and  conduct  of  the  clergy,  and  strictly  enjoined  the  observance 
of  the  ancient  ecclesiastical  laws,  admonishing  both  the  secular  and 
regular  clergy  to  give  themselves  to  watchfulness,  study,  and  prayer, 
while  imposing  severe  chastisements  as  a  penalty  for  not  observing 
the  laws  relating  to  these.  In  the  ascetic  manuals  particularly  in- 
tended for  the  clergy,  priests  are  urgently  admonished  to  live  up 
to  their  high  dignity,  and  to  perform  worthily  their  exalted  func- 
tions. Had  the  bishops  always  kept  a  watchful  eye  upon  the  strict 
observance  of  the  ecclesiastical  laws,  many  scandals  would  have 
been  spared  the  Church. 

Unfortunately,  the  disordered  state  of  affairs  in  the  West,  the 
prevalence  of  a  worldly  spirit  among  many  bishops,  nay,  for  a  time 
in  tlie  Apostolic  See  itself,  greatly  contributed  to  undermine  the 
spiritual  life  of  the  clergy.  The  exile  of  Avignon  and  the  great 
schism  with  its  sad  results  impeded  the  execution  of  ecclesiastical 
decrees  in  their  entire  severity. 

After  the  violent  storm  of  the  so-called  Reformation,  which  shook 
off  many  withered  leaves  from  the  tree  of  life  of  the  Church,  the 
clergy  as  a  body  arose  to  a  new,  spiritual,  and  virtuous  life.  And 
even  in  those  times  when  the  decline  had  been  most  conspicuous, 
there  were  among  the  clergy,  secular  and  regular,  a  considerable 
number  of  eminent  men  whose  efforts  were  by  no  means  fruitless, 
though  powerless  to  avert  the  great  catastrophe  of  the  sixteenth 
century.  When,  in  particular,  the  clergy  of  Germany  are  branded 
as  models  of  ignorance  and  of  moral  corruption,  it  is  placed  beyond 

of  the  Reformation,  is,  besides  the  numerous  learned  works  of  their  divines,  disproved 
by  the  Large  number  of  their  members,  in  all  countries,  who,  for  their  love  of  truth 
and  opposition  to  heresy,  have  received  the  crown  of  martyrdom.  See  on  this  point 
P.  Gaudcntius,  Contributions  to  the  Church  History  of  the  Sixteenth  and  Seventeenth 
Centuries. 


132  HISTORY  OF   THE   CATHOLIC   CHURCH. 

all  doubt  that  her  episcopal  sees  were  occupied  by  men  who  by 
their  lives  aud  teachings  gave  a  brilliant  example  to  the  flocks 
under  their  charge  ;  nay,  among  the  inferior  clergy  there  were  a 
considerable  number  of  educated  men  of  pure  morals.-' 

While  men  and  women/-^  gifted  alike  with  intelligence  aud  divine 
inspiration,  raised  their  voices  in  warning,  in  admonition,  and  in 
prayer  for  the  regeneration  of  the  clergy  and  the  people,  the 
heretics,  especially  the  Fratricelli  (§  124),  took  advantage  of  the 
disorders  of  the  time  to  attack  the  Church  itself,  and  by  their  false 
prophecies  still  further  to  add  to  the  disturbances. 

It  may  be  proper  in  this  place  to  mention  some  of  those  men  who 
are  frequently  alluded  to,  and  even  designated,  as  forerunners  of  the 
so-called  Reformation  of  the  sixteenth  century. 

It  is  with  the  greatest  injustice,  and  in  utter  contradiction  to 
historical  fact,  that  the  learned  and  pure-minded  Dominican  Savo- 
narola, in  San  Marco,  at  Florence,  is  so  designated ;  for  this  great 
enthusiast  for  religion  and  morality  remained  faithful  alike  to  the 
Catholic  Church  and  to  his  vows  even  to  his  last  moment.  He 
died  in  intimate  communion  with  the  Church,  and  in  sincere  obe- 
dience to  her  Supreme  Head,  expiating  by  a  penitential  death  the 
faults  which  he  had  committed  in  the  last  years  of  his  life  under 
the  excitement  of  a  zeal  arising  from  an  over-ardent  temperament. 

The  teaching  of  John  Wessel  (born  1419,  died  in  a  convent  1489), 
who  was  styled  "Lux  mundi  —  Magistrum  contradictionum,""  has 
no  relation  wliatever  to  the  errors  of  Luther. 

John  of  Goch,  prior  of  the  Augustinian  ]Monastery  at  Mechlin 
(+ 1475),  aud  John  of  AVesel  taught  manifest  errors,  similar  to  those 
of  Luther.  The  latter  (+  1482)  submitted  to  the  decision  of  the 
ecclesiastical  authority. 

The  beneficial  influence  exercised  by  the  Church  on  political  life 
is  seen  from  the  fact  that  she  united  nations  heretofore  divided 
into  many  parties  hostile  to  one  another,  and  from  chaotic  disorder 
formed  well-constituted  States,  which  became  a  central  point  of 
union  and  stability  in  the  restoration  of  the  Western  Empire. 

Although  in  the  course  of  time  conflicts  arose  between  the  tem- 
poral  and    spiritual    powers,   struggles   between  the    imperial   and 

1  Even  James  Wimpheling,  the  severe  censor  of  the  clergy,  confesses  that  he  knows 
numerous  ecclesiastics  distinguished  for  learning  and  science,  and  enjoying  a  reputa- 
tion of  irreproachable  morals.  The  writers  of  the  Middle  Ages  enumerated  by 
Trithem.  De  script,  eccl.  testify  that  science  was  not  neglected  by  the  clergy. 

2  See  §  142,  and  above. 


RETROSPECT.  133 

sacerdotal  rights,  the  independence  of  each  was  maintained.  It  was 
reserved  for  the  so-called  Reformation  of  the  sixteenth  century  to 
bestow  on  temporal  princes  the  dignity  of  Pontifex  Maximus. 

Even  as  the  Church  reorganized  the  State,  so  also  did  she  infuse 
her  regenerative  spirit  into  legislation,  and  inspire  those  glorious 
laws  of  the  Middle  Ages  which,  equally  averse  to  a  false  freedom 
as  to  a  despotic  absolutism,  place  obedience  to  God  at  the  head  of 
all  laws,  while  they  nrge  that  the  commandment  to  obey  those  who 
are  kings  and  princes  by  the  grace  of  God,  —  that  is,  the  duly 
appointed  authorities,  —  is  equally  inherent  in  these  same  laws. 


§  156.  Retrospect  concerning  the  Influence  exercised  hy  the 
Church  in  the  Middle  Ages. 

In  order  to  recognize  the  influence  of  the  Church  during  the 
Middle  Ages,  we  need  but  compare,  in  an  impartial  spirit,  the  intel- 
lectual and  moral  condition  of  the  nations  at  the  opening  and  at 
the  close  of  the  period  under  discussion. 

When  the  Church  directed  her  attention  to  the  Germanic  and 
Slavic  tribes  with  the  view  of  converting  them,  she  had  to  encoun- 
ter on  the  one  hand  the  darkness  of  paganism,  on  the  other  the 
deceptive  heresies  to  which  they  had  given  themselves,  both  of 
which  finally  yielded  to  the  light  of  faith. 

Together  with  the  supernatural  mysteries  of  faith,  the  Church 
brought  to  these  same  nations,  which  stood  at  a  very  low  stage  of 
civilization,  the  treasures  of  natural  science.  She  founded  those 
excellent  institutions  which  afterwards  became  universities,  —  uni- 
versities which  cherished  a  knowledge  proceeding  from  the  pro- 
foundest,  most  fervent  depths  of  objective  Christianity,  and  which 
are  alike  a  marvellous  product  of  Christian  genius  and  a  memorable 
monument  of  intellectual  power  :  they  may  best  be  compared  with 
the  art  and  genius  which  at  the  same  period  called  into  being  the 
grand  minsters  and  cathedrals  of  the  Christian  world. 

But  it  was  not  theology  and  philosophy  alone  which  engaged  their 
attention  ;  other  branches  of  human  knowledge,  such  as  historical 
Avriting,  poetry,  and  the  like,  developed  themselves,  under  the  pro- 
tection of  the  Church,  to  an  admirable  degree  of  perfection.  The 
studies  of  the  Humanists  were  also  promoted,  —  nay,  in  many  respects 
may  be  said  to  have  been  rendered  possible,  — because  in  the  same 
measure  in  which  the  Church  hates  a  false  and  godless  explanation 


134  HISTORY  OF  THE   CATHOLIC   CHURCH. 

of  phenomena,  does  she  foster  and  encourage  in  her  children  the 
pursuit  of  true  science. 

What  the  Church  has  done  for  art  is  best  illustrated  by  pointing 
to  the  glorious  monuments  of  mediaeval  erection,  in  which  the 
inventive  genius  of  mankind,  illumined  by  the  interior  light  of 
faith,  has  achieved  an  everlasting  triumph. 

The  ennobling  spirit  of  the  Church  in  the  Middle  Ages  was  also 
effective  in  its  operation  on  the  hearts  of  men.  It  transformed 
them  from  savage  hordes  to  civilized  and  virtuous  men.  The 
Church  could  not,  it  is  true,  eradicate  every  disorder  from  domestic 
and  political  life ;  and  many  times  evils  proceeding  from  such  dis- 
order spread  and  increased,  as  is  clearly  proved  by  the  complaints 
and  enactments  of  synods  and  enlightened  bishops.  But  these 
disorders  do  not  rob  the  Church  of  the  merit  of  having  raised  the 
nations  intrusted  to  her  from  a  state  of  barbarism  to  one  of  a  higher 
civilization  and  culture. 

In  this  way  the  Church  had  amply  acquitted  herself  of  her  mis- 
sion in  the  Middle  Ages,  and  needed  not  reformation  by  the  hand 
of  man  in  the  sixteenth  century ;  rather  Avas  it  man  that  was  ever 
in  need  of  spiritual  and  moral  regeneration  through  the  Church. 
"  Homines  per  sacra  immutari  fas  est,  non  sacra  per  homines " 
("  iNIen  must  be  changed  by  that  which  is  holy,  not  that  which  is 
holy  be  changed  by  men  "),  —  words  of  ^Egidius  of  Viterbo,  General 
of  the  Augustinians,  spoken  at  the  opening  of  the  Fifth  Lateran 
Council. 


Ct)trU    epocf)- 


PERIOD   I. 

Fli03I    THE    SO-CALLED    REFORMATION    TO    THE 
FRENCH    REVOLUTION. 


A.     EXTERIOR   HISTORY  OF  THE   CHURCH. 
I.     SPREAD   OF  CHRISTIANITY. 

§  157.    Missions  in  India.,  Cochin  China,  Tonquin,  Siam, 
Thibet,  etc. 

AT  the  very  time  that  apostate  priests  and  monks  aud  avaricious 
rulers  were  intent  on  robbing  the  Catholic  nations  of  the 
West,  by  force  or  by  cunning,  of  the  faith  of  their  fathers,  numerous 
missionaries  were  traversing  the  immeasurable  regions  of  Asia  and 
Africa  and  the  primeval  forests  of  America  to  convert  the  idolatrous 
inhabitants  to  the  faith  of  Christ.^  Besides  the  newly  founded 
orders  of  the  Jesuits  and  the  Capuchins,  the  old  orders  took  a 
noble  part  in  the  missionary  work,  which  was  under  the  supreme 
direction  of  the  Congregation  of  the  Propaganda,  founded  by  Pope 
Gregory  XV.  in  the  year  1622.^ 

The  apostle  of  Hindostan  is  St.  Francis  Xavier,  S.  J.,^  —  one  of 
the  founders  of  the  Society  of  Jesus.  In  the  year  1542  he  landed  at 
Goa ;  and  after  converting  the  Portuguese  colonists,  who  were  Chris- 

1  Fahricii,  Lux  salutaris  Evaiigelii,  p.  662  sqq.  Mamachi,  Orig.  et  antiquit. 
Christ,  lib.  ii.  p.  2.  Henrion,  Hist,  des  Missions.  Marshall,  The  Christian 
Missions. 

-  Congregatio  de  propaganda  fide.  Pope  Urban  VIII.  established  a  seminary  (Col- 
legium Urbanum)  for  the  education  of  missionaries  from  all  countries.  The  Propa- 
ganda possesses  a  large  printing-office,  which  prints  books  in  all  languages  for  the 
missions.  (Feast  of  Languages  on  the  Sunday  after  the  Epiphany. )  In  Paris,  in  1663, 
the  seminary  for  foreign  missions  was  founded.  Besides  these  large  institutions,  there 
were  eighty  other  smaller  seminaries  for  missions. 

3  Tursellini,  Vita  scri  Franc.  Xav.  lib.  vi.  Rom.  1594.  Epist.  lat.  Rom.  1596. 
On  the  missions  in  India,  see  Muffci,  Hist.  Ind.  Flor.  1588. 


136  HISTORY  OF   THE   CATHOLIC   CHURCH. 

tians  in  name  only,  he  went  among  the  Pai-arians  on  the  fishing- 
coast,  where  he  oj^ened  his  mission,  which  he  subsequently  extended 
to  the  shores  of  Travancor  and  the  island  of  Ceylon.  He  also 
established  churches  in  Malacca  and  on  the  Moluccas  (isles),  every- 
where converting  numerous  heathens  and  Mahometans.  His  success 
may  be  ascribed  not  only  to  the  pecviliar  qualifications  and  self- 
sacrificing  zeal  of  the  great  missionary,  but  still  more  to  the  un- 
doubted gift  of  miracles  with  which  God  assisted  him  in  his  work. 
Leaving  the  further  prosecution  of  his  work  in  India  to  be  continued 
by  members  of  his  order,  St.  Francis  set  out  on  the  toilsome  journey 
to  Japan. 

The  exertions  of  the  missionaries  among  the  Hindoos  were  too 
often  frustrated  by  the  sharp  line  drawn  between  the  castes,  as  well 
as  by  other  causes ;  for  instance,  the  communication  which  took 
place  between  the  Jesuits  and  the  Pariahs  prevented  intercourse 
between  the  former  and  the  caste  of  Brahmins. 

In  order  to  remove  this  impediment,  the  Jesuit  Kobert  Xobili, 
in  1G06,  with  the  approbation  of  the  Archbishop  of  Cranganore,  in 
Mandura,  took  upon  himself  the  character  of  a  Sanias,  or  peniten- 
tial Brahmin,  followed  to  the  letter  their  severe  mode  of  life,  and 
avoided  all  intercourse  with  the  Pariahs.  In  this  way  he  soon  won 
the  confidence  and  good-will  of  the  Brahmins,  and  led  many  into  the 
Church.  Other  missionaries  followed  the  example  of  Nobili ;  and 
the  missionary  work  was  progressing  successfully,  when  it  came  to 
a  halt  in  the  matter  of  "Malabar  usages  or  customs." 

The  missionaries  of  other  orders  did  not  approve  of  the  accommo- 
dating methods  in  use  practised  by  the  Jesuits,  and  combated  the 
peculiar  usages  of  the  Hindoos,  which  the  Jesuit  missionaries  looked 
upon  as  unimportant,  and  tolerated  for  the  sake  of  attaining  a 
greater  advantage.  The  conflict  soon  assumed  an  importance  that 
rendered  it  necessary  to  have  recourse  to  the  Apostolic  See  for 
decision.  To  restore  peace,  Clement  XL  sent  the  titular  patriarch 
of  Antioch,  afterwards  Cardinal  Tournon,  to  India.  He  arrived  at 
Pondichery  in  1703,  heard  the  Jesuits  and  their  opponents,  and 
rejected  the  Malabar  customs.  The  Pope  confirmed  this  decision, 
adding,  however,  the  proviso  "  until  the  Holy  See  shall  decide 
otherwise."  His  successor,  Clement  XII.  (1739),  and  Benedict  XIV. 
(1744),  renewed  the  prohibition,  and  laid  on  the  missionaries  the  ob- 
ligation of  obedience.  Meantime  the  representations  of  the  Jesuits 
effected  some  modification  in  the  decree  of  Tournon  as  regards  some 
particular  points. 


CHRISTIANITY  IN  CHINA,   JAPAN,   AND  AFRICA.  Vol 

Besides  these  controversies,  the  decline  of  the  Portuguese  author- 
ity in  the  East  Indies  proved  specially  prejudicial  to  the  Catholic 
missionaries,  since  the  new  rulers  of  the  country,  the  English,  hin- 
dered them  altogether  in  the  fulfilment  of  their  vocation,  or  laid 
serious  obstacles  in  the  way,  which  made  it  difficult  for  them  to 
proceed. 

In  India,  beyond  the  Ganges,  Christianity  made  great  conquests. 
St.  Francis  Xavier  had  already  preached  the  gospel  on  the  peninsula 
of  Malay. 

The  Jesuits  had  labored  in  Cochin  China  from  the  year  1618,  and 
since  1627  in  Tonquin  also  ;  they  founded  Christian  communities, 
which  remained  there  in  part,  despite  the  violent  persecutions  which 
took  place,  particularly  in  the  years  1694,  1721,  and  1734. 

In  Siam  the  Christian  religion  made  fine  progress ;  it  was  still 
more  successful  in  the  Philippine  Islands,  which  were  under  the 
dominion  of  Spain.  As  early  as  1597  the  episcopal  see  of  Manilla, 
established  in  1579,  was  formed  into  an  archiepiscopal  see,  and  three 
other  bishoprics  were  subordinated  to  it. 

The  efforts  of  the  Jesuits  (1624)  to  preach  the  gospel  in  Thibet 
were  unsuccessful.  The  Capuchins,  under  their  superior,  Father 
Horace  della  Penna,  were  more  fortunate ;  for  the  Dalai  Lama  per- 
mitted them  in  1707  to  preach  the  gospel  in  his  empire.  In  1637 
and  1742  persecutions  broke  out  which  retarded  the  progress  of  the 
missions. 

§  158.    Christianity/  in  China  and  Japan,  and  in  Africa. 

Since  the  fifteenth  century  the  Chinese  Empire  had  been  shut 
to  the  gospel  messengers,  and  it  was  the  efforts  of  the  Jesuits  that 
first  succeeded  in  sowing  the  seed  of  Christianity  in  the  Celestial 
Emj)ire.  St.  Francis  Xavier  had  already  conceived  the  plan  of 
preaching  the  gospel  in  China,  but  was  compelled  to  leave  the  exe- 
cution of  this  idea  to  other  members  of  his  order,  who  in  1582 
began'  their  labors  in  this  country. 

At  the  head  of  the  three  missionaries  who  came  to  China  at  this 
time  was  Matteo  Ricci,  from  Macerata.  At  first  he  labored  at 
Canton  and  Nanking,  where  he  learned  the  language  and  the  cus- 
toms of  the  natives ;  and  in  the  year  1600  he  went  to  Pekin,  where 
his  extensive  knowledge  gained  him  the  favor  of  the  emperor,  who 
permitted  him  to  establish  missionary  stations  in  the  capital  and  in 
the  provinces  (+  1610). 


138  HISTORY  OF   THE   CATHOLIC   CHURCH. 

Still  more  successful  was  Father  John  Adam  Schall  of  Cologne 
(after  1622),  whom  the  Emperor  Xuutschiii  first  elevated  to 
the  rank  of  a  Mandarin  and  President  of  the  Mathematical  Society 
of  Pekin. 

After  the  death  of  Xuntschin  a  revolution  broke  out,  which  cost 
many  Christians  their  lives.  Among  the  victims  was  Father  Schall 
(+ 1666).  The  insurgents  were  not,  however,  able  to  suppress 
Christianity ;  and  when  peace  was  once  more  restored,  the  mis- 
sionaries resumed  their  laborious  undertaking.  The  new  emperor, 
Khanghi,  was  a  great  patron  of  the  Christians.  He  appointed 
the  Jesuit  Ferdinand  Verbiest  of  Bruges  (+ 1688)  President  of  the 
Mathematical  Society,  and  in  1692  permitted  the  Chinese  to  adopt 
Christianity  at  their  own  free-will. 

The  controversies  respecting  the  so-called  "  Chinese  usages  "  proved 
a  great  disadvantage  to  the  missions.  This  dispute  first  arose  from 
the  veneration  paid  by  the  Chinese  to  their  ancestors  and  to  Con- 
fucius. The  Jesuits  considered  these  customs,  which  had  existed 
from  primeval  times  and  were  sanctioned  by  the  civil  law,  as 
purel)^  civic  transactions,  and  tolerated  them  under  certain  re- 
strictions among  their  new  converts.  The  Dominicans,  on  the 
other  hand,  who  had  labored  in  China  since  the  year  1633,  de- 
clared these  customs  idolatrous,  and  forbade  the  Christians  to 
observe  them. 

To  put  an  end  to  the  conflict,  the  Congregation  of  the  Propa- 
ganda, at  the  instigation  of  the  Dominican  Morales  in  1645,  with 
the  consent  of  Pope  Innocent  X.,  prohibited  the  "  Chinese  usages  " 
until  the  Apostolic  See  should  decide  otherwise.  This  decree 
was,  however,  modified,  on  the  representations  of  the  Jesuit 
Martini,  and  in  its  modified  form  was  approved  by  Alexander  VII, 
in  1656. 

Tranquillity  was  not,  however,  entirely  restored,  and  after  a  while 
the  miserable  dissension  was  again  renewed.  The  matter  in  dispute 
had  reference  chiefly  to  the  use  of  the  two  words,  Tien  and  Khangti 
(heaven),  which  are  used  by  the  Chinese  to  signify  God. 

The  condemnation  of  the  "  Chinese  usages,"  which  had  been  pro- 
nounced by  the  Apostolic  Vicai*,  Charles  Maigrot  (1693),  was  re- 
peated by  the  papal  legate  Tournon  (1702)  ;  and  Pope  Clement  XI. 
confirmed  the  prohibition  in  the  bull  "  Ex  ilia  die  "  (1715),  and 
Benedict  XIV.  reaffirmed  it  under  severe  penalties  in  1742  by  his 
bull  "Ex  quo  singvilari"  (1742).  The  Jesuits  immediately  submitted 
to  the  papal  decision. 


CHRISTIANITY  IN   CHINA,  JAPAN,   AND   AFRICA.     139 

The  death  of  the  Emperor  Khanghi  (+  1722)  was  a  great  loss  to 
the  Christians ;  for  under  his  son  Yong-tsching  (+  1735)  a  great  per- 
secution of  the  Church  broke  out,  which  continued  under  Emperor 
Kieu-long  (+  1799),  and  many  fell  victims  to  it. 

St.  Francis  Xavier  had  introduced  the  gospel  into  Japan  as  early 
as  1549.  Members  of  his  order  continued  the  work  begun  by  him, 
and  the  Christian  religion  triumphed  gloriously  over  idolatry.  Men 
and  women  of  the  highest  classes,  even  some  princes,  entered  the 
Church,  and  drew  after  them  many  of  the  lower  classes.  In  the  year 
1585  a  noble  embassy  of  Christian  Japanese  went  to  Rome  to  Pope 
Gregory  XIII. 

But  as  early  as  1587  a  cruel  and  protracted  persecution  broke  out 
against  the  Church  in  Japan.  The  first  enemy  of  the  Christians  was 
the  Emperor  Taikosama,  who  commanded  the  missionaries  to  leave 
the  country,  had  many  churches  pulled  down,  and  finally  inflicted  the 
penalty  of  death,  under  its  most  terrible  forms  of  torture,  on  the 
Christians.  Edicts  of  blood  still  more  severe  followed  in  the  years 
1G14  and  1615,  in  which,  besides  the  Bonzes  (Buddhist  priests),  the 
Dutch  traders  took  no  small  part.  Skinning  the  limbs,  burying  the 
victim  in  a  ditch,  the  water-rack,  burning  alive,  and  crucifying  were 
the  most  common  punishments  ;  but  all  these  kinds  of  martyrdom 
did  not  bring  the  Christians  to  apostasy.  The  missionaries  and  the 
faithful  died  in  the  spirit  of  heroism. 

More  terrible  yet  was  the  persecution  that  took  place  under  the 
Emperor  Toxogun-sama  in  the  year  1637.  This  was  fomented  by 
the  calumnies  of  the  Dutch,  who  accused  the  Japanese  Christians  of 
being  in  a  conspiracy  with  the  Portuguese  against  the  life  of  the 
emperor.  The  emperor,  deceived  by  fictitious  letters  that  were  laid 
before  him,  became  furious  with  rage,  and  proceeded  with  fire  and 
sword  against  the  Christians.  He  also  forbade  to  all  foreigners 
except  the  Dutch  entrance  into  the  Japanese  ports  ;  and  in  order  to 
discover  which  of  those  who  entered  were  Christians,  the  use  of 
Jesumi  was  introduced,  —  that  is,  the  Japanese  and  the  foreigners 
who  arrived  in  the  seaports  were  ordered  to  trample  the  crucifix 
under  foot.  Then  the  Christian  religion  was  almost  thoroughly 
eradicated  from  Japan.  It  is  only  in  our  own  times  that  Chris- 
tianity has  been  renewed  in  this  land,  which  is  saturated  with  the 
blood  of  so  many  martyrs. 

In  the  eighteenth  century  a  terrible  persecution  broke  out  on  the 
peninsula  of  Corea  also,  which  threatened  to  extirpate  the  infant 
Church.     But  in  spite  of  all  persecution,  the  Christians,  who  were 


140  HISTORY  OF   THE    CATHOLIC   CHURCH. 

deprived  of  their  priests,  remained  faithful  to  the  Catholic  religion, 
for  which  even  to  the  present  time  they  sacrilice  their  property  and 
their  lives. ^ 

In  Africa  the  spread  of  the  Christian  Church  was  chiefly  limited 
to  the  Portuguese  settlements  in  Mozambique,  Monomotapa,  Sofala, 
and  Quiloa,  with  those  of  the  French  on  the  Isle  de  France  and  Isle 
de  Bourbon  on  the  eastern  coast.  On  the  western  coast  there  are 
Christian  communities  in  the  kingdoms  partially  dependent  on  Por- 
tugal, —  Congo,  Angola,  Benguela,  Cacongo,  and  Loango  ;  on  the 
Cape  Verd  Islands,  the  Canaries,  Madeira,  etc.  The  missionaries 
belonged  almost  exclusively  to  the  Order  of  Capuchins.  Their  labo- 
rious work  was  rendered  considerably  more  dii!icult  by  the  unhealthy 
climate  and  the  savage  manners  of  the  natives. 

The  attempts  to  bring  back  the  Monophysites  of  Abyssinia  into 
the  Church  were  as  yet  unsuccessful. 

The  reports  of  the  ex-Capuchin  Norbert  (Peter  Parisot  of  Barleduc)  con- 
cerning the  labors  of  the  Jesuits  in  Japan  lose  all  their  value  when  one  consid- 
ers the  life  of  this  immoral  man,  who  went  so  far  as  to  renounce  his  ftiith  and 
break  his  vows  ;  who  conducted  a  saloon  for  a  time,  joined  the  French  philoso- 
phers, and  finally  entered  tlie  service  of  Pombal,  who  was  the  despot  of  Portu- 
gal, and  the  bitter  enemy  of  the  Church  and  of  the  Jesuits. 

The  Jesuits,  whose  views  were  grounded  on  an  experience  of  many  years, 
considered,  as  did  also  missionaries  of  other  orders,  that  the  controverted  usages 
or  customs  were  merely  civic  ceremonies,  which  they  therefore  tolerated  in  so 
far  as  they  were  not  mixed  up  with  superstitious  practices,  because  they  saw 
that  it  was  expedient  to  their  missionary  work.  Nevertheless,  they  never  re- 
fused obedience  to  the  Apostolic  See,  the  decision  of  which  took  into  consider- 
ation the  underlying  principle,  and  was  given  in  regard  to  the  general  welfare 
of  the  whole  Church  rather  than  in  reference  to  the  success  of  a  single  mis- 
sion, —  awaiting  the  conversion  of  the  heathen  chiefly  from  divine  gi'ace. 

The  enemies  of  the  Jesuits,  esitecially  the  Janseuists,  availed  themselves 
of  every  occasion  that  presented  itself  to  attack  the  Order  of  the  Jesuits. 

On  the  respective  literature  see  Mamachi,  Orig.  et  antiq.  ii.  407.  The 
most  important  writings  are  Daniel  (S.  J.),  Hist,  apologetique  de  la  conduite 
des  Jesuites  de  la  Chine  :  Recueil  dcs  divers  ouvrages,  t.  iii.  Paris,  1724,  and 
Pray.  Hist,  controversiarum  de  ritibus  Sinicis.     Pestini,  1789. 

1  In  the  year  1800  there  were  ten  thousand  Christians  in  Corea  ;  and  in  1857  this 
number  had,  in  spite  of  persecution,  increased  to  fifteen  thousand. 


CHRISTIAN  MISSIONS   IN  AMERICA.  141 

§  159.    Christian  Missions  in  America. 
A.    Discovery  of  America. 

Missions  in  the  Isles  and  in  Countries  South  of  the  present  United  States. 

The  discovery  of  America  ^  opeued  a  pevv'field  of  action  to  the  apostolic 
missionaries  of  the  religious  orders.  The  Genoese  Christopher  Columbus 
(Ciil(in),  born  in  1436,  discovered,  (m  Oct.  12,  1492,  the  small  island  of  Gna- 
nahani  (called  by  him  San  Salvador)  ;  then,  after  going  to  Cuba,  he  also  discov- 
ered Hayti,  where  he  built  a  fort;  and  on  the  3d  of  May,  1493,  went  back  to 
Spain.  On  the  third  voyage,  undertaken  on  May  30,  1498,  he  discovered  the 
American  Continent.  The  great  admiral  considered  it  lawful  to  reduce  to 
slavery  the  savage  natives,  at  least  some  of  them,  because  he  believed  it  wcnild 
be  impossible  for  them  to  be  converted  if  they  remahied  free  in  their  wild,  rude 
state.  Queen  Isabella,  however,  forbade  the  further  selling  of  ludians,  and 
ordered  those  who  had  been  already  brought  to  Spain  to  be  sent  back.  Colum- 
bus, who  used  the  so-called  rights  of  conquest  on  a  very  broad  scale,  was  in- 
clined in  other  respects  to  acknowledge  the  natural  rights  of  the  natives,  but 
could  not  hinder  his  own  rebellious  followers  from  inflicting  hardships  on  the 
ludians  in  Xaragua,  where  they  compelled  tliem  to  work  as  slaves.  He  was 
obliged  to  compromise  matters  by  permitting  them  to  retain  the  Indians  as 
servants  for  the  cultivation  of  their  lands,  on  condition  of  their  ruling  and 
protecting  them,  as  also  that  their  chiefs  should  select  and  send  the  Indians 
whom  they  were  thus  to  hold.  This  was  tlie  beginning  of  the  system  called 
"  Repartimiento  ; "  that  is,  of  that  distribution,  or  parcelling  out,  of  the  In- 
dians which  proved  so  great  an  obstacle  in  converting  them  to  Christianity. 
Cidumbus,  who,  in  spite  of  his  great  achievements,  met  with  ungrateful  treat- 
ment, died  at  Valladolid,  May  20,  1506,  soon  after  returning  from  his  fourth 
voyage.  Even  the  land  he  discovered  did  not  receive  its  name  from  him  ;  it 
was  called  America  from  the  Florentine  Amerigo  Vesjjucci,  who  made  his  first 
voyage  in  1499.  The  further  discoveries  of  the  Spaniards  were  made  from 
Hispaniola  (Little  Spain)  or  St.  Domingo,  as  a  central  point- 

The  disputes  between  the  Spaniards  and  the  Portuguese  respecting  the 
claims  to  the  newly  discovered  islands  were  settled  successfully  by  Pope  Alex- 
ander VI.,  who  drew  a  line  of  demarcation  from  the  North  to  the  South  Pole, 
and  made  other  regulations  (1493).  The  intention  of  the  Pontiff,  apart  from 
.  that  of  adjusting  the  contests  between  the  two  kingdoms,  was  to  secure  the  in- 

^  Coleccion  de  Bulas,  breves  y  otros  documentos  relativa  a  la  iglesia  de  America, 
etc.  por  el  P.  Fr.  Javier  Hcrnaez,  S.  J.  2  vols.  Brussels,  1879.  Interesting  notices 
are  contained  in  Noticias  secretas  de  America,  por  Bon  Jorge  Juan  y  Don  Ant. 
UUoa  (composed  in  1743  by  order  of  Ferdinand  VI.)  sacadas  a  luz  por  Don  David 
Barry.  Lond.  1826.  See,  also,  Eiizagitirr,  Los  intereses  catolicos  de  America.  2  vols. 
Paris,  1859.     Robertson,  Hist,  of  America.     London,  1772. 


142  HISTORY  OF   THE   CATHOLIC   CHURCH. 

troduction  of  Christianity  among  the  Indians.  The  first  missionaries  of  An\er- 
ica  were  Benedictines,  Hieronymites,  Franciscans,  and  Dominicans.  A  great 
obstacle  to  the  conversion  of  the  natives,  apart  from  their  savage  and  untamed 
manners,  was  found  in  the  avarice  and  cruelty  of  the  Spaniards  ;  though  we 
admit  that  the  charges  against  the  Spaniards  liave  been  somewhat  exagger- 
ated. The  missionaries  stoutly  contended  for  the  freedom  of  the  Indians. 
The  Benedictine  Bull,  the  apostolic  vicar  sent  there  by  the  Pope,  made  a  strong 
appeal  in  their  favor.  In  the  year  1502  twelve  Franciscans  arrived  with  the 
Knight  Nicholas  Ovando.  As  King  Ferdinand  was  not  satisfied  with  the  papal 
bulls  of  Julius  II.  for  the  erection  of  new  bishoprics,  they  were  not  carried 
into  execution.  It  was  between  WiW  and  1313  that  in  St.  Domingo  the  sees 
of  St.  Domingo  and  of  La  Coucepcion  de  la  Vega  were  first  established,  as  also 
one  in  the  island  Puertorico,  bearing  the  same  name  as  that  of  the  island. 

As  early  as  1508  the  Spanish  kings  were  invested  with  the  right  of  patron- 
age over  the  sees  then  in  contemplation.  Since  1510  the  Dominicans  had  been 
settled  in  Hispaniola.  They  denounced  the  distribution  of  Indians  as  slaves 
to  the  conqueror,  as  being  equally  a  violation  of  their  natural  riglit,  of  Christian 
law,  and  of  sound  policy. 

At  an  early  period  negro  slaves  were  brought  from  Africa  to  replace  the 
Indian  slaves ;  they  were  considered  stronger  and  more  able  to  work,  and 
were  particularly  employed  in  the  mines  and  sugar  plantations.  The  Govern- 
ment allowed  the  introduction  of  only  such  negroes  as  were  born  under  Christian 
masters.  Altlnjugh  the  importation  of  the  black  race  was  limited  by  law,  those 
limits  were  not  heeded  ;  the  importation  continued  despite  the  law.  The  cele- 
brated Cardinal  Ximenes,  regent  of  Spain  after  the  deatli  of  Fei'dinand,  strictly 
forbade  it  in  1516.  The  young  king  Charles,  to  wliom  application  was  made, 
granted,  however,  several  concessions,  notwithstanding  the  warning  of  Ximenes. 
Even  the  Hieronymites  and  Bartholomew  de  las  Casas,  who  is  so  highly  re- 
nowned for  his  vindication  of  the  rights  of  the  Indians,  wished,  under  same 
restrictions,  to  have  the  negroes,  who  were  slaves  already,  employed  in  tlie 
labors  of  the  colonies,  instead  of  the  weaker  Indians,  who,  against  their  natural 
rights,  were  thus  deprived  of  their  freedom.  In  this  way,  subject  to  many  re- 
strictions, negro  slavery  was  introduced.  After  this  no  Indians  except  those 
of  the  tribe  of  tlie  Caribs,  who  were  cannibals,  were  allowed  to  be  enslaved 
according  to  the  royal  decree. 

Bartholomew  delas  Casas,  born  at  Seville  in  1474,  came  to  Hispaniola  with 
Columbus  as  early  as  1502.  He  has  been  unjustly  accused  of  inaugurating  the 
slave-trade,^  whereas  he  was  a  true  apostle  of  the  Indians ;  and  in  the  cause  of 
{(reserving  their  personal  liberty  he  crossed  the  ocean  sixteen  times,  and  de- 
feuded  their  rights  with  the  zeal  of  an  ardent  love,  in  word,  in  writing,  and  in 
deed. 

As  the  secular  officers  were  not  fi'ee  from  selfish  interests,  King  Charles 

1  Barth.  dc  las  Casas,  Brevissima  relacion  de  la  destruccion  de  las  Indias.  Fahie, 
Vida  y  escritos  de  D.  Fr.  Barth.  de  las  Casas.     2  vols.     Madrid,  1880. 


CHRISTIAN   MISSIONS   IN  AMERICA.  143 

thought  it  advisalile  to  t'ligage  the  services  of  tlie  ineiiibers  of  religious  orders. 
When  the  Council  of  the  Indies  was  reorganized  in  1524,  four  of  the  eiglit 
seats  and  votes  were  given  to  ecclesiastics  ;  and  under  this  clerical  intiueuce 
many  beneficent  regulations  were  passed  in  behalf  of  the  Indians. 

Yet  the  contest  continued;  the  friends  of  slavery  maintaining  that  the  In- 
dians were  Init  unreasoning  beasts,  and  therefore  born  to  slavery.  On  infor- 
mation received  from  Julian  Garces,  Bishop  of  Tlascala,  of  the  Order  of  Friars 
PreaclK'rs,  Pope  Paid  III.  issued  in  1537  bulls  vindicating  the  liVierty  of  tlie 
Indians  and  their  dignity  as  human  beings.  The  decree  of  Paul  III.  was  rati- 
fied by  succeeding  Popes,  and  frequently  renewed.  Their  example  was  imitated 
by  the  Spanish  kings. 

^Meanwhile  discoveries  went  on.  Ferdinand  Cortez  came  to  Mexico  ^  in  1519. 
Francis  Pizarro  discovered  Peru  in  1526-1527.  Almagro  reached  Chili  at  about 
the  same  time.  IMoreover,  while  tlie  inhabitants  of  tlie  north  of  America 
proved  to  be  for  the  most  part  wild  tribes  addicted  to  fetichism,  the  inhabitants 
of  Mexico,  Peru,  and  Chili  exhibited  a  far  higher  culture;  they  had  fine  build- 
ings, and  a  kind  of  picture-writing  in  which  they  kept  their  records,  and  were 
expert  in  several  arts. 

Twelve  "-^  Franciscans  came  to  Mexico,  who,  undeterred  by  hardship  and  the 
fruitlessness  of  their  first  efforts,  continued  their  laborious  work,  and  under 
Father  Martin  of  Valencia  reaped  ricli  fruits.  In  1526  Dominicans  also  came, 
and  in  1533  Augustinians  also.  In  1531  there  were  one  hundred  Franciscans 
and  Dominicans  in  Mexico.  The  Franciscan  John  de°  Zumarraga  (1528), 
Bishop -elect  of  Mexico,  and  Sebastian  Bamirez  de  Fuenleal,  Bishop  of  St. 
Domingo,  forcibly  advocated  humane  treatment  of  the  natives  and  the  total 
abolition  of  slavery. 

Las  Casas,  a  Dominican  after  1522,  and  Bishop  of  Cliiapa  after  1544,  re- 
mained unceasingly  devoted  to  his  noble  cause  until  his  death  at  Madrid  in 
1556.  Mexico  became  a  metropolitan  city  in  1546;  St.  Domingo,  in  1547; 
Lhna,  in  1546;  Santa  Fe  de  Bogota,  in  1564;  and  La  Plata  in  Bolivia,  in 
1605.  In  Central  America  the  bishoprics  Nicaragua  (1531)  and  Guatemala 
(1534)  were  erected ;  the  first  bishop  of  the  latter  diocese  was  the  zealous 
Father  Marroquin  (+  1563),  who  invited  the  Franciscans  to  come  there. 

In  Peru  3  distinguished  heralds  of  the  faith  were  the  bishops  Hernando 
de  Lugne  (1529),  Reginald  de  Pedrazo,  and  Vincent  Valverde  of  Cuzco,  the 
missionary  Thomas  of  St.  Martin,  the  zealous  archbishop  Tubirius  of  Lima 
(-f  1606),  who  in  1582  held  a  provincial  synod  with  six  Inshops,  Pedro  de  la 
Gasca,  and  St.  Francis  Solanus,  the  Apostle  of  Peru  (+  1610). 

The  second  archbishop  of  Mexico,  Alonso  de  Montufar,  held  two  provincial 
councils.  The  bishops  and  missionaries  proved  themselves  zealous  apostles  of 
peace  and  true  friends  of  the  persecuted  natives. 

1  Prescott,  History  of  the  Conquest  of  Mexico.   3  vols.   London  and  New  York,  1843. 

^  This  was  the  usual  number  sent. 

*  Apuntes  para  la  hist.  eel.  del  Peru.     Lima,  1S73. 


144  HISTORY  OF   THE    CATHOLIC   CHURCH. 

Althoiigli  the  salutary  regulations  they  enacted  could  not  be,  or  were  not, 
enforced  to  their  full  extent  or  in  every  district,  it  remains  a  fact  that  it  is  chiefly 
/•wing  to  the  influence  exercised  by  the  members  of  the  religious  orders,  and 
by  other  of  the  clergy,  that  the  Indians  preserved  their  personal  freedom,  and 
that  they  were  not  altogether  extirpated  in  the  colonies.  St.  Hose  of  Lima  is 
a  beautiful  evidence  of  Christian  faith  in  Peru.  In  Venezuela  the  bishopric  of 
Caraccas  was  established  in  1530;  in  Chili, ^  the  archbishopric  of  Santiago, 
in  1561. 

In  the  year  1549  the  first  six  Jesuits  came,  under  Father  Emmanuel  de  No- 
briga,  to  St.  Vincent  in  Brazil,  where  several  Franciscans  had  previously 
labored  and  died  as  martyrs.  Having  rapidly  acquired  a  knowledge  of  the  lan- 
guage of  the  country,  they,  after  inexpressible  trouble,  prevailed  on  a  goodly 
number  of  the  drunken,  sensual  cannibals  who  formed  the  population  to  aban- 
don their  vicious  habits  and  to  embrace  Christianity.  In  1551  an  episcopal  see 
was  erected  at  Bahia,  or  San  Salvador.  The  Government  at  Lisbon  repeatedly 
made  decrees  in  favor  of  Indian  freedom,  for  which  object  the  Jesuits  zealously 
labored.  Among  these  were  distinguished  the  Ven.  Joseph  Anchieta  (-\-  1597), 
Lorenzana,  Montoya,  Diaz  Tano.  At  the  instance  of  the  latter,  Urban  VIII.,- 
on  April  22,  1(339,  by  his  admonitit)ns  enforced  the  observance  of  the  bulls  issued 
l>y  Paul  III.  Father  Azevedo  (-|-  1570),  and  more  prominently  Anthony 
Vieyra  (-f-  1G77),  the  Lusitanian  Cicero,  superior  of  the  mission  of  Maranhao 
in  1652,  labored  successfully  in  belialf  of  the  faith,  the  civilization,  and  the 
freedom  of  the  natives.  In  the  year  1755  the  King  Joseph  I.  declared  Indian 
slavery  unconditionally  abolished.  The  bislmps,  Jesuits,  Capuchins,  and  other 
orders  exerted  themselves  to  carry  out  the  decree ;  but  it  was  precisely  at  that 
time  that  the  Portuguese  minister  Pombal^  dealt  a  mui-derous  blow  to  the 
progress  of  Christianity  and  the  freedom  of  the  Indians.  Since  that  time  this 
once  flourishing  country  commenced  to  decline,  and  has  continued  so  to  do  uj) 
to  the  present  day.  In  1676  Brazil  had  had  three  dioceses,  —  Bahia,  the 
metropolis,  Pernambuco  (Olinda),  and  Rio  de  Janeiro, — of  which  the  last 
was  in  1746  divided  into  five,  to  which  in  1667  St.  Louis  was  added.  The 
fifth  archbishop,  Sebastian  Monteiro  da  Vide  (-f-  1722),  governed  the  diocese 
in  a  very  able  manner. 

Together  with  other  religious  orders,  the  Jesuits  labored  in  Peru,  Chili,  and 
Mexico.  Fifty-six  of  them  came  to  Peru  in  1614.  They  established  great  in- 
stitutions of  learning,  —  as  that  of  the  Seminary  of  St.  Ildephcmsus,  in  Mexico  ; 
and  among  the  apostles  to  the  negroes,  two  of  them,  Alonso  Sandoval  (after 
1605)  and    Saint    Peter   Claver   (after  1615),  hold  distinguished  places.     In 

1  Eijzguirrc,  Hist.  eccl.  politique  et  litteraire  de  Chili,  traduite  par  Poillou.  3  vols. 
Lille,  1855. 

'^  Bulas,  ii.  1013  sqq.  Papal  bulls,  royal  ordinances,  etc.,  regarding  Brazil,  are 
contained  in  C.  Mendcs  de  Almeida,  Direito  civil  ecclesiastico  Brazileiro.  3  vols. 
Rio  de  Janeiro,  1866. 

'  P.  Weld,  The  Suppression  of  the  Society  of  Jesus  in  the  Portuguese  Dominions. 
London,  1877. 


CHRIST  IAN   MISSIONS    fX   AMERICA.  145 

New  Gnuiiula,  St.  Louis  Bertrand  cDiiviTtcd  inaiiy  thouMaiid  Indians,  although 
serious  obstacles  were  placed  in  his  way  by  the  cruelty  of  Europeans. 

Guatemala  was  made  a  metropolis  in  1742.  The  College  of  Ocopa  in  Peru, 
founded  by  the  Franciscan  Father  Francis  de  Jose  in  1724,  was  extolled  by 
Clement  XIII.,  and  with  that  of  the  Jesuits  in  Cordova,  won  special  fame. 
Colleges  de  Propaganda  Fide  fur  missionaries  were  established  at  Queretero 
and  Zacatecas,  which  sent  missionaries  to  the  remotest  frontiers  of  Mexico. 
The  holding  of  provincial  councils,  as  those  convoked  in  Santa  Fe  de  Bo- 
gota, Lima,  and  Mexico  (1770-1774),  were  of  great  benefit  to  ecclesiastical 
organization. 

By  far  the  most  important  mission  of  the  Jesuits  was  that  of  Paraguay.^ 
This  country,  lying  along  the  banks  of  the  river  La  Plata,  was  discovered  by 
the  Spaniards  in  1516,  and  formal  possession  was  taken  in  153G.  The  Francis- 
cans were  the  first  to  preach  the  Gospel  here.  The  Jesuits,  who  veent  there  at 
the  invitation  of  Bishop  Francis  Victoria  of  Tucuman,  of  the  Order  of  Preacliers,- 
conceived  the  idea,  like  that  of  the  ancient  missionaries  among  the  Germans, 
of  combining  the  conversion  of  these  rude  tribes  with  a  gradually  progressing 
cultivation  of  the  soil,  and  of  organizing  by  degrees  a  regularly  constituted  State 
ft'om  the  various  Christian  communities.  Fathers  J.  Cataldi)io  and  C.  3Iaceta 
set  the  work  on  foot.  Philip  III.,  King  of  Spain,  approved  of  the  plan  of  urban- 
izing a  Christian  republic  in  Paraguay  in  order  to  facilitate  the  work  of  C(jn- 
version.  Under  the  supervision  and  guidance  of  the  Jesuits  several  settlements 
arose,  which  were  named  Reductions;  and  no  Spaniard  was  allowed  to  enter 
any  one  of  these  settlements  without  permission  from  the  fathers  of  the  order. 
The  inhabitants,  wlu)  paid  tribute  to  the  Spanish  crown,  were  gradually  trained 
to  habits  of  industry,  to  domestic  life,  to  civilization,  and  to  Christian  virtue; 
they  also  became  able  to  repel  the  attacks  of  hostile  neighboring  tribes.  The 
number  of  the  reductions  was  augmented  to  thirty.  The  population  increased 
marvellously.  The  inhabitants  of  Paraguay  became  good  men  and  good  Chris- 
tians. A  misunderstanding  between  the  Jesuits  and  the  bishops  Cardenas 
(1040)  and  John  Palafox  of  Angelopolis  (1G47)  was  very  injurious  to 
the  prosperity  of  the  new  State.  The  treaty  between  Sixain  and  Portugal 
M-hich  was  concluded  in  1750  greatly  injured  Paraguay;  but  the  severest 
misfortune  that  befell  the  reductions  was  the  suppression  of  the  Society  of 
Jesus. 

The  neighboring  province  of  Chiquitos,  as  also  Maranhao,  on  the  Amazon, 
were  equally  flourishing  when  under  the  care  of  the  Jesuits.  Father  Cijjman 
Baraza  preached  to  the  Moxos.  Father  Dea-e  converted  the  Yameos  and 
other  tribes ;  he  translated  the  Christian  doctrine  into  eighteen  different  Indian 
idioms,  and  made  catechists  of  the  most  capable  of  his  neophytes.  In  Quito 
(Ecuador)   the  Jesuits  labored  in   the  Maynas  missions.     In  New  Granada 

1  Mumtori,  II  Christianesimo  felice,  nelle  mission!  del  Paraguai.     Venet.   1743. 

Charlevoix,  Hist,  de  Paraguay.  Paris,  1759.     Cf.  Mamachi,  Orig.   et  autiquit.  ii, 
326  sq(i. 

VOL.  II.  10 


146  HISTORY   OF    THE    CATHOLIC    CHURCH. 

(Columliia),  where  in  1723  many  tribes  were  yet  uncouverted,  German  Jesuits 
founded  the  Llanos  missions. 

The  American  soil  has  frequently  been  watered  by  the  blood  of  martyrs. 
Father  Samuel  Fritz  (1680-1728),  Hennj  Eichter  (1684-1699),  Mascardi,  Giu 
Celmo,  and  many  others,  died  the  death  of  martyrs. 

In  Guiana,  where  in  1560  two  Dominicans,  and  in  1643  several  French 
Capuchins,  were  martyred,  the  Jesuits  labored  successfully  after  1664. 


B.    Missions  in  the   United  States  and  Canada.^ 

Spanish  Missions  in  Florida,   Neio  Mexico,    Texas^    California. 

The  first  missionaries  who  came  to  the  territory  now  known  as  the  United 
States  were  brought  over  in  the  expedition  of  Ponce  de  Leon  in  1521.  Several 
Franciscans  accompanied  Pamphilus  de  Narvaez,  and  came  to  Florida  in  1528 
under  the  guidance  of  Father  John  Juarez.  After  months  of  fruitless  toil  and 
severe  suffering,  the  missionaries  pei'ished  near  the  mouth  of  the  Mississipjii. 
This  expedition,  however,  though  not  crowned  with  success,  paved  the  way  to 
renewed  efforts  in  the  future. 

In  1547  the  Dominican  Father  Louis  Cancer  de  Barbastro,  a  native  of  Sara- 
gossa,  who  had  already  been  successful  among  the  Indian  tribes  of  Vera  Paz, 
applied  personally  to  King  Philip  for  approval  of  his  scheme,  and  having 
obtained  it,  he  set  out  on  a  mission  to  Florida  with  three  companions.  He  and 
Father  Diego  fell  victims  to  the  cruelty  ttf  the  savages.  The  Dominicans  re- 
newed their  efforts  in  1553  and  1554.  The  expedition  of  Pedro  Meneudoz 
(Melandez)  de  Aviles,  an  old  Spanish  admiral,  resulted  in  the  foundation  of 
St.  Augustine  (1565),  which  is  the  oldest  town  in  the  United  States.  At  the 
solicitation  of  Menendez,  St.  Francis  Borgia,  then  general  of  the  Jesuits,  in 
1566  sent  some  members  of  his  order  to  tlie  new  field. 

Somewhat  later,  John  B.  Segura,  who  was  appointed  vice-provincial  of  the 
order  in  Florida,  was  sent  there,  with  several  others,  to  take  part  in  the  mis- 
sionary work.  Pope  Pius  V.  encouraged  tlie  undertaking  by  a  letter  to 
Menendez,  who  at  that  time  had  become  the  governor  of  Florida.  The  Jesuits 
were  disheartened  by  the  continued  resistance  made  to  their  preaching  by  tlie 
Indians,  among  whom  polygamy  seems  to  have  been  universally  practised. 
Father  Segura  and  his  brave  companions  then  proposed  to  themselves  to  make 
a  missionai-y  journey  to  the  banks  of  the  Chesapeake  or  St.  Mary's  Bay  (Vir- 
ginia and  Maryland),  but  were  basely  murdered  on  the  way,  through  the  treach- 
ery of  Don  Luis,  a  converted  brother  of  an  Indian  chieftain  who  had  even 

1  History  of  Catholic  Missions  among  the  Indian  Tribes  of  the  United  8tates,  by 
J.  Gilmary  Shea,  who  also  gives  the  literature.  History  of  the  Catholic  Church  in 
the  United  States,  by  /.  O'Kane  Murray  ;  also,  by  the  same,  Catholic  Heroes  and 
HL-roiues  of  America  :  Pioneers  of  America.     Bancroft,  History  of  the  United  States. 


CHRISTIAN  MISSIONS    IN   AMERICA.  147 

accdiiipanied  the  Doiniiiican  Fatliors  to  Spain.     Father  Roju^el  \A'ith(h-e\v,  with 
the  other  missionaries  of  his  onhM',  to  TIaviina  ■aw\  then  to  Mexico. 

The  missionary  work  in  Florida  was  then  confided  to  the  Franciscans,  who 
hihored  there  in  peace  for  two  years.  Among  them  the  eminent  Peter  de 
Corpa  was  martyred,  at  the  phice  which  is  now  the  cemetery  of  St.  Augustine, 
by  a  convert  whom  he  had  reproved  for  his  vicious  excesses.  This  murder  was 
the  signal  for  a  series  of  cruel  attacks  upon  the  missionaries,  many  of  whom 
then  received  the  crown  of  martyrdom.  The  missions  were  tlien  for  a  time 
almost  abandoned,  until  in  1602  they  were  renewed  with  fresh  vigor.  A 
Franciscan  province  under  the  name  of  St.  Helena  —  so  called  from  its  prin- 
cipal convent,  St.  Helena,  at  St.  Augustine  —  was  established.  Bauds  of 
Franciscans  came  successively  thither.  Soon  about  twenty  residences  were 
established,  and  the  missions  steadily  extended  among  the  Apalaches  and  the- 
Creeks  in  West  Florida  and  Georgia.  In  time  a  church  and  chapels  were 
built  at  Pensacola. 

The  subsequent  encroachments  of  English  colonists  greatly  injured  the 
progress  of  the  missions,  many  of  which  were  entirely  broken  up.  Mission- 
aries were  slaughtered  and  Indian  converts  sold  as  slaves  to  the  English  West 
Indies.  In  1763  Spain  ceded  Florida  to  England  by  the  Treaty  of  Paris. 
"This,"  says  Mr.  Shea,  "was  the  death-blow  of  the  missions;  by  degrees  all 
traces  of  former  civilization  disapjteared  ;  tlie  c^debrated  convent  of  St.  Helena 
became  a  barrack."  How  diiferent  had  been  the  government  of  Catholic  Spain 
from  that  of  Protestant  England  ! 

After  the  Franciscan  Father  3Iark  of  Nice  liad  penetrated  to  New  Mexico  in 
1540,  an  exploring  expedition  was  set  on  foot  in  1.542,  under  the  leadership  of 
Coronado.  When  the  leader,  disappointed  in  not  seeing  his  .anticipations  real- 
ized, proposed  to  return,  the  two  Franciscans,  Father  John  de  Padilla  and  the 
lay  brother  JoJm  of  the  Cross,  remained.  Botli  labored  valiantly  in  the  territory 
until  they  received  the  martyr's  crown.  Tlie  unfavoral)le  accounts  given  by 
Coronado  prevented  further  missionary  attemiDts  until  nearly  forty  years  later, 
when  in  1581  they  were  resumed  by  three  brave  Franciscans,  — Fathers  i^rrtnds 
Lopez  and  John  de  Santo  Maria,  with  Brother  Alphonsus  Rodriguez,  —  who 
met  a  like  heroic  fate.  In  the  following  year  Especjo,  a  Spanish  noble- 
man, who  f(.unded  the  city  of  Santa  Fe,  the  second  oldest  city  in  the  United 
States,  ascertained  their  fate  (ui  an  expedition  which  he  made  at  his  own  ex- 
pense. After  the  conquest  and  settlement  of  New  Mexico  by  John  de  Onate. 
the  missions  were  renewed.  Under  Father  Francis  de  Escobar,  the  successor 
to  the  commissary  Escalona  (1602),  and  under  his  successor  Alonzo  Panaido, 
a  rapid  change  took  place;  whole  tribes  of  the  dusky  savages  were  brought  into 
the  Church.  "  So  rapid  had  been  the  progress  of  Christianity  and  civilization 
on  the  Rio  Grande  that  the  Indians  (or  Pueblos)  could  read  and  write  before 
the  Puritans  were  established  on  the  shores  of  New  England."  i  Several  Span- 
ish settlements  grew  up;  and  these,  like  the  missions,  were  attended  by  the 
Franciscans. 

1  See  Shea,  p.  81. 


148  HISTORY  Ob'  THE   CATHOLIC   CHURCH. 

Id  1544  a  Spanish  Franciscan  Father,  Andrew  de  Olmos,  whf)  was  after- 
wards joined  by  John  de  Mesa,  a  secular  priest,  ^•isited  the  Texan  tribes  near 
the  Rio  Grande,  many  of  whom  he  converted.  In  1688  fourteen  Franciscan 
priests  and  seven  lay  brothers  came  to  Texas  and  laid  the  foundation  of  mis- 
sions which,  with  some  sliglit  intermissions,  were  conducted  by  members  of 
the  same  order  for  over  one  hundi'ed  years,  when  in  1812  they  were  suppressed 
by  the  Spanish  Government. 

In  California  the  first  Mass  was  said  by  a  1  ranciscau  in  1601  ;  the  reai 
apostle  of  this  State  was,  however.  Father  Juniper  Serra,^  a  Franciscan,  who 
had  exercised  his  ministry  in  diSerent  parts  of  Mexico.  He,  accompanying 
the  expedition  of  Galvez  in  1769,  led  several  priests  of  his  order  to  this  new 
field  of  labor  ;  success  crowned  their  efibrts.  Tlie  mission  of  San  Diego  was 
founded  July  16,  1764;  that  of  San  Carlos,  at  Monterey,  in  1770;  that  of  St. 
Anthony  of  Padua,  1771  ;  and  others  followed.  The  mission  of  San  Fran- 
cisco was  established  June  27,  1776.  Numerous  conversions  took  place.  Father 
Serra,  Prefect  Apostolic,  was  in  1774  authorized  by  the  Holy  See  to  administer 
the  sacrament  of  confirmation.  He  ended  his  gloi-ious  life  still  filled  with 
holy  desires.  Father  Paloii,  his  future  biographer,  and  subsequently  Father 
Lazven,  succeeded  him  as  prefect. 

Although  the  territory  does  not  form  a  part  of  the  United  States,  it  may  be 
fitting  to  mention  in  this  place  the  pioneers  of  faitli  antl  civilization  in  Lower 
(Old)  California.-  There  were  Franciscans  after  159(5;  and  the  Jesuits  Sal- 
vatierra  and  Francis  Kuehn  (Kino)  came  about  1679.  The  latter,  who  had 
been  a  professor  of  mathematics  at  Ingolstadt  in  Germany,  was  the  first  to 
preach  to  the  tribes  in  Colorado.  In  1697  Salvatierra  founded  the  first  per- 
manent college  in  California  at  Loretto.  In  1768  the  Jesuits  were  removed  by 
force,  pursuant  to  an  order  of  the  Government.  The  Franciscans  and  Domini- 
cans took  up  tlie  work  wliich  the  Jesuits  were  thus  compelled  to  surrender, 
and  continued  it. 

The  English  Missions. 

We  have  already  noted  the  ill  fate  of  Fatlier  Segui'a  and  his  eight  compan- 
ions in  the  territory  which  forms  the  present  State  of  Virginia,  in  1570.  In 
1024  Maryland  was  granted  by  King  Charles  I.  of  England  to  the  Catholic  con- 
vert Lord  Baltimore  (Sir  George  Calvert),  who  called  it  Maryland  in  honor  f)f 
the  queen-consort,  the  Catholic  Princess  Henrietta  Maria.  He  drew  up  a 
charter  for  the  colony,  which  granted  freedom  of  worship  to  all  Christians. 
His  death  occurred  on  the  12th  of  April,  1632,  before  the  royal  signature  had 
been  affixed  to  the  charter.  The  territory  was  reached  by  the  Catholic  pilgrim 
fathers  from  England,  under  the  Lord's  second  son,  Leonard  Calvert.  They 
came  to  the  mouth  of  the  Chesapeake  on  March  3,   1634,  and  took  formal 

1  Francis  Palou,  Life  of  Ven.  Padre  Juniper  Serra  ;  translated  by  V.  Eev.  J. 
Adams.     See  The  Century,  May,  1883. 

-  Father  Hyacinth  Cortes,  S.  .J.,  came  there  as  early  as  1642.     See  Shen,  p.  89. 


CHRISTIAN  MISSIONS   IN  AMERICA.  149 

possession  of  the  laud,  on  the  feast  of  the  Annunciation  of  the  same  month,  on 
St.  Clement's  (now  called  Blackstoue)  Island. 

The  pioneers  of  religious  freedom  were  accompanied  Ity  the  Jesuit  Fathers 
Andrew  White  and  John  Altham.  New  j)riests  arriving  from  England  and 
from  Douay  College,  the  missi(m  gradually  extended  its  limits.  In  1B39, 
after  many  conversions  had  taken  place,  there  were  five  permanent  stations 
here.  On  July  5,  1(J40,  the  most  solemn  baptism  of  Chilomacon,  King  of  the 
Piscataways,  who  received  the  name  of  Charles,  took  place.  Father  Altham 
died  soon  after  this.  White,  weakened  by  bodily  exertion,  devoted  himself  to 
compt)sing  a  grammar,  a  dictionary,  and  a  catechism  in  the  language  of  his 
flock.  Several  other  chieftains  and  whole  villages  embraced  the  faith.  Even 
many  Prote^itanls  returned  to  the  faith  of  their  fathers,  as  the  Catholic  priests 
were  the  only  clergymen  in  the  colony. 

While  the  Jesuits  were  thus  reaping  the  fruits  of  their  divinely  inspired 
labors,  Clayborne,  a  man  who  in  1635  had  already  excited  the  natives  against 
the  missionaries,  now  headed  a  band  of  Puritan  fanatics,  who,  having  been  ex- 
pelled from  Anglican  Virginia  in  1(542,  had  found  a  refuge  in  Maryland.  In 
l(i44  they  destroyed  the  mission  ;  in  the  following  year  they  expelled  the 
Catholic  governor,  and  sent  the  Jesuits  as  prisoners  to  England.  This  was 
done  in  the  land  which  first  raised  the  standard  of  freedom  of  conscience. 
Governor  Calvert  returned  in  1640,  and  by  degrees  the  Jesuits  resumed  the  mis- 
sions. Thus  Maryland  became  a  starting-point  of  Catholicity.  In  1649  the 
General  Assembly,  composed  of  eleven  Catholics  and  three  Protestant  voters, 
passed  the  fiimous  Toleration  Act.  Only  five  years  later,  the  ungrateful  Puri- 
tans, after  the  execution  of  Charles  I.,  denied  that  liberty  to  the  Catholics 
which  had  been  accorded  to  themselves. 

King  Charles  II.  having  restored  Lord  Baltimore's  proprietary  rights  in 
1660,  harmony  reigned  until  James  II.  was  dethn>ned  in  1688.  The  Catholic 
proprietor  was  then  deprived  of  his  rights.  In  1692  a  Protestant  governor  was 
appointed  for  Maryland,  and  the  Anglican  Church  established  by  law.  Enact- 
ments tending  to  root  out  Catholicity  entirely  followed  one  another  ;  most  of 
these  remained  in  force  until  the  time  of  the  Revolution.  But  although,  in  con- 
sequence of  these,  the  Indian  missions  ceased  to  exist,  the  religion  of  the 
Catluilic  pilgrim  fathers  still  held  its  own,  although  many,  like  the  Baltimore 
family,  fell  away  from  the  faith. 

Pennsylvania  was  visited  by  priests  soon  after  the  settlement  by  Penn.  In 
17.30  Rev.  Father  Greaton.,  S.  J.,  was  sent  from  Maryland  to  Philadelphia. 
Later  on.  Father  Greaton  was  replaced  by  Fathers  Hardivg  and  Farmer. 
The  churches  of  St.  Joseph  and  St.  Mary  were  soon  places  of  Catholic  worship 
in  the  city  of  "  brotherly  love."  The  courageous  Jesuit  Father  Schneider 
(-1-  1764)  labored  devotedly  among  the  Catholic  Germans,  and  extended  his 
labors  to  New  Jersey,  as  Farmer  did  to  New  York. 


150  HISTORY  OF   THE    CATHOLIC   CHURCH. 


The  French  Missions  in  Maine  {Upiper  Canada)^  Neio   York,  Vermont, 
Wisconsin,  Michigan,  Illinois,  and  Louisiana. 

These  missions  were  prompted  by  truly  religious  motives,  —  that  is,  by  the 
desire  to  extend  the  kingdom  of  Christ.  The  first  French  mission  in  the 
north  of  the  Union  was  established  on  Neutral  Island  in  Scoodic  River  in 
l(i09,  eleven  years  before  the  Puritans  came  to  Massachusetts.  Two  Jesuit 
Fathers,  Peter  Biard  and  Enemond  Masse,  were,  at  the  request  of  Henry  IV., 
sent  thither  by  the  provincial  Fatlier  Coton.  Thnmgh  the  generosity  of  the 
Marchioness  de  GuercheviUe  a  new  mission  was  established  in  1612  on  ]\Iount 
Desert  Island,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Penobscot,  in  the  present  diocese  of  Port- 
land, under  the  name  of  Holy  Savior.  But,  alas  !  a  foe  soon  came  to  de- 
stroy the  promising  mission.  A  band  of  Englishmen,  under  the  infamous 
Argall,  attacked  the  place,  killed  Du  Thet,  a  lay  brother,  and  carried  off 
priests  and  colonists.  Soon  after,  the  Recollects  and  Capuchins  established 
missions  for  the  French  and  Indians  on  the  coast,  from  Maine  to  Nova  Scotia. 
In  1646  the  Jesuits  renewed  their  efforts  among  the  Indians ;  they  had  in  the 
mean  time  established  a  flourishing  mission  in  Canada.  Rev.  Father  Dndl- 
lettes,  S.  J.,  established  a  new  mission  in  Maine  on  the  upper  Kennebec. 
The  love,  gratitude,  and  attachment  of  the  Abuaki  to  their  spiritual  fathers 
were  extraordinary.  The  Catholic  missionaries  gradually  succeeded  in  convert- 
ing the  whole  tribe.  But  the  English  drove  away  the  missionaries,  destroyed 
the  churches,  and  persecuted  the  Indians.  Yet  amid  the  hard  trials  they  still 
adhered  to  the  faith ;  and  when,  in  1695,  the  Jesuit  Sebastian  Rale,  who  was 
versed  in  the  Indian  idiom  and  renowned  as  a  missif)nary,  came  among  them, 
they  joyfully  hailed  Ids  arrival.  This  noble  priest,  after  years  of  labor,  was 
murdered  by  a  troop  t>f  Englishmen  and  pagan  Mohawks. 

After  France  ceded  Canada  to  England  in  I76'3,  the  Abnaki  mission  was 
left  without  a  priest  until  after  the  close  of  the  Revolution,  when  Rev.  Dr. 
Carroll  gave  them  one  in  the  person  of  Father  Ciquard.  The  Abnaki  bands, 
known  as  the  Penobscots  and  Passamaquoddis,  have  to  this  day  persistently 
adhered  to  the  faith  which  they  had  so  eagerly  embraced. 

New  York  State  was  inhabited  by  five  tribes  of  the  Iroquois,  —  a  people  in 
many  respects  superior  to  the  Algonquins,  albeit  modesty  was  at  a  some- 
what low  ebb  among  them.  The  Recollect  Fathers  Le  Caron,  Nicholas  Viel, 
and  others  had  pi-eached  to  the  Hurons  in  Upper  Canada,  and  the  Jesuit 
Father  John  de  Brelmif  had  established  a  flourishing  mission.  Froui  Quebec 
as  a  central  point,  whence  the  glorious  beams  of  faith  radiated  through  tlie 
sons  of  St.  liTuatius,  Father  Isaac  Jogices^  was  sent  to  found  a  mission  among 
the  Mohawks  who  dwelt  on  the  river  of  that  name.  Father  Jogues,  who  had 
formerly  been  a  missionary  among  the  Hurons  in  Canada,  and  had  also  been 
the  first  to  plant  the  cross  on  the  soil  of  Micliigan,  had  already  been  taken 
prisoner  and  been  tortured  by  the  Moliawks  in  1642.  Having  escaped  by  the 
"id  of  the  Dutch,  ami  gone  from  New  Amsterdam  (New  York)  back  to  France, 
1  Sheas  Life  of  Fr.  Isaac  Jogues.     The  Pilgrim  of  Our  Lady  of  Martyrs. 


CHRISTIAN  MISSIONS   IN   AMERICA.  151 

he  returiieil  ti)  Caii;ula,  and  thence  set  out  again  fur  the  territory  of  New  York. 
He  and  his  companion  Lalande  \vere  murdered,  on  Oct.  18,  1646,  at  the  vil- 
hi^e  of  Caughnawaga,  now  Auriesville,  where  also  Rent  GoHpil,  novice,  S.  J., 
liad  slied  liis  Wood  shortly  before.  Father  A.  Daniel  was  martyred  by  the 
Moliawks  in  1648.  The  celebrated  Father  Brebeuf,  together  with  his  asso- 
ciate Lalemant,  was  captured  and  put  to  a  horrible  death  by  the  Iroquois, 
^larch  16,  1649.  Father  Le  Moyne,  who  may  be  regarded  as  successor  to 
Fatlier  Jogues,  was  sent  from  Quebec,  in  July,  1653,  to  the  Onondagas,  who, 
like  the  Mohawks,  wished  to  conclude  a  peace  with  Canada.  After  he  had 
returned  to  Canada,  Fathers  Chaumonot  and  Dahlon  came  and  founded  a  per- 
manent mission.  They  built  St.  Mary's  Chapel  near  the  site  where  now 
stands  the  city  of  Syracuse.  After  three  years  of  successful  labor,  the  mis- 
sionaries, having  discovered  a  plot  against  themselves  and  the  French  settlers 
set  on  foot  by  the  medicine-men,  withdrew  to  Canada.  Father  Le  Moyne  went 
again  among  them  in  1661.  He  baptized  two  hundred  children,  after  which 
he  returned  to  Canada,  where  he  died  in  1666.  After  the  Mohawks  had  been 
humbled  by  the  French,  all  the  missions  were  re-established.  In  1668  the 
sign  of  the  cross  was  planted  in  every  village  from  the  Hudson  River  to  Lake 
Erie.  Th^  village  of  Caughnawaga,  on  the  Mohawk,  became  the  centre  of 
the  missions  among  the  Iroquois,  called  also  the  Five  Nations. 

That  the  Indians  might  escape  the  evil  example  and  persecution  of  tlieir  hea- 
thenish brethren,  the  missionaries  subsequently  established  a  Christian  village 
on  the  banks  of  the  St.  Lawrence,  at  La  Prairie,  and  later  at  the  Si.  Louis 
Rai)i(ls,  for  the  benefit  of  the  converted  Iroquois,  many  of  whom  were  Mohawks; 
at  tlie  latter-named  place,  which  was  some  miles  above  Montreal,  a  village 
was  firmly  established  in  1676.  Tliis  was  the  last  mission  among  the  Mo- 
hawks of  New  York.  By  the  treaty  of  Utrecht,  in  1713,  France  formally 
renounced  all  claim  to  the  Iroquois  territory.  This  was  the  prelude  to  the 
gradual  disst)lution  of  the  missions  among  the  Five  Nations. 

Amt)ng  the  missionaries  who  had  labored  in  New  York  among  the  Indians 
after  the  deatli  of  Le  Moyne,  were  the  Jesuit  Fathers  Fremin,  Bruyas,  Menard, 
Millet,  and  De  Lamberville.  It  was  the  last-named  father  who  instructed  the 
saintly  Mohawk  virgin  Catherine  Tehgahhwita  {-\-  1680),  in  Canada. 

Father  Jogues,  as  mentijoned  above,  and  his  companion,  Raymbault,  were 
the  first  to  preach  Christianity  on  the  Upper  Lakes.  They  did  not,  however, 
remain  long.  The  second  mission  attempted  by  the  two  Jesuits,  Leonard 
Garreau  and  Gabriel  Druillettes  in  1656,  at  the  solicitation  of  the  Ottawas 
of  th(*  Algonquin  race,  was  frustrated  by  an  Iroquois  war-party.  Rene 
Menard,  an  old  Jesuit  who  had  already  been  in  New  York  State,  after  a  dread- 
ful voyage,  came  in  1660,  and  preached  to  the  Indians  on  Lake  Superior.  While 
trying  to  reach  a  band  of  Hurons,  he  was  lost  in  the  wilderness,  and  perished 
either  by  the  tomahawk  or  of  starvation.  Thus  ended  the  first  Ottawa  mission. 
But,  as  Bancroft  says,  "  the  Jesuits  never  receded  one  foot."  Claudius  Alloues 
soon  succeeded  him.  In  1665  he  established  the  mission  of  the  Holy  Ghost 
at  Lapointe,  on  Lake  Superior,  and  preached  to  many  tribes. 


152  HISTORY  OF  THE    CATHOLIC   CHURCH. 

Father  James  Mfflr^wefie,^  of  imperishable  fame,  left  Quebec  in  1668  to  assist 
In  the  missions  of  the  West.  Father  Claudius  Dablon  was  appointed  superior 
of  the  Upper  missions,  to  which  he  was  sent  with  Allouez,  who  had  returned 
to  Quebec  for  a  short  time.  The  mission  of  Sault  Ste.  Marie's  was  founded 
by  Marquette.  Father  Allouez  and  Louis  Andre,  who  was  sent  in  1670  with 
Father  Druillettes,  directed  the  missions  at  Green  Bay,  which  Allouez  liad 
previously  begun  and  had  named  St.  Francis  Xavier.  When  Marquette  set 
out  to  explore  the  Mississippi  in  1673,  he  was  succeeded  in  the  mission 
of  St.  Ignatius,  which  he  had  founded  in  1671  at  Mackinaw,  by  Father 
Pierson. 

As  the  West  was  explored,  French  settlements  arose  at  Detroit,  Kiviere 
au  Raison,  Sault  Ste.  Marie,  Green  Bay,  Kaskaskia,  Tamaroa,  Cahokia,  Prairie 
du  Rocher,  Vincennes,  and  Oniatenon,  which  were  attended  by  Recollect  and 
Jesuit  fathers,  and  by  secular  priests  from  Quebec.  When  Louisiana  was 
colonized,  parishes  were  formed  at  Mobile,  New  Orleans,  and  the  chief  settle- 
ments. These  were  confided  to  the  Capuchins,  the  Jesuits  directing  the  In- 
dian missions.  In  the  year  1765  two  Jesuits,  Louis  Lefranc  and  Peter  du 
Jaunay,  were  still  stationed  at  Mackinaw  ;  the  missions  were  abandoned  after 
the  suppression  of  the  Society  of  Jesus.  Father  Potier  (-}-  1781)  was  the  last 
of  the  illustrious  missionaries  around  the  great  lakes.  He  occasionally  visited 
Illinois  also.  During  the  American  Revolution  Rev.  Mr.  Gihaiilt  M-as  alone 
left  to  attend  to  the  French  and  Indians. 

In  1673  Father  Marquette  had  the  pleasure  of  realizing  his  long-cherished 
desire  of  visiting  the  "  great  river,"  of  which  he  had  already  made  mention  in 
a  letter  written  in  166!).  Accompanying  the  expedition  of  Louis  Joliet,  the 
envoy  of  the  French  Government,  he  left  Mackinaw  in  May,  1673,  and  from 
the  mouth  of  the  Wisconsin  floated  down  the  majestic  river,  and  passed  the 
rivers  Missouri  and  Ohio  as  far  as  the  mouth  of  tlie  Arkansas,  preaching  to  the 
inhabitants  of  the  lands  which  they  passed.  He  returned  by  the  Illinois  River, 
visited  the  Peorias  and  Kaskaskias  in  Illinois,  and  then  stayed  for  a  while  in 
Green  Bay  to  recruit  his  health.  After  that,  by  order  of  his  superior  at  Quebec, 
he  established  his  dear  Illinois  mission,  which,  at  his  death  in  1675,  was  con- 
tinned  by  Allouez  (-1-  1690),  Rale,  Gravier,  and  others. 

The  Rectillcct  Fathers  Hennepin  and  Zenobius  Memhre  —  the  latter  of 
whom  accompanied  La  Salle  —  continued  the  exploration  begun  by  Marquette; 
but  various  attempts  to  establish  missions  in  the  Mississippi  valley  resulted 
only  in  the  martyrdom  of  several  missionaries.  Fathers  Poisson  and  Souel 
were  martyred  by  the  Natchez;  St.  Come,  by  the  Sitimachas ;  Nicholas  Fou- 
cault,  by  the  Tonicas.  The  labors  of  these  lioly  men  did  not  here  reap  such 
fruit  as  elsewhere  had  been  the  case  ;  and  at  length  the  suppression  of  the 
Society  of  Jesus  closed  all  the  Jesuit  missions  in  the  lower  valley  of  the 
Mississipjti. 

At  Quebec,  the  most  important  place  of  Canada,  whence,  as  we 
have  seen,  so  many  missionaries  came  forth,  a  bishopric  was  estab- 

1  Missionary  Labors  of  Frs.  Marquette,  Menard,  and  Allouez.  By  Rev.  Chr. 
Vcrivijst,  0.  a.  F. 


OUTBREAK    OF   THE   SCHISM   IN    GERMANY.  153 

lished  iu  1675  through  the  influence  of  Louis  XIV.  The  first  holder 
of  that  high  office  was  the  ilhistrious  Laval.  The  colony  Avas  ceded 
to  England  in  1763.  This  cession,  however,  did  not  stay  the 
progress  of  religion. 

II.   CHURCH    AND   STATE. 

§  160.  Outbreak  of  the  Schism  in  Grermany.  —  Stand  taken  by 
Luther  against  Indulgences. —  Pleasures  taken  by  the  Apostolic 
See. 

The  relative  positions  between  the  spiritual  and  temporal  powers 
in  the  sixteenth  century  underwent  an  essential  change,  through  the 
apostasy  of  several  Christian  nations  from  the  Church ;  and  their 
example  exercised  great  influence  on  the  relation  hitherto  existing 
between  Church  and  State,  even  in  Catholic  countries. 

The  proximate  occasion  of  the  schism  ^  in  Germany  was  the  indul- 
gence published  by  Cardinal  Albert  of  Brandenburg,  Archbishop  of 

1  The  most  important  literature  of  this  period  is  :  1.  Of  Catholic  authors:  Coch- 
Iceus  (see  §  162),  Comiut'iitaria  de  actis  et  scriptis  M.  Lutheri,  chronographice  ab  a. 
1517-1546,  fideliter  eonscripta.  Mog.  1549,  fol.  Suriits  (a  Carthusian  in  Cologne, 
+  1578),  Chronicon  ab  a.  1500-1566.  Colon.  1567.  Simdon  Fontaine,  Hist.  cath. 
de  nostra  terns  touchant  I'etat  de  la  religion,  etc.  Ant.  1558.  Raynald,  Annales 
ad  ann.  1517  sqq.  Pallavicini,  Storia  del  Concilio  di  Trento.  Eoma,  1652.  3  vols, 
lat.  of  Giottino.  Ant.  1673.  Bossuet,  Hist,  des  variations  des  eglises  protest. 
2  vols.  Paris,  1688.  (Euvres  de  Rossuet,  torn.  xix.  Versailles,  1816.  Maimbourg, 
Hist,  of  Lutheranism.  Paris,  1680.  Riffel,  Christ.  Ch.  Hist,  since  the  great  Schism  in 
Faith  and  Church.  3  vols.  Mayence,  1841  (1844).  Dollingcr,  The  Reformation  : 
its  Interior  Development,  etc.  3  vols.  Ratisbon,  1846.  Dollingcr,  Contributions  to 
the  Political,  Ecclesiastical,  and  Cultured  History  of  the  last  Six  Centuries.  1  vol- 
Ratisbon,  1862.  Boost,  The  Reformation  in  Germany.  Ratisbon,  1845.  BitchhoUz, 
History  of  the  Reign  of  Ferdinand  I.  9  vols.  Vienna,  1831.  Z«c?)i?/ic?%  Jlonuni.  Vati- 
cana  hist.  eccl.  saec.  XVI.  illustrantia.  Frib.  1861.  Eohrbachei;  Histoire  universelle 
de  I'eglise  cath.  24  vols.  Janssen,  Hist,  of  the  German  People,  5  vols,  (so  far) .  Evers, 
Martin  Luther.  Balan,  Monumeiita  Reform.  Lutheran.  Ratisbon,  1884.  — 2.  Of  Prot- 
estant authors  :  5)jrtZa<mz,  Annales  ref.  (to  1543)  ed.  C?/jorza?i.  Leips.  1718.  Myconii 
(  +  1546),  Hist,  reform,  a.  1518-1542  ed.  Cij2)r.  Leips.  1718.  Ratzenhcrger  (+1558), 
Manual  on  Luther,  edit,  by  Ncudcckcr.  Jena,  1850.  Sleidani  (+1556),  De  statu  relig. 
et  reipublicae  sub  Carol.  V.  CaeS.  lib.  xxvi.  Argentor,  1555  sqq.  Even  Melanchthon 
is  dissatisfied  with  the  one-sided  partiality  of  this  work  (Ep.  ad  Libium.  Corp.  Reform, 
viii. 488).  Scckcndorf  {-\-\%^2),  Commentarius hist. et apolog.  de  Lutheranismo (against 
Maimbourg).  Frankf.  and  Leips.  1688,  4,  1692,  fol.  H.  v.  d.  Hardt,  Hist.  lit.  ref. 
Frcf.  1717,  fol.  Basnage  wrote  Hist,  de  la  relig.  des  eglises  ref.  4  vols.  La  Haye, 
1724.  Loschcr,  Kapp,  Ncudcckcr,  Fbrstemann,  Seidctnann,  etc.,  edited  various  acts 
and  records  of  this  time.  Plank  is  more  impartial  than  his  predecessors ;  he  wrote 
"  History  of  the  Rise,  Alterations,  and  Formation  of  our  Protestant  Doctrine  to  the 


154  HISTORY  OF   THE    CATHOLIC   CHURCH. 

Mentz,  at  the  command  of  Pope  Leo  X.,  the  ijroceeds  of  which  were 
to  be  applied  to  the  building  of  St.  Peter's  Church  in  Rome,  which 
had  been  commenced  by  Julian  III. 

Albert  intrusted  the  publication  of  the  indulgences  to  the  so  often 
calumniated  John  Tetzel,  a  Dominican  of  Leipsic.  He  was  opposed 
by  the  Augustinian  Martin  Luther,  born  in  Eisleben,  1483,  in 
Saxony,  who  had  been  from  the  year  1508  professor  at  Wittenberg. 
He  attacked  the  indulgences  from  the  pulpit,  and  on  the  31st  of  Oc- 
tober, 1517,  affixed  his  famous  ninety-live  theses  to  the  doors  of  the 
church  attached  to  the  castle  of  Wittenberg,  in  order  to  provoke  a 
discussion. 

This  action  of  Luther  against  indulgences,  of  the  nature  and  im- 
port of  which  he  confessed  himself  ignorant,  had  its  true  and  proper 
motive,  not  in  any  exterior  event,  but  in  his  own  theological  system, 
which  denies  the  freedom  of  the  will  and  the  possibility  of  good 
works,  making  salvation  depend  on  faith  alone  without  the  co-opera- 
tion of  man.^ 

How  Luther  came  to  these  pernicious  and  erroneous  views  can  be 
best  seen  from  his  own  confessions.^  Having  entered  the  monastery 
without  a  true  vocation,  Luther,  following  the  bent  of  his  own  scru- 
pulous, self-tormenting  mind,  which  was  suffering  from  hypochon- 
driac tendencies,  first  sought  to  obtain  peace  and  happiness  for  his 
soul  by  pelagianism  ("praesumptuosissimus  justitiarius"),  —  that  is, 
by  a  Pharisaical  practice  of  good  works  without  the  grace  of  God. 

Formula  of  Concord."  7  vols.  Leips.  1791.  A  quiet,  historical  representation  is  given 
in  K.  A.  MenzcVs  New  Histor}-  of  the  Germans.  12  vols.  Breslau,  1826.  Rankc, 
German  History  in  the  Time  of  the  Reformation.     3d  ed.  6  vols.     Berlin,  1852. 

^  De  captivit.  Babyl. :  "  Ita  vides,  quam  dives  sit  homo  christianus,  etiam  voleiis 
non  potest  perdere  salutem  suam  quantiscunquc  jxccatis,  nisi  nolit  credere.  Nulla  enim 
peccata  eum  possnnt  damnare,  nisi  sola  incredulitas.  Caetera  omnia,  si  redeat  vel 
stet  fides  in  promissionem  divinam  baptizato  factani,  in  niomento  absorbentur  per 
eandem  fidem  "  (ed.  Jen.  ii.  264).  This  is  even  more  forcibly  expressed  in  his  letter  to 
Melanchthon,  Aug.  1,  1521  (De  Wette,  ii.  27) :  "  Esto  peccator  et  pecca  fortiter,  sed  for- 
tius fide  et  gaude  in  Christo  :  qui  victor  est  peccati,  mortis  et  mundi,  peccandum  est, 
quamdiu  hie  sumus.  Vita  haec  non  est  habitatio  justitiae  :  sed  expectamus,  ait  Petrus, 
coelos  novos  et  terram  novam,  in  quibus  justitia  habitat.  Sufilcit  quod  agnovinius 
per  di\atias  gloriae  Dei  agnum,  qui  tollit  peccata  mundi  :  ab  hoc  non  avellet  nos  pec- 
catum,  etiamsi  millies  uno  die  fornicemur  aut  occidamus.  Putas  tam  parvum  esse 
pretium  et  redeniptionem  pro  peccatis  nostris  factam  in  tanto  ac  tali  agno  ? "  Even 
granted  that  this  letter  was  written  under  excitement,  and  that  therefore  no  great 
stress  may  be  laid  upon  it,  it  is  still  of  importance  as  showing  the  tendency  of  Luther's 
views. 

2  Luther's  Own  Statements,  by  Rev.  H.  O'Connor,  S.  J. 


STAND    TAKEN  BY  LUTHER.  155 

Finding  his  efforts  fruitless,  he  went  to  the  opposite  extreme ;  re- 
nouncing moral  freedom  and  the  possibility  of  human  co-opera- 
tion in  the  affair  of  justification  and  salvation,  he  now  based  these 
on  the  grace  of  God  alone,  without  penance,  without  moral  improve- 
ment, —  in  fact,  without  any  human  co-operation  whatsoever.  The 
truth  by  which,  indeed,  man  acknowledges  himself  a  sinner,  but 
with  humble,  childlike  trust  co-operates  with  the  grace  of  God  in 
working  out  his  own  sanctification,  found  no  entrance  into  his 
mind. 

Filled  with  these  thoughts,  and  tormented  by  his  persistent  scru- 
pulosity, Luther  betook  himself  to  the  study  of  St.  Paul's  Epistles 
to  the  Komans  and  Galatians,  in  which  he  believed  that  he  found 
alike  a  justification  of  his  views  and  peace  for  his  soul;  in  reality, 
he  read  these  Epistles  through  the  medium  by  which  his  torn  and 
tormented  heart  had  wrought  the  images  with  which  it  had  filled 
his  imagination. 

In  this  way  Luther  had  already  framed  his  system  before  Tetzel's 
appearance  on  the  scene,  and  had  already,  as  professor,  spoken  from 
the  pulpit  words  which  his  hearers  declared  to  be  in  contradiction  to 
the  teaching  of  the  Church. 

The  theses  of  Luther  spread  rapidly,  and  his  undertaking  assumed 
a  greater  importance  than  could  have  been  at  first  sight  expected. 
The  political  and  religious  condition  of  Germany  at  this  time  con- 
tributed greatly  to  this  result.  The  hostility  existing  between  the 
humanistic  and  the  scholastic  theologians,  which  was  newly  fostered 
by  the  contention  of  Reuchlin  with  the  converted  Jew  Pfefferkorn  ; 
the  fury  of  tlie  knights  of  the  empire  against  the  clergy,  at  whose 
suggestion  the  Emperor  Maximilian  I.  had  put  an  end  to  the  feuds 
and  freebooting  life  which  they  had  till  then  carried  on;  the  dis- 
union between  the  bishops  and  the  magistracy  in  the  imperial  cities ; 
and  the  enmity  to  Rome  and  the  clergy  existing  in  many  places, 
—  these  combined  circumstances  brought  to  the  side  of  the  monk  of 
Wittenberg  many  friends  and  adherents,  who,  though  led  by  motives 
entirely  different  from  his,  tendered  him  their  applause  and  espoused 
the  cause  he  had  undertaken. 

There  were  also  many  well-disposed  spiritual  and  temporal  dig- 
nitaries, heartily  desirous  of  promoting  a  true  reformation  of  the 
Church,  who  at  first  lent  their  aid  to  forward  Luther's  propositions, 
but  afterwards  drew  back  when  the  real  tendency  of  the  new  reform 
became  patent  to  them. 

Encouraged  by  such  applause  as  this,  Luther  proceeded  on  the 


156  HISTORY  OF   THE   CATHOLIC   CHURCH. 

path  he  had  chosen,  and  replied  to  the  writings  of  his  adversaries  — 
such  as  Sylvester  Prierias,  Tetzel,  Conrad  Wimpina,  professor  at 
Frankfort,  and  of  Professor  Hochstraten,  a  Dominican  of  Cologne 
—  with  spiteful  and  scornful  invective  ;  while,  by  composing  works 
in  German,  he  sought  to  win  over  the  people  to  his  side,  and  draw 
them  into  the  contest. 

The  new  reformer,  whose  opposition  to  the  traditionary  teaching 
of  the  Church  became  more  and  more  apparent,  proceeded  with 
less  hindrance  from  finding  powerful  protectors  in  his  provincial, 
John  von  Staupitz,  and  in  George  Spalatin,  Chaplain  at  the  Court. 
The  German  bishops  at  first  either  looked  on  quietly  or  made  but 
slight  opposition. 

As  early  as  the  year  1518,  on  the  3d  of  February,  Pope  Leo  X.  had 
commissioned  Gabriel  of  Venice,  Vicar-General  of  the  Augustinians, 
to  bring  Luther  to  'submission.  This  had  no  effect  whatever.  On 
the  30th  of  May  Luther  sent  the  explanations  and  proofs  (''resolu- 
tiones  ")  of  his  theses,  with  a  letter,  to  the  Pope. 

The  Emperor  Maximilian  described  to  the  Pope  the  danger  and 
gravity  of  the  impending  strife,  and  Leo,  on  August  1,  cited  the 
heretic  to  appear  in  Rome  ;  but,  yielding  to  the  wish  of  the  Elector 
Frederic  of  Saxony,  he  permitted  Luther  to  be  heard  at  Augsburg. 

Accordingly,  in  October,  1518,  Luther  made  his  appearance  at 
Augsburg,  and  had  several  conferences  with  the  learned  cardinal 
Cajetan  (Thomas  de  Vio),  but  refused  to  make  the  desired  recan- 
tation. He  left  the  city  secretly,  leaving  an  appeal,  duly  witnessed 
before  a  notary,  bearing  the  inscription :  "  From  the  ill-informed  Pope 
to  the  Pope  when  better  informed  "  ("  A  Papa  male  informato  ad 
Papam  melius  informandum  ").  Cajetan  vainly  besought  the  Elector 
Frederic  either  to  deliver  up  the  dangerous  heretic  or  to  banish  him 
from  his  dominion.  Luther  remained  unmolested  in  Wittenberg, 
and  in  the  self-same  year  won  over  to  his  side  Philip  Melanchthon, 
who  was  to  play  so  important  a  part  in  this  contest. 

On  the  9th  of  November,  1518,  Pope  Leo  X.  issued  a  bull  in 
which  he  expounds  the  doctrine  of  the  Church  on  indulgences  ;  but 
before  the  bull  arrived,  Luther  had,  on  the  28th  of  November, 
appealed  from  the  Pope  to  an  oecumenical  council. 

Under  such  circumstances,  also,  the  efforts  of  the  Pope's  chamber- 
lain, Charles  von  Miltitz,  to  effect  peace  were  necessarily  at  fault ; 
the  unpliable  soul  of  the  monk  remained  unmoved.  All  that  the 
pacificator  could  effect  was  that  Luther  promised  to  keep  silence  if 
his  opponents  would  do  the  same. 


DISPUTATION  AT  LEIPSIC,    AND    ITS  RESULTS.       157 


§  1*31.    Disputation  at  Leipsic,  and  its  Results. 

One  of  the  most  renowned  opponents  of  Luther  was  Dr.  John 
Eck,  the  learned  Vice-Chancellor  of  the  University  of  Ingolstadt, 
who  in  his  work  called  "  The  Obelisks/'  which  was  written  at  the 
request  of  the  Bishop  of  Eichstiidt,  stated  in  short  terms  and  fully 
disproved  the  objectionable  propositions  set  forth  by  the  Wittenberg 
reformer.  Although  the  work  was  not  intended  for  the  public,  it 
had  a  wide  circulation,  and  induced  Andreas  Carlstadt,  the  tutor  of 
Luther,  to  undertake  the  vindication  of  his  pupil,  in  forty  theses. 

Hereupon  a  public  disputation  was  agreed  upon  between  him  and 
Eck.  This  was  accordingly  held,  from  June  27  to  July  16,  1519, 
in  Leipsic.  Luther,  who  had  in  his  "  Asterisks  "  replied  in  a  vehe- 
ment tone  to  Eck's  "  Obelisks,"  now  took  part  in  this  discussion. 
The  principal  subjects  in  debate  were  :  The  freedom  of  the  will, 
the  divine  institution  of  the  primacy,  and  the  precedence  it  be- 
stowed on  the  primate  over  all  other  bishops.  Xeither  Carlstadt 
nor  Luther  proved  equal  to  this  opponent ;  they  were  finally  obliged 
to  abandon  the  held,  and  Eck  was  saluted  victor. 

The  defeat  the  "  reformer  "  had  undergone  offended  his  vanity, 
and  made  him  still  more  obdurate  in  his  opposition  to  the  Catholic 
Church.  His  friends  vented  their  intrinsic  choler  on  Eck,  whom 
they  insulted  and  calumniated  after  the  coarsest  fashion.  In  order 
to  lead  public  opinion  still  more  astray,  Melanchthon  published  a 
false  report  of  the  disputation,  in  which  several  false  accusations  are 
brought  against  Eck.  The  latter  defended  himself,  without  touch- 
ing on  the  subjects  of  disputation.  The  result  was  a  pen  polemic, 
in  which  Carlstadt  took  part,  though  in  a  somewhat  clumsy  manner. 
Luther,  who  had  found  a  new  adversary  in  the  person  of  Jerome 
Emser,  private  secretary  of  Duke  George  of  Saxony,  could  not  re- 
frain from  the  enjoyment  of  cooling  his  revenge  by  again  attacking 
Eck,  which  obliged  the  latter  also  to  break  through  the  silence  he 
had  imposed  on  himself. 

Shortly  after  the  disputation,  Eck  in  a  letter  to  the  Elector  Fred- 
eric clearly  showed  the  dangerous  tendencies  of  Luther's  doctrine, 
and  called  upon  him  to  proceed  against  the  heretic.  His  friends, 
however,  found  means  to  avert  the  threatened  danger  ;  and  Luther, 
who  had  already  resolved  to  flee  into  Bohemia,  was  enabled  to 
remain  tranquilly  in  Wittenberg.  About  this  time  the  reformer 
entered  into  connection  with  the  knights  of  the  empire,  whose  rep- 


158  HISTORY  OF   THE    CATHOLIC   CHURCH. 

resentative  was  the  rapacious  and  brutal  Francis  of  Sickingen. 
Encouraged  by  the  countenance  they  afforded  him,  he  overstepped 
all  bounds  ;  he  set  at  nought  the  judgment  pronounced  by  the  Uni- 
versities of  Paris,  Heidelberg,  Cologne,  and  Louvain  on  the  dispu- 
tation at  Leipsic,  and  separated  himself  from  the  Church  more  and 
more. 

The  Emperor  Maximilian  died  in  1519,  and  his  grandson  Charles  V. 
succeeded  to  the  throne.  Luther  was  solicitous  to  acquire  the  favor 
of  the  new  emperor,  who  was  crowned  on  the  22d  of  October,  1520, 
and  with  this  object  in  view  addressed  a  very  humble  letter  to  him; 
but  as  this  remained  unanswered,  the  reformer  adopted  another 
tone,  and  published  his  work  addressed  "  To  the  Emperor  and  the 
Nobility  of  the  German  I^ation,  on  the  Improvement  of  Christian 
Morals." 

In  this  work  Luther  formally  cut  himself  off  from  the  Church,  by 
rejecting  the  hierarchy,  denying  the  priesthood,  and  calling  on  the 
temporal  power  to  convoke  a  council  that  should  deprive  the  Pope  of 
his  spiritual  and  temporal  power,  abolish  the  taxes  for  Rome,  abro- 
gate the  papal  censures,  limit  the  number  of  cardinals  to  twelve, 
permit  the  clergy  to  marry,  and  do  away  with  masses  for  the  dead, 
with  vigils,  and  the  commandments  of  fasting,  abstinence,  and  the 
like.  At  the  same  time  the  reformer  does  not  forget  to  hold  out 
inducements  to  the  German  nobles,  for  whose  advantage  he  wishes 
the  revenues  of  the  cathedrals  to  remain,  and  insinuates  that  they 
may  possess  themselves  of  the  Church  property ;  while  he  advises 
the  emperor  to  dethrone  the  Pope,  and  thus  do  away  with  the  feudal 
homage  paid  to  him  iu  fealty  for  Xaples. 

Meantime  Eck  had,  on  the  15th  of  July,  1520,  effected  the  issue  of 
a  bull  ^  in  which  Luther's  doctrine  was  condemned  in  forty-one  propo- 
sitions ;  and  Luther  himself  was  commanded,  on  pain  of  excom- 
munication, to  retract  within  sixty  days.  The  execution  of  this  bull 
was  committed  to  the  papal  legate  Martin  Caraccioli,  to  Jerome 
Aleander,  and  to  Eck. 

Notwithstanding  its  mild  tone,  the  bull  did  not  meet  with  the 
wished-for  reception  in  Germany.  In  some  places  its  publication 
was  followed  by  stormy  riots.  Linfortunately,  many  bishops  re- 
mained inactive,  while  the  adherents  of  Luther  made  great  efforts 
to  weaken  the  impression  made  by  the  bull  on  the  faithful.  The  re- 
former himself,  who  at  that  time  published  his  works  "On  the 
Babylonian  Captivity  of  the  Church,"  "  On   the  Mass,"  "  On  the 

1  Exuree  Domine. 


THE   DIET   OF    WORMS.  159 

Liberty  of  a  Christian  ^lan,"  assailed  the  bull,  and  published  his 
insulting  pamphlet  "On  the  Xew  Eckian  Bulls." 

The  Elector  Frederic,  misled  by  the  superficial  judgment  of  Eras- 
mas,  took  the  side  of  Luther,  and  declared  that  the  matter  should 
be  submitted  to  the  examination  of  impartial  judges,  and  that  Lu- 
ther's teachings  should  be  disproved  by  the  authority  of  Scripture. 

Luther,  being  in  this  way  strengthened  in  his  opposition  to  the 
Church,  broke  the  last  thread  which  yet  connected  him  with  it. 
He  composed  an  execrable  pamphlet,  entitled  "Against  the  Bull  of 
Antichrist;"  and  on  the  10th  of  December,  1520,  he  publicly  burnt 
the  bull  at  Wittenberg,  together  with  the  "Corpus  juris  canonici," 
after  he  had  repeated  his  appeal  for  a  general  council. 

A  few  months  after  these  events,  on  April  21,  1521,  the  Sorbonne 
condemned  ^he  erroneous  propositions  of  Luther,  and  Henry  VIII. 
of  England  published  his  defence  of  the  seven  sacraments.^  Luther 
answered  with  base  insults.  In  the  same  unworthy  manner  he 
treated  George,  Duke  of  Saxony. 

§  162.   The  Diet  of  Worms.  —  Luther's  Sojourn  on  the  Warthurg. 

—  The  Prophets  of  Ztvickau.  —  Luther  s  Contest  ivith  Them. 

At  the  Diet  of  Worms,  which  was  opened  in  February,  1521,  the 
papal  legate  Aleander  read  a  bull  ^  of  the  3d  of  January  of  the  same 
year,  by  which  Luther  was  formally  excluded  from  the  communion 
of  the  Church,  and  in  a  powerful  speech  called  upon  the  emperor 
and  the  princes  of  the  empire  to  proceed  against  the  heretic,  accord- 
ing to  the  laws  of  the  empire  against  the  excommunicated.  But 
the  Elector  Frederic  and  some  other  adherents  of  Luther  demanded 
that  he  should  first  be  heard.  Their  request  was  granted.  Fur- 
nished with  an  imperial  safe-conduct,  Luther  appeared  in  Worms, 
acknowledged  that  the  writings  placed  before  him  were  his,  but 
refused  every  recantation,  and,  rejecting  alike  the  authority  of  the 
Pope  with  that  of  the  (ecumenical  councils,  demanded  to  be  refuted 
from  the  Holy  Scriptures.^ 

1  Adsertio  septem  sacrameiitoniin  adv.  Liitb.  TiOiidoii,  1.521.  Pope  Clement 
liestowed  upon  him  the  title  of  "  Defensor  Fidei." 

-  Decet  Romanum  Fontificeni.      BuHai'.  Rom.  v.  761  si|([. 

'^  "  I  neither  believe  the  Pope  nor  the  oeeunienical  councils  alone,  since  it  is  quite 
certain  and  manifest  that  they  have  frequently  erred  and  contradicted  themselves. 
My  conscience  is  captive  to  God's  Word.  I  neither  can  nor  will  recall  anything. 
God  help  me!  Amen."  The  words  "Here  I  take  my  stand  ;  I  cannot  do  otherwise," 
are  a  later  interpolation. 


160  HISTORY  OF   THE    CATHOLIC   CHURCH. 

When  all  conciliatory  efforts  to  reconcile  the  heretic  with  the 
Church  had  failed,  Luther  was  dismissed ;  and  on  the  26th  of  May 
he  was  placed  under  the  ban  of  the  empire.  He  however  found  a  pro- 
tector in  the  Elector  of  Saxony,  who  had  him  brought  to  Wartburg, 
where  he  lived  under  the  assumed  name  of  Younker  George.  Here 
he  composed  many  polemical  works,  and  commenced  his  translation 
of  the  Bible  into  German,  fitting  it  so  as  to  suit  his  own  system  of 
belief. 

During  his  sojourn  at  Wartburg,  which  he  termed  his  Patmos, 
Luther  completed  his  separation  from  the  Church.  The  reproaches 
of  his  conscience  he  ascribed  to  the  temptations  of  the  Devil ;  and 
in  the  same  degree  as  his  soul  was  torn  by  distractions  did  he  tear 
himself  from  the  Church. 

The  Edict  of  Worms  was  published  in  the  emperor's.own  inher- 
ited States  and  in  the  territories  of  several  princes ;  but  in  the  main 
it  remained  ineffective,  because  Charles  left  Germany  soon  after 
the  diet,  and  the  Government  favored  Luther's  cause  rather  than 
combated  it.  Under  these  favorable  circumstances  the  friends  of 
Lather  brought  their  principles  to  practical  results.  Bartholomew 
Bernhardi,  Carlstadt,  and  others  took  wives.  Gabriel  Didymus  in 
1521  declared  monastic  vows  to  be  diabolical,  whereupon  some  monks 
in  Saxony  quitted  then-  cells.  In  Wittenberg  Carlstadt  introduced 
the  German  ^lass,  administered  Communion  without  previous  con- 
fession and  under  both  species,  and  had  pictures  and  crucifixes 
destroyed. 

Towards  the  end  of  the  year  1521  the  prophets  of  Zwickau,  with 
Thomas  Munzer,  Nicholas  Storch,  and  Marc  Stubner  at  their  head, 
came  to  Wittenberg,  and  in  perfect  consistenc}'-  with  Luther's  sys- 
tem, maintained  that  infant  baptism  was  useless,  and  that  the  exte- 
rior constitution  of  the  Church  needed  revision  and  transformation. 
Carlstadt  immediately  joined  them.  Melanchthon  wavered  ;  and 
Luther,  whom  he  consulted,  gave  undecided  answers.  It  was  not 
till  Carlstadt  and  the  prophets  of  Zwickau  upset  all  order,  declared 
war  on  knowledge,  and  even  attempted  to  close  the  elementary 
schools,  that  Luther,  on  the  8th  of  March,  1522,  left  his  Patmos 
(Wartburg),  hastened  to  Wittenberg,  and  here,  from  the  pulpit  and 
by  writing,  commenced,  with  the  aid  of  the  secular  power,  to  "rap 
these  visionaries  on  the  snout."  He  also  came  to  an  issue  with  his 
tutor,  Carlstadt,  who  was  at  that  time  reforming  in  Orlamunde,  and 
had  inflicted  on  the  "  new  pope  "  (Luther)  the  severest  "cuff"  by 
his  doctrine  regarding  the  Eucharist.     Consequently,  after   a   not 


POPES  ADRIAN  VI.   AND   CLEMENT   VII.  161 

very  edifying  disputation  at  the  inn  of  the  Bhick  Bear,  in  Jena, 
Luther  succeeded  in  driving  his  adversary  from  Saxony.  After 
having  roved  around  for  a  long  time,  the  unfortunate  Carlstadt, 
by  a  humble  recantation,  obtained  Luther's  permission  to  return 
to  Saxony.  Soon,  however,  he  fell  out  with  Luther  again,  and  was 
obliged  to  quit  the  country  a  second  time.  He  was  receiv^ed  at 
Basle,  where  he  died  in  1541. 

§  163.    The  Popes  Adrian  VI.  and  Clement  VII.  —  The  tivo  Diets 

at  Nuremberg. 

Adrian  VI.,  a  German  by  birth,  who  succeeded  Leo  X.,  desired  a 
thorough  reformation  with  all  his  heart,  and  sent  his  legate  Chiere- 
gati  to  the=Diet  at  Nuremberg,  September,  1522,  to  consult  with  the 
princes  over  the  projected  reforms.  But  instead  of  meeting  the 
intentions  of  the  noble  Pope  ^  on  this  ground,  the  princes  handed  to 
the  papal  legate  the  so-called  grievances  of  the  German  nation  in 
one  hundred  and  one  points,  touching  ecclesiastical  matters  which 
had  already  been  brought  forward  at  Worms.  Meantime  Luther 
remained  unmolested  in  Wittenberg,  notwithstanding  the  ban  of  the 
empire  had  been  pronounced  against  him. 

Adrian  VI.  died  in  1523.  His  successor,  Clement  VII.  (1523-1534), 
whose  legate,  Campeggio,  attended  the  Diet  of  Nuremberg  in  1524, 
was  not  more  fortunate.  The  assembled  princes  promised,  indeed, 
to  "  do  what  they  could  "  towards  enforcing  the  Edict  of  Worms,  but 
at  the  same  time  they  demanded  that  "  a  free  Christian  council  should 
be  hekl  in  a  city  of  the  German  nation,''  and  passed  the  resolution 
that  the  next  diet,  which  was  to  be  held  at  Spire,  should  determine 
what  was  to  be  done  in  matters  of  faith  and  religion  until  the  council 
should  be  convened. 

This  decree  satisfied  neither  the  Catholics  nor  their  opponents. 
The  emperor,  to  whom  the  Pope  applied,  forbade  the  holding  of  the 
diet  at  Spire,  and  strictly  commanded  the  execution  of  the  Edict  of 
Worms.  Luther,  who  was  already  offended  by  the  action  of  the 
diet,  was  indignant  at  the  imperial  command. 

The  papal  legate,  although  unsuccessful  at  Nuremberg,  was  able 
at  Ratisbou  to  effect  an  alliance,  or  rather  a  union,  of  the  Catholic 

1  Burmanni,  Annlecta  hist,  tie  Hadr.  VI.  Traject.  1727.  Adrian's  judgment  on 
Luther,  1.  c.  p.  447.  The  beaivtiful  instruction  of  the  legate  is  found  in  Le  Plat, 
Monum.  ad  hist.  eonc.  Trident,  potissimuni  illustrandam  spect.  ampl.  collect,  ii. 
144  sqf[. 

VOL.    II.  11 


162  HISTORY   OF   THE    CATHOLIC    CHURCH. 

princes,  at  the  head  of  whom  were  the  Archduke  Ferdinand  of 
Austria,  Dukes  William  and  Louis  of  Bavaria,  with  twelve  bishops 
of  southern  Germany.  The  object  of  this  alliance  or  union  was  to 
protect  the  interests  and  institutions  of  the  Catholic  Church,  and  to 
enforce  the  Edict  of  Worms  in  their  territories.  At  the  same  time 
they  adopted  a  project  of  reformation. 

§  164.    The,  Peasants'  War.  ' 

While  the  new  apostles  of  the  Lutheran  heresy,  who  were  mostly 
clerics  and  monks  who  wanted  to  get  married,  were  trying  to  spread 
their  doctrine,  under  the  title  of  the  "  purified  gospel ;  "  while  they 
abused,  slandered,  and  calumniated  the  Catholic  Church  and  the 
priests  in  pamphlets,  pictures,  caricatures,^  and  the  like, — a  fearful 
catastrophe  was  being  prepared  for  Germany,  under  the  name  of  the 
Peasants'  War. 

In  the  year  1524  risings  of  the  peasants  had  already  taken  place, 
which  increased  in  extent  in  the  following  year ;  and  fearful  out- 
rages were  committed  in  Suabia,  Alsatia,  Franconia  in  the  Rhine 
districts,  in  Thuringia,  and  Saxony. 

In  these  revolts  of  the  peasantry,  with  which  also  knights  of  the 
empire  made  common  cause,  Luther  and  his  companions  liad  no 
small  share,  as  is  proved  by  the  following  facts :  — 

1.  The  pamphlets  of  Luther,  Hutten,  and  others,  couched  in  fiery 
language,  calling  on  people  wlio  were  already  bewildered  by  tlie  pre- 
dictions of  astrologers,  to  shake  off  the  yoke  of  the  priests ;  and  the 
boundless  calumnies  and  insults  heaped  on  such  princes  as  closed 
their  territories  to  the  introduction  of  the  purified  gospel,  could  not 
but  give  a  shock  to  the  reverence  due  from  the  subject  to  the  sui^e- 
rior,  and  thus  enkindle  the  fire  of  a  revolt  which  must  at  length 
break  forth  into  a  terrible  conflagration. 

2.  The  chief  speakers  and  leaders  of  the  peasants  were  for  the 
most  part  preachers  and  adherents  of  Luther. 

3.  Finally,  the  conduct  of  the  peasants  themselves,  the  claims 
they  asserted,  their  zeal  for  Luther  and  for  the  pure  gospel,  together 
with  their  hatred  of  the  Catholic  clergy,  and  the  outrages  they  com- 
mitted on  churches  and  convents,  prove  beyond  all  doubt  what  spirit 
it  was  that  animated  them. 

1  Among  the  caricaturists,  the  painter  Lucas  Kranach  may  be  specially  mentioned 
for  his  frivolous  and  obscene  delineations  or  caricatures,  to  which  Luther  added  ex- 
planations of  the  coarsest  character. 


THE   LUTHERAN   HERESY.  163 

Luther,  while  casting  the  responsibility  of  the  insurrection  on  the 
Catholic  bishops  and  priests,  exhorted  the  peasants  to  submission  in 
terms  which  did  but  increase  their  fury,  as  they  were  doing  no  more 
than  carrying  into  effect  the  reformer's  own  principles. 

(')n  June  13,  1525,  Luther  married  Catherine  l>ora,  a  nun  of  the 
Cistertian  convent  of  Ximphschen,  from  which  she  had  effected  her 
flight  through  the  good  offices  of  Luther. 

When  the  leaders  of  the  insurrection  had  been  defeated  by  the 
army  of  the  Suabian  Alliance,  Luther  changed  his  tone  and  called 
on  the  princes  to  slay  the  peasants  like  mad  dogs.  This  vehement 
behavior  no  more  frees  the  reformer  from  complicity  in  the  dreadful 
civil  war  than  does  the  fact  that  Thomas  ^Nliinzer,  an  opponent  of 
Luther,  stood  with  his  associates  at  the  head  of  the  rebellious 
peasants. 

§  165.  Introduction  of  the  Lutheran  Heresy  by  several  Princes 
of  the  Empire.  —  Luther'' s  Organization  of  Divine  Sej'vice.  — 
His  Contest  with  Erasmus. 

Luther,  having  failed  in  his  attempt  to  realize  his  designs  by  the 
help  of  the  knights  ami  the  people,  entered  into  a  close  alliance 
with  the  princes  of  the  empire,  to  whom  he  intrusted  the  propa- 
gation and  protection  of  his  gospel.  These,  actuated  by  divers 
motives,  for  the  most  part  not  very  honorable,^  availed  themselves 
of  the  opportunity  to  oper-.  the  way  for  the  pure  gospel  in  their 
dominions.  Of  course  the^^  met  with  opposition."^  Their  subjects 
had  anticipated  something  quite  different,  and  did  not  desire  to  listen 
to  the  words  of  the  Lutheran  minister  of  the  Word.  But  the  ad- 
vantages offered  to  the  princes  by  the  propagation  of  the  Lutheran 
heresy  were  too  enticing  for  them  not  to  finish  by  force  what  had 
been  begun  by  deception. 

The  new  doctrine  found  a  great  friend  in  Albert,  ^Margrave  of 
Brandenburg,  Grand  Master  of  the  Teutonic  Order,  who  in  1525, 
following  Luther's  advice,  took  a  wife,  and  secularized  the  territory 

^  Luther  himself  says  :  "  JIany  continued  to  be  good  Evangelicals,  because  there 
still  remain  chalices,  monsti'ances,  and  cloistral  pioperty"  to  be  disposed  of.  Mathe- 
siiis,  p.  129. 

'•^  Cf.  Melanchth.  Ep.  ad  Kind.  l.'i2S.  "Videmus  quantopere  nos  odit  vulgus."  Corp. 
Kef.  i.  941.  The  remark  of  Luther  (1532)  is  worth  noticing,  that  it  stands  in  his 
power,  "by  two  or  three  discourses,  to  lead  the  whole  people  back  to  popery,  and 
establish  new  masses  and  pilgrimages."      Walch,  vii.  914. 


164  HISTORY   OF   THE   CATHOLIC   CHURCH. 

of  the  order.  The  reformer  was  less  fortunate  in  his  attempts  to 
will  over  Albert,  Archbishop  of  Mentz,  to  espouse  his  cause.  He 
found,  however,  a  faithful  ally  in  the  person  of  Philip,  Landgrave 
of  Hesse,  who  in  1526  convoked  a  synod  at  Homberg,  at  which  the 
apostate  monk  Lambert  of  Avignon  spoke  in  favor  of  the  new  doc- 
trine. Lutheranism  was  then  introduced  by  force.  In  like  manner 
heresy  made  its  way  into  other  territories. 

These  new  partisans  had  not  only  the  office  of  forcing  the  pure 
gospel  on  their  subjects  ;  they  had  also  to  assist  in  the  organization 
of  the  new  Church.  The  "  reformer  "  himself  could  only  tear  down  ; 
he  knew  not  how  to  build  up.  In  a  letter  to  the  Elector  of  Saxony 
Luther  complains  bitterly  of  the  evil  consequences  of  the  '•  pure 
gospel,"  and  appeals  to  the  temporal  power  for  forcible  assistance. 

With  the  view  of  introducing  some  sort  of  order  into  the  chaos 
of  pure  doctrine,  the  Lutheran  princes  were  obliged  to  form  special 
arrangements  concerning  the  manner  in  which  divine  service  was  to 
be  conducted  in  their  respective  countries. 

The  divine  service,  as  arranged  for  Saxony,  had  the  name  and 
exterior  ceremonies  of  the  Mass.  Luther,  however,  omitted  the 
canon  and  everything  in  the  collects  that  had  reference  to  sacrifice. 
Yet,  in  order  to  mislead  the  people,  he  ordered  this  to  be  done  in 
such  a  way  that  the  common  people  should  not  observe  it.  With  the 
same  end  in  view,  the  Elevation  was  retained.  Private  Masses  were 
entirely  abolished.  The  remainder  of  the  divine  services  consisted 
in  singing,  reading  the  Scriptures,  and  preaching.  But  as  it  soon 
came  to  be  remarked  that  the  preachers  often  reformed  the  new  doc- 
trines, and  preached  a  gospel  of  their  own,  a  sj'^stem  of  parochial 
visitation  was  instituted  in  1527,  the  visitors  to  consist  of  jurists 
and  theologians,  of  which  a  commission  of  four  was  appointed  by 
the  rulers  of  the  respective  territories  to  exercise  a  general  super- 
vision over  all  ecclesiastical  affairs.  The  preachers  were,  moreover, 
watched  over  by  superintendents,  and  in  1542  consistories  were 
established. 

In  the  year  1527  Melanchthon  composed  his  little  book  of  "Visita- 
tion for  the  Preservation  of  Unity  in  Doctrine  and  Worship.''  This^ 
contained  the  Lutheran  teachings,  and  informed  the  clergyman 
what  doctrine  he  should  preach.  Luther  had  already  published  his 
postil  "Collection  of  Explanations  on  the  Gospels  and  Epistles." 
In  the  year  1529  he  put  forth  his  large  and  small  Catechisms. 

The  ■  progress  of  the  new  doctrine  was  in  no  way  impeded  by 
Luther's  controversv  with  Erasmus  on  free-will.      The    renowned 


THE    TREATY  OF   TORGAU.  165 

Humanist  euntrovei'ted  Luther's  doctrine  on  the  enslaved  will ;  the 
latter  replied,  asserting  his  opinion  in  bold  and  abusive  language. 
When  Erasmus  rebuked  him  for  this,  he  toned  down  his  abusive 
expressions,  but  did  not  renounce  his  errors,  which  Erasmus  had 
termed  in  his  second  work  an  unheard-of  doctrine.  This  terminated 
the  controversy.* 

§   166.    The    Treaty  of    Torgau. —  The   tivo    Diets   at   Spire ^  in 

1526  and  1529. 

After  the  termination  of  the  Peasants'  War,  the  Catholic  States  of 
the  empire  endeavored  to  suppress  the  religious  innovations  in  their 
own  territories,  and  to  carry  out  the  Edict  of  Worms.  Neither  did 
the  Lutheran  princes  remain  inactive.  They  held  several  pre- 
liminary consultations,  and  then  in  May,  1526,  concluded  the  Treaty 
of  Torgau,  in  which  the  members  promised  each  other  mutual  assist- 
ance and  support  in  introducing  the  new  doctrine,  in  case  they 
should  be  opposed  in  the  work  on  the  side  of  the  empire. 

At  the  head  of  this  alliance  were  John,  Elector  of  Saxony,  and 
Philip,  Landgrave  of  Hesse.  The  fruits  of  this  bond  were  already 
apparent  in  June,  1526,  when  the  diet  was  opened  at  Spire.  The 
Lutheran  States  opposed  the  command  of  the  emperor  to  carry  out 
tlie  Edict  of  Worms,  and  extorted  the  concession  from  the  diet  that 
until  the  next  oecumenical  council  each  State  should,  as  far  as  re- 
garded the  edict,  act  according  to  its  own  best  judgment,  and  be 
responsible  for  its  conduct  to  God  and  the  emperor. 

That  the  adherents  of  Luther  should  take  advantage  of  a  posi- 
tion of  affairs  so  favorable  to  them  was  to  be  expected.  The  em- 
peror was  involved  in  contention  with  the  Pope  and  Francis  I.  of 
France,  while  his  brother  was  hindered  by  the  disorders  in  Hun- 
gary from  energetic  action  elsewhere  ;  they  therefore  could  pay  but 
little  attention  to  matters  in  Germany.  Conscious  of  their  own 
strength,  the  Lutheran  princes  even  thought  of  forming  plans  by 
which  they  should  attack  the  Catholic  members  of  the  empire.  As 
a  pretext  for  this,  a  forged  document  of  Otho  of  Pack,  Chancellor 
of  Duke  George  of  Saxony,  was  produced  to  prove  that  a  Catholic 

1  Erasmus  published  (1524)  his  "  Diatribe  de  libero  arb."  Luther  answered  (15'25) 
by  his  treatise  "  De  servo  arb."  In  this  he  maintains  that  the  human  will  is  a  horse, 
ridden  bj^  God  or  the  Devil  ;  that  God  works  the  good  and  evil  in  us,  etc.  Erasmus 
replied  by  his  "  Hyperaspistes  diatribae  adv.  serv.  arb.  Luth."  1526.  (Op.  Erasrai  ed. 
Cleric,  z^.  1249  sipp) 


166  HISTORY   OF   THE    CATHOLIC   CHURCH. 

alliance  had  been  formed  for  the  suppression  of  the  Lutheran  States. 
The  whole  news  of  such  a  conspiracy  was,  however,  proved  to  be 
false.  But  such  events  were  calculated  to  destroy  more  and  more  a 
good  understanding  between  the  parties. 

At  the  Diet  of  Spire,  1529,  the  concession  of  that  of  1526  was 
rejected.  It  was  stipulated  that  those  princes  and  States  that 
had  heretofore  followed  the  Edict  of  Worms  should  continue  so  to 
do  until  the  next  oecumenical  council ;  that  the  others  should  abstain 
from  making  further  innovations  until  the  same  time,  while  they 
were  by  no  means  to  hinder  their  Catholic  subjects  from  practising 
their  religion.  The  Lutheran  princes  protested^  against  these 
articles,  and  sent  their  protestation  to  the  emperor,  who  was  then 
at  Piacenza.  The  emperor  returned  an  ungracious  answer,  on  which 
the  protesting  princes  sought,  by  the  formation  of  new  alliaiices 
among  themselves,  to  secure  their  States  from  castigation  by  the  em- 
peror. Even  the  Zwinglians  were  to  have  been  included  in  the 
alliance ;  but  this  plan  was  frustrated  by  their  doctrine  on  the 
Lord's  Supper,  and  it  was  in  vain  that  Philip  of  Hesse  sought  to 
reconcile  the  contending  parties.^  The  conference  on  religion  at 
Marburg,  Oct.  1,  1529,  led  to  no  good  result ;  and  the  seventeen 
articles  of  Torgau,  which  contained  the  doctrine  of  Luther,  hin- 
dered, at  least  for  a  time,  every  approach  calculated  to  unite  Luther 
to  Zwingli. 

§  167.    The  Diet  at  Au<jshurg,  1530.  —  '■'■  Co7ifessio  Augustana."  — 

Colloquies. 

When  peace  had  been  concluded  at  Cambray  and  at  Barcelona 
(Aug.  5  and  June  29,  1529),  the  Emperor  Charles  turned  his  serious 
attention  to  adjusting  the  religious  difficulties  in  Germany,  and  for 
this  purpose  convoked  a  diet  in  1530,  to  assemble  at  Augsburg.  The 
diet  was  opened  after  the  emperor  had  arrived ;  and  the  Protestant 
princes  presented  him  with  a  symbol  of  faith,  the  so-called  "Confes- 
sio  Augustana."  It  was  composed  by  Melanchthon,  on  the  basis 
of  the  seventeen  articles  of  Torgau,  and  was  fully  approved  by 
Luther. 

•  Thence  came  the  name  "  Protestants." 

■^  Luther  and  Zwingli  rejected  trausubstantiation.  The  former,  however,  taught 
that  a  certain  presence  of  Christ  was  in  the  bread  (doctrine  of  impanation)  ;  while 
the  Swiss  reformer,  like  Carlstadt,  saw  in  the  sacrament  only  a  remembrance  of 
Christ. 


THE    DIET   AT  AUGSBUIK;.  167 

The  "  Augsburg  Confession  ' '  consists  of  two  parts.  The  first 
twenty-one  articles  treat  of  the  doctrine,  and  the  seven  articles 
tollowing  of  the  so-called  abuses,  among  which  are  included,  (1) 
Couiniunion  under  one  kind;  (2)  Celibacy;  (3)  Private  Masses; 
(4)  Compulsory  confession ;  (5)  Fast  and  abstinence  commandments  ; 
(6)  Monastic  vows;  (7)  Episcopal  power. 

At  the  public  reading  of  the  Confession  (June  25),  there  seemed  to 
be  no  too  great  difference  between  Catholics  and  Protestants  with 
regard  to  doctrine ;  but  this  was  only  because  Melanchthon  avoided 
touching  on  the  principal  points  of  Luther's  doctrine,  moderated 
many  of  his  bold  assertions,  and  laid  the  greater  stress  on  the  so- 
called  abuses,  which  he  treated  with  singular  prolixity.  Therefore 
the  first  impression  made  by  this  reading  differed  with  individuals. 
The  princes  of  the  empire  judged  favorably  concerning  it,  while 
men  who  looked  deeper  into  the  matter  saw  only  a  work  of 
hypocrisy. 

In  this  disposition  the  twenty  theologians  deputed  by  the  em- 
peror to  examine  the  document  set  to  work  to  write  a  confutation 
of  it.  Their  production,  however,  which  was  occasionally  couched 
in  intemperate  and  caustic  words,  did  not  please  the  Catholic  States 
of  the  empire ;  and  it  was  not  till  after  it  had  been  five  times  re- 
written, and  all  offensive  passages  struck  out,  that  the  confutation 
of  the  Augsburg  Confession  was  read  in  public  session,  August  3. 

After  this  had  been  done,  the  emperor  gave  the  Protestants  to 
understand  that  they  must  return  to  the  unity  of  the  Church  ;  as, 
should  they  refuse  to  do  so,  he  would  be  obliged  to  proceed  as  his 
conscience  would  direct  in  his  office  as  protector  of  the  Church. 

But  the  advocates  of  the  Augsburg  Confession  would  listen  to  no 
proposal  of  returning  to  the  Church,  and  Melanchthon  composed  his 
"  Apologia  coufessionis."  The  emperor,  who  did  not  accept  this, 
hoped  yet  to  set  aside  or  adjust  the  schism  by  conferences,  and  at 
the  instance  of  the  Archbishop  of  Mentz  appointed  a  commission 
composed  of  seven  Protestants  and  an  equal  number  of  Catholics,  to 
debate  and  come  to  an  agreement  on  the  points  of  difference.  The 
discussion  began  on  the  16th  of  August.  The  result  could  well 
have  been  foreseen.  Melanchthon  seemed  willing  to  yield,  and  Eck 
to  meet  his  wishes  as  far  as  possible.  Yet  nothing  was  forwarded 
by  this  ;  for  apart  from  the  fact  that  the  underlying  principles  of 
Protestant  belief  and  Catholic  faith  are  essentially  opposed  to  each 

^  Printed  with  the  Apology  in  Hase,  Libii  symbol,  eccl.  evang.  I.eijis.  1827,  p.  5, 
sqq.  and  Prolegomena. 


168  HISTORY  OF   THE   CATHOLIC   CHURCH. 

other,  the  Protestant  States  of  the  empire  would  not  entertam  any 
idea  of  a  reconciliation  with  the  Church.  The  Landgrave  Philip  of 
Hesse  had  already,  on  the  6th  of  August,  left  Augsburg  without  the 
knowledge  or  consent  of  the  emperor.  Luther  sharply  reproved 
Melainchthon  for  his  apparent  attempt  to  form  a  union, ^  and  the 
latter  yielded  to  the  influence  of  Luther.  Another  conference  of 
six  members,  held  at  the  emperor's  command,  was  equally  un- 
successful. 

After  all  the  efforts  of  the  emperor  to  effect  a  peace  had  proved 
of  no  avail,  he  had  the  draught  of  the  final  decree  of  the  diet  pro- 
mulgated. The  Lutheran  States  protested  against  it;  the  Lutheran 
cities  of  the  empire  united  with  them  in  doing  so.  The  four  cities 
of  Lindau,  Constance,  Memmingen,  and  Strasburg  had  presented  a 
confession  of  their  own,  "  Confessio  tetrapolitana."  It  was  on  the 
lyth  of  November  that  the  final  decree  of  the  diet  was  published.  It 
forbade  all  further  innovations  in  religious  matters,  and  commanded 
that  the  churches,  cloisters,  etc.,  should  be  restored  to  their  former 
condition. 

§  168.    The  League  of  Schmalkald. 

The  Lutheran  princes,  who  were  deeply  offended  at  the  appoint- 
ment of  the  emperor's  brother  Ferdinand  as  king  of  the  Eomans, 
one  and  all  refused  submission  to  the  final  decree  of  the  diet.  In 
March,  1531,  they  formed  a  league  among  themselves,  called  the 
Schmalkald  League.  This  was  a  formal,  offensive  and  defensive  alli- 
ance for  the  period  of  six  years.  Luther  and  Melanchthon  had 
revoked  their  former  expressions  of  aversion  to  have  recourse  to 
arms  in  behalf  of  their  religion. 

In  the  following  year  the  members  of  the  league,  which  unfortu- 
nately had  been  joined  by  the  dukes  of  Bavaria,  by  their  persistent 
refusal  to  render  assistance  in  the  Avar  against  the  Turks,  extorted 
from  the  emperor  the  first  religious  peace  of  Nuremberg  (July  23, 
1532),  by  which  all  lawsuits  in  matters  of  religion  were  suspended. 
In  making  this  stipulation  the  object  of  the  Lutherans  was  to  neu- 
tralize that  clause  of  the  "  final  decree  "  which  was  most  repugnant 
to  them,  —  that  of  restoring  the  Church  property  of  which  they  had 
taken  possession. 

1  "  Quid  enim  minus  unquam  speravi  et  quid  adhuc  minus  opto,  quam  ut  de 
doctrinae  concordia  tractetur  ?  .  .  .  Sunima,  mihi  in  totum  displicet  tractatus  de 
doctrinae  concordia,  ut  quae  plane  sit  inipossibilis,  nisi  Papa  velit  Papatum  suum 
aboleri."     (Ep.  ad  Melanchth.  26  Aug.) 


FURTHER  PROGRESS    OF  rROTESTANTISM.  169 

The  concessions  made  by  the  emperor  to  the  Schmalkakl  League, 
which  had  won  a  new  ally  in  Ulrich  of  Wurtemberg,  and  which 
had  entered  into  secret  compacts  with  France  and  England,  did  nut 
produce  the  result  he  desired.  After  a  short  time  new  conflicts  arose, 
and  it  was  not  till  1534  that  peace  was  restored. 

In  1535  the  League  of  Schmalkakl  was  renewed  for  ten  years,  and 
it  was  resolved  that  all  who  "  freel}''  and  publicly  should  confess 
God  and  his  gospel,  love  peace,  and  live  as  honest  people,"  should 
be  received  into  the  alliance. 

The  chief  pur})Ose  of  this  resolution  was  to  win  over  the  Zwingli- 
ans  in  the  cities  of  the  empire.  Through  the  efforts  of  Martin  Bucer 
this  purpose  was  accomplished ;  a  union  between  the  Zwinglian  cities 
and  the  Lutheran  members  of  the  league  was  concluded  by  the  so- 
called  Concordia  of  Wittenberg,^  1536,  in  which  Zwingli's  doctrine 
concerning  the  Lord's  Supper  was  apparently  given  up.  A  union 
between  the  Swiss  Church  and  the  Lutheran  princes  was  effected 
in  1538,  after  Luther  had  declared  that  he  would  lay  no  particular 
stress  on  the  interpretation  of  Christ's  words  at  the  Last  Supper. 

§  169,  Further  Progress  of  Protestantism.  —  Attempts  at  Reunion, 
—  Bigamy  of  Philip  of  Hesse. — Acts  of  Violence.  —  Diets  at 
Spire^  1542,  1544,  awt^  at  Patisbon,  1546.  —  Luther^ s  Death. — 
His  Character. 

In  compliance  with  the  repeated  demands  of  the  Protestants,  and 
to  satisfy  the  wishes  of  the  Catholic  States,  who  expected  from  the 
measure  the  re-establishment  of  unity,  Pope  Paul  III.  (1534-1549) 
convoked  a  council  Avhich  was  to  assemble  at  Mantua  and  be  opened 
on  the  23d  of  May,  1537. 

But  it  soon  became  clear  to  every  one  that  the  call  of  the  Protes- 
tants for  an  cecumenical  council  was  a  mere  pretext;  for  neither  the 
Lutheran  princes  nor  their  theologians  consented  to  put  in  an  appear- 
ance at  Mantua,  and  they  took  exceptions  against  tlie  synod  held 
there  on  the  ground  that  a  council  "  the  form  and  order  of  which  was 
under  the  direction  of  the  Pope  could  not  be  free."  As  if  to  render 
a  reunion  altogether  impossible,  they  signed  the  twenty-three  articles 
drawn  up  by  Luther  in  Februar}',  1537,  called  the  "Articles  of  Schmal- 
kald."  These  form  a  striking  contrast  with  the  Augsburg  Confes- 
sion, by  bringing  into  sharp  relief  the  points  which  Melanchthon 
had  either  silently  passed  over  or  at  least  had  moderated,  —  as,  for 

1  Seckcndorf,  Comment,  hist,  et  apol.  de  Luth.  iii.  132. 


170  HISTORY   OF   THE    CATHOLIC    CHURCH. 

instance,  Mass,  purgatory,  the  veneration  of  saints,  and  tlie  primacy.^ 
The  Protestant  princes  positively  refused  to  attend  the  counciL 

This  disposition  of  the  members  of  the  Sclimalkald  League  ren- 
dered a  collision  inevitable,  and  induced  the  imperial  vice-chan- 
cellor, Dr.  Held,  to  effect  a  defensive  alliance  of  the  Catholic  princes 
at  ISTuremberg,  June  10,  1538.     This  was  called  the  Holy  League. 

The  Protestant  party,  which  meantime  had  received  new  acces- 
sions from  the  apostasy  of  other  princes  and  cities  of  the  empire, 
held  an  assembly  at  Brunswick,  which  rejected  the  decisions  of  the 
Imperial  Court  "because  the  judges  had  not  the  true  faith."  Fer- 
dinand, pressed  by  the  Turks,  entered  into  a  treaty  for  sixteen 
months  with  the  Protestant  princes,  at  Frankfort,  April  5,  1539,  in 
which  it  was  agreed  that  the  Protestant  States  should  be  undisturbed 
by  the  Court  of  the  Imperial  Chamber,  and  that  the  religious  per- 
plexities should  be  adjusted  by  conferences.  A  new  religious  con- 
ference was  opened  at  Hagenau,  which  was  continued  at  Worms, 
December,  1540,  and  at  the  Diet  of  Eatisbon,  1541,  at  which  the 
treatise  known  as  the  "Ratisbon  Interim,"  served  as  the  guide  of 
the  discussion.  This  produced  no  satisfactory  result ;  for  although 
the  theologians  found  some  points  of  agreement,  the  Protestant 
princes  would  not  listen  to  any  proposals  of  union.  Instead  of  this, 
encouraged  by  their  new  allies,  Joachim  II.  of  Brandenburg,  and 
Henry,  brother  and  successor  of  Duke  George  of  Saxony,  they  ex- 
torted from  the  emperor  new  concessions  of  greater  importance  than 
those  granted  to  them  at  Eatisbon. 

About  this  time  (March  3,  1540)  Philip  of  Hesse,  whose  lawful 
Avife  was  still  alive,  took  a  second  spouse,  IVIargaret  von  der  Saal, 
with  the  permission  of  Luther,  who,  fearing  lest  the  landgrave  might, 
as  he  threatened,  return  to  the  Catholic  Church,  signed  the  document 
of  dispensation,  as  also  did  Melanchthon,  Bucer,  and  five  preachers  or 
theologians  from  Hesse,  on  condition  of  its  being  kept  secret.^  This 
was  done  "  to  further  the  welfare  of  Philip's  soul  and  bod}',  and  to 
bring  glory  to  God."  ^ 


1  At  his  departure  from  Sehraalkald,  Luther  had  called  out  to  the  preachers, 
"Deus  vos  impleat  odio  Papse."  Cf.  Ep.  ad  Melanchth.  Ffh.  27,  1552.  "Pestis 
eram  vivus,  moriens  ero  mors  tua,  Papa."     (Dc  JJ'ctte,  v.  57.) 

2  "Quod  si  deiiirpie  vestra  Celsitudo  omnino  concluserit,  adhuc  unain  conjugem 
ducere,  judicamus  id  secreto  faciendum,  ut  superius  de  dispensatione  dictum,  nempe 
ut  tantum  vestrae  Celsitudini,  illi  personae,  ac  paucis  personis  fidelibus  coustet  Celsi- 
tudinis  vestrae  animus,  et  conscientia  sub  sigillo  confessionis." 

3  "  Instrumentum  copulationis  Phil."  etc.     {Bossuet,  1.  c.  i.  396.)     The  preacher 


THE   DIET  AT  SPIRE.  171 

As  early  as  the  year  1534  an  attack  was  made  on  the  bishopric 
of  Munster ;  the  outrages  committed  by  the  Anabaptists/  however, 
prevented  the  introduction  of  the  new  doctrine.  In  the  year  1542 
the  Elector  John  Frederic  of  Saxony  expelled  Julius  von  Ptlug, 
the  lawful  bishop  of  Naumburg-Zeitz,  and  appointed  in  his  place 
Nicholas  von  Amsdorf,  whom  Luther  consecrated  bishop  after  his 
own  fashion.  Henry,  Duke  of  Brunswick,  was  in  the  same  year 
attacked  by  the  princes  of  the  Protestant  League,  and  compelled 
to  flee  the  country.  Lutheranism  was  then  introduced  into  his 
States. 

The  attempt  of  the  ignorant  archbishop  Herman  von  Wied  to  in- 
troduce, with  the  help  of  Bucer  and  Melanchthon,  the  new  doctrine 
into  the  diocese  of  Cologne,  was  baffled  by  the  vigorous  resistance  of 
the  metropolitan  chapter,  of  the  clergy,  and  of  the  people.  Like 
Francis  of  Waldeck,  the  unworthy  prince-bishop  of  Munster,  Min- 
den,  and  Osnabriick,  he  was  finally  compelled  by  circumstances  to 
resign. 

In  the  prospect  of  adding  jnore  princes  to  their  number,  the  Prot- 
estant leaders  grew  more  and  more  insolent  in  their  pretensions. 
Already,  at  the  Diet  of  Spire,  in  1542,  they  had  demanded  the  abo- 
lition of  all  the  lawsuits  pending  in  the  Imperial  Chamber,  and  the 
proclamation  of  a  steadfast  peace,  by  which  they  meant  that  their 
robberies  on  Naumburg-Zeitz  and  Brunswick  should  be  sanctioned. 
They  again  took  exceptions  about  attending  the  Council  of  Trent, 
to  which  they  were  invited.  The  concessions  made  by  Ferdinand 
had  given  them  courage  to  proceed  to  new  requisitions.  At  the 
Diet  of  Spire,  in  1544,  they  extorted  from  the  emperor,  not- 
withstanding the  opposition  of  the  Catholic  States,  a  final  decree 
in  which  the  rights  of  the  Church  in  Germany  are  most  frightfully 
violated. 

The  evil  had  now  reached  a  high  degree,  but  the  rescue  was  at 
hand.  In  September,  1544,  the  emperor  concluded  the  Peace  of 
Crespy  with  Francis  I.  of  France,  and  agreed  on  an  armistice  with 
the  Turks.  This  enabled  him  to  devote  his  whole  attention  to  the 
religious  difficulties  of  Germany.  The  Pope  ordered  the  immediate 
reopening  of  the  Council  of  Trent  (March,  1545).  Indignant  at 
such  a  change  of  affairs,  Luther  wrote  his  work  entitled  "  The 
Papacy  at  Rome  an  Institution  of  the  Devil;"  and  the  rebellious 

Dionysius  Meknder,  an  apostate  Franciscan,  who  had  himself  taken  three  wives,  was 
the  man  who  performed  the  ceremony. 

^  Hcrm.  V.  Kerssenbroek,  Anabapt.  furoris  hist,  narratio,  1564-1573. 


172  HISTORY   OF    THE    CATHOLIC   CHURCH. 

princes,   whose    power  was  broken   ("concussi")   for  the   moment, 
commissioned  their  tlieologians  to  draw  up  a  formula  of  reunion. 

The  shrewdest  of  these  documents  is  that  got  up  by  ^lelanchthon, 
called  the  "Reformation  of  Wittenberg,"  according  to  which  the  only 
difference  between  Catholics  and  Protestants  consists  in  the  latter 
desiring  Communion  under  both  species,  and  the  marriage  of  the 
priests.  He  attaches  a  peculiar  importance  to  the  episcopal  power 
which  he  wishes  to  see  properly  maintained. 

The  emperor,  notwithstanding  the  renewed  opposition  of  the  Prot- 
estant princes,  who  had  been  joined  by  the  Elector  Frederic  of  the 
Palatinate,  still  entertained  the  vain  hope  of  settling  the  religious 
difficulties  by  a  conference.  With  this  purpose  in  view,  a  diet  was 
held  at  Ratisbon,  1546 ;  but  it  accomplished  nothing.  Before  this 
diet  was  opened,  Luther  had  died  at  Eisleben,  Feb.  18,  1546. 
The  last  years  of  his  life  were  imbittered  by  the  controversies 
among  his  adherents,  and  by  the  continually  increasing  immorality 
at  Wittenberg.'  His  indignation  Avas  also  excited  by  the  jurists, 
who  persisted  in  regarding  the  marriages  of  apostate  priests  and 
monks  as  concubinages ;  and  then  again  he  vented  his  anger  upon 
the  Jews.^ 

With  respect  to  Luther's  individuality,  he  possessed  a  sparkling 
imagination,  a  popular  and  captivating  eloquence ;  he  was  untiring 
in  ability  to  work,  and  unselfish  m  character.  Yet  he  lacked  the 
essential  qualities  of  a  true  reformer.  For  the  divine  office  of  teach- 
ing, inherent  in  the  Church,  he  substituted  his  own  authority,^  which, 
in  glaring  contradiction  with  his  own  principle  of  free  inquiry,  he 
sought  to  maintain  in  so  irritable  a  manner  that  it  clearly  showed 
that  the  slightest  opposition  was  absolutely  insupportable  to  him. 
Lacking  the  power  of  clear,  consistent,  penetrative  thought,  carried 
away  by  his  passions,  he  often  became  implicated  in  contradictory 
statements;  he  inconsiderately  made  assertions  which,  when  they 
stood  in  his  way,  he  as  inconsiderately  rejected.'*     He  declared  the 

1  It  was  especially  bad  in  Wittenberg  itself.  On  the  9th  of  March,  1545,  Luther 
wrote  to  Prince  George  of  Anhalt ;  "In  ista  Sodoma  at  Babylone  vivimus,  vel  morti- 
ficamur  potius. "     (De  Wcttc,  v.  722.) 

2  Shortly  before  his  death  Luther  wrote  to  Catherine  Bora  (Feb.  1,  1546)  :  "When 
the  main  business  is  settled,  I  must  set  to  work  to  drive  away  the  Jews."  (De  Wette, 
V.  784.) 

3  His  "Sic  volo,  sic  jubeo,"  are  well  known  ;  he  denies  salvation  to  those  who  do 
not  accept  his  doctrine.     (Jansscn,  Second  Answer  to  his  Critics,  p.  70  sqq.) 

*  On  the  12th  of  May,  1531,  Lnther  rejected  the  conditional  baptism  of  children 
(Letter  to  Link),  and  on  the  13th  of  May  of  the  same  year  he  approved  it  (Letter  to 


LUTHER'S   CHARAVTEll.  173 

Holy  Scriptures  to  be  the  only  rule  of  faith;  yet  when  in  conflict  with 
the  Sacramentariaus,  or  when  cornered  by  any  other  exigency,  he  did 
not  hesitate  to  appeal  to  ecclesiastical  tradition.  A  zealous  defender 
of  the  divine  origin  of  the  Scriptures,  he  does  not  shrink  from  reject- 
ing whole  passages  when  they  displease  him,^  or  of  setting  himself- 
absolutely  above  the  Scriptures  by  an  appeal  to  Christ."'^  Dishonest 
in  polemics,  Luther  frequently  distorts  the  teachings  of  the  Church 
or  the  assertions  of  his  opponents;  he  tirst  caricatures  them,  and 
then  assails  this  phantom  of  his  own  imagination  with  bitter  sar- 
casm. Hateful  invectives  and  unbecoming  jests  often  supply  the 
want  of  reasonable  arguments.  The  frivolous  and  low  language  of 
his  writings  can  in  no  degree  be  excused  by  the  coarseness  of  the 
age.  Luther  pursued  his  opponents  with  an  irreconcilable  hatred.^ 
"  Courageous  even  to  temerity  in  prosperity,  he  was  cowardly  even 
to  abjectness  in  adversity."     (^Pdllevicini.) 

The  undoubting  conviction  of  his  divine  mission,  which  animated 
him  under  excitement,  was  in  his  tranquil  moments  often  changed 
to  the  most  fearful  agitation  of  conscience,  which  filled  his  mind 
with  unbeai-able  doubts  about  the  truth  of  his  system.*  These  con- 
stantly recurring  admonitions  of  his  conscience  he  declared  to  be 
assaults  of  the  Devil,  and  sought  to  rid  himself  of  them  by  the  use 
of  intoxicating  drinks,^  by  unseemly  jests,  and  by  furious  attacks 

Osiander).  See  Dc  IVclte,  iv.  254  s<[i[.  He  arted  in  like  manner  in  his  controversy 
on  the  sacraments. 

1  At  the  Leipsic  disjjutation  he  called  the  Epistle  of  St.  James  an  epistle  of  straw. 
(JFalch,  xiv.  104.) 

2  "  Quodsi  adversarii  scripturam  urserint  contra  Chiistum,  urgemus  Christum  contra 
scripturam.  Nos  dominum  habemus,  illi  servum,  nos  caput,  illi  pedes  seu  membra, 
([uibus  caput  oportet  dominari  et  praeferri.  Si  alterutrum  sit  amittendum,  Christus 
vel  lex,  lex  est  amittenda,  non  Christus."     (Op.  lat.  ed.  Wittenb.  i.  387.) 

3  See  his  conduct  to  Carlstadt  (§  162),  to  Erasmus  (§  165),  to  George,  Duke  of 
Saxony,  and  others.  His  old  friend  Agricola,  with  whom  he  had  fallen  out,  came  to 
Wittenberg  for  the  express  purpose  of  being  reconciled  with  him.  Luther  would  not 
admit  him  to  his  presence.     {Dol linger,  iii.  265,  etc.) 

■*  Mathesius  states  :  "A.  Musa,  at  that  time  parish  priest  at  Rochlitz,  once  vehe- 
mently complained  to  Dr.  Martin  [Luther]  that  he  could  not  himself  believe  what  he 
taught  to  others.  'Praise  and  thanks  be  to  God,'  responded  Dr.  Martin,  'that  other 
])eople  feel  as  I  do  !  I  thought  I  had  such  experience  all  to  myself.' "  (12  Sermon, 
p.  131.) 

^  Luther  gives  this  advice  to  Jerome  Weller  (Nov.  6,  1530) :  "  Et  quoties  istis 
cogitationibus  te  vexaverit  Diabolus,  illico  ([uaere  confabulationem  hominum  nut 
largius  bibe,  aut  jocare,  nugare  aut  aliquid  hilarius  tacito.  Est  nonnunquam  largius 
bibendum,  ludendum,  nugandum  atque  adeo  peccatum  aliquod  faciendum  in  odium 
et  contemptum  Diaboli.  .  .  .  Quid  causae  aliud  esse  censes,  quod  ego  sic  meracnus 


174  HISTORY   OF    THE    CATHOLIC    CHURCH. 

upon  the  Pope/  agaiust  whom  he  thought  himself  allowed  to  do 
anything  and  everything. 

The  views  of  Luther  regarding  virginity,  matrimony,  conjugal 
fidelity,  and  the  like,  as  expressed  by  him  in  speeches,  sermons,  and 
writings,  are  offensive  not  only  to  every  religious  sentiment,  but  to 
every  feeling  of  delicacy  and  refinement  in  civilized  life. 

His  own  life  was  wanting  in  so  many  of  the  virtues  that  would 
have  been  becoming  to  a  reformer  of  the  Church,  that  it  alienated,  in 
his  latter  days,  many  of  his  former  admirers  and  adherents.  That 
in  spite  of  this  he  would  become  an  object  of  exaggerated  veneration 
to  the  after  world  was  foretold  by  himself  in  mocking  words.-  He 
dealt  a  heavy  blow  to  the  Catholic  religion,  yet  one  which  was 
eventually  to  cause  a  fountain  of  renewed  life  to  flow  for  her. 

§  170.    The  Schmalkaldic  War.  —  Treaty  of  Passau.  —  Religious 
Peace  of  Augsburg. 

The  opposition  of  the  Protestant  League  to  the  emperor  assumed 
by  degrees  so  violent  a  form  that  a  peaceful  settlement  of  existing 
differences  could  no  longer  be  thought  of.  The  chiefs  of  the  league 
had  well  foreseen  this  result,  and  had  made  the  necessary  prepara- 
tions for  the  conflict.  Neither  did  Charles,  "who  alive  or  dead 
wanted  to  be  still  Emperor  of  German}^"  remain  inactive,  but 
sought  rather  to  strengthen  his  small  forces.  In  the  mean  time 
the  revolt  of  the  allies,  who  had  laid  siege  to  the  city  of  Fiissen, 
had  come  to  a  crisis.  Elector  John  Frederic  of  Saxony  and  Land- 
grave Philip  of  Hesse  were  placed  under  the  ban  of  the  empire. 
Duke  Maurice  of  Saxony,  a  Protestant,  joined  the  forces  of  Charles. 
The  emperor  first  defeated  the  rebels  in  southern  Germany,  and 
then  destroyed  the  army  of  the  Elector  of  Saxony  in  a  battle  near 
Miihlberg,  1547.  His  territory  and  dignity  were  alike  conferred  on 
Maurice.     Philip  of  Hesse  was  also  compelled  to  surrender. 

The  insolence  of  the  rebel  princes  was   now  broken,  and  the  eiu- 

bibam,  liberius  confabuler,  comesser  saepius.  quam  nt  liidaiu  Diaboluin  et  vexcni." 
(De  Wctte,  iv.  188.) 

1  Cf.  Ep.  ad  Job.  Lange  (Aug.  18,  1520)  :  "Nos  liic  per.suasi  sumus,  papatum 
esse  veri  et  germani  illius  Antichristi  sedein,  in  cnjm  dcceptionem  et  nequitiam, 
ob  salutem  animarum  nobis  omnia  lioirc  arbitraiiiur."  {De  JVette,  i.  478.)  In  his 
letter  to  Nicholas  Hausinann  (Jan.  10,  1527),  he  announces  the  fall  of  the  papac}': 
"Papa  ubique  visitatur,  ut  destruatur,  venit  enim  finis  et  hora  ejus."  (De  JVctte, 
iii.  154.) 

2  "Adorabunt  stercora  nostra  et  pro  balsamo  habebunt."  (Walch,  xxii.  1906.) 
Regarding  the  teachings  of  the  Reformers,  see  §  196. 


RELIGIOUS   PEACE   OF  AUGSBURG.  175 

peror  was  master  in  GernKUiy  ;  yet  unfortunately  lie  made  no  fur- 
ther use  of  his  victory  than  to  convoke  the  diet  in  Augsburg  in  1547, 
where  the  famous  Augsburg  Interim  was  resolved  on,  which  satis- 
tied  neither  Protestants  nor  Catholics.  Some  Protestant  princes 
refused  to  admit  it  into  their  dominions ;  others  had  great  diffi- 
culty in  doing  so.  Even  the  newly  appointed  elector  Maurice  of 
Saxony  would  not  unconditionally  receive  it,  but  had  the  Leipsic 
Interim  prepared  by  his  own  theologians.  Melanchthon,  Avho  drew 
up  this  document,  yields  to  the  Catholics  in  the  Adiaphora;^  he 
also  retains  the  two  sacraments  of  confirmation  and  of  extreme 
unction.  But  as  he  adds  that  the  bishops,  whose  jurisdiction  is 
already  acknowledged,  must  give  their  assent  to  the  other  points 
of  doctrine  contained  in  this  Interim,  he  thus  leaves  open  a  back 
door. 

The  hard-tried  emperor  seemed  at  last  to  have  arrived  at  the 
accomplishment  of  his  wishes.  Several  Protestant  States  responded 
to  his  call,  and  sent  deputies  to  the  Council  of  Trent,  now  reopened 
by  Pope  Julius  III.  Even  the  Saxon  theologians,  among  them  Me- 
lanchthon, who  had  prepared  a  new,  weighty  symbol  of  faith,  were 
on  their  way  thither,  when  the  traitorous  INIaurice  of  Saxony,  con- 
jointly with  some  other  Protestant  princes,  suddenly  baffled  all  the 
emperor's  plans. 

On  the  5th  of  October,  1551,  he  formed  a  secret  alliance  with 
Henry  II.  of  France,  to  whom  he  conceded  the  imperial  cities 
Metz,  Toul,  Verdun,  and  Cambray.  Then  he,  on  May  2,  1552,  sud- 
denly fell  upon  the  emperor,  who  lay  sick  in  the  city  of  Innspruck, 
under  the  pretext  that  "  he  [the  emperor]  wished  to  reduce  the  Ger- 
man States  to  an  intolerable,  brutal,  and  hereditary  slavery."  At  the 
same  time  the  French  invaded  the  Netherlands. 

The  emperor  did  not  take  up  arms  against  the  rebels,  but  commis- 
sioned his  brother  Ferdinand  to  conclude  the  Treaty  of  Passau,  July 
30,  1552,  with  the  Protestant  States,  and  on  Sept.  26,  1555,  also  the 
so-called  Religious  Peace  of  Augsburg.^     The  "  Ecclesiastical  Reser- 

1  Under  this  term  are  included  all  mediate  articles,  in  themselves  indifferent  ; 
such  as  certain  ceremonies,  the  use  of  choir  surplices,  lights  on  the  altar,  etc.  See 
§197. 

-  The  chief  conditions  of  this  peace  are  :  That  the  States  of  the  empire  adhering 
to  the  old  religion  and  those  belonging  to  the  Confession  of  Augsburg  (the  Zwinglians 
and  Calvinists  were  excluded)  shall  fully  enjoy  equal  freedom  of  worship,  and  in  no 
way  obstruct  each  other  in  the  practice  of  religion.  Even  the  decision  respecting  the 
religion  of  their  temtories  is  left  to  them  ("jus  reformandi  ;  cujus  est  regio,  illius 


176  HISTORY   OF   THE   CATHOLIC   CHURCH. 

vation  "  (•' Eeservatum  eccl."),  which  decreed  that  clerics  who  should 
leave  the  old  religion  should  be  deprived  of  their  offices  and  bene- 
fices, still  caused  great  difficulties.     Peace  was  not  yet  restored. 

§  171.    The    Reformation    (^so-called}    in   Switzerland.  —  Ulrie 

Zwi7igli. 

In  Switzerland  the  innovations  were  first  introduced  into  the 
canton  of  Zurich,  where  Ulric  Zwingli  had,  since  the  year  1518, 
preached  in  the  great  minster.  Zwingli,  who  was  more  of  a  Hu- 
manist than  a  theologian,  and  who  led  a  very  immoral  life,  at 
length  came  forward  as  a  reformer  of  the  Church  and  an  improver 
of  social  morals.  In  Glarus  and  Einsiedeln  he  had  already  in  his 
sermons  attacked  time-honored  usages  of  the  Church,  and  had  given 
scandal  to  the  people  by  his  licentious  conduct;  but  it  was  only 
when  the  preacher  of  indulgences,  Bernhardin  Samson,  appeared  in 
1519,  that  he  found  opportunity  to  come  forward  yet  more  pub- 
licly. He  then  attacked  not  only  the  Franciscan  preacher,  but  the 
doctrine  itself,  and  in  the  year  1520  obtained  from  the  Great  Coun- 
cil of  Zurich  a  decree  in  which  all  the  parish  priests  of  the  canton 
were  commanded  to  preach  only  what  they  could  prove  with  clear 
and  distinct  words  from  the  Bible.  The  efforts  of  the  Bishop  of 
Constance  to  stem  the  torrent  of  hei-esy  were  ineffectual.  Zwingli 
replied  to  his  pastoral  letter  with  haughtiness  and  contempt ;  and 
in  the  year  1522  he  demanded,  in  reference  to  his  "dishonorable 
and  disgraceful  life,"  that  the  bishop  and  the  confederates  should 
permit  marriage  to  the  clergy. 

The  kind  and  affectionate  letter  of  Pope  Adrian  VI.,  of  Jan.  23, 
1523,  entirely  failed  of  its  purpose  to  change  the  mind  of  the  dis- 

et  religio").  If,  however,  subjects  desire  to  emigrate  on  account  of  religion,  no 
higher  travelling  tax  shall  be  exacted  of  them  than  of  other  travellers.  The  epis- 
copal jurisdiction  over  those  belonging  to  the  Augsburg  Confession  was  suspended. 
Such  Church  property  as  was  taken  by  them  before  the  Treaty  of  Passau  shall  be 
included  in  the  peace.  In  the  cities  of  the  empire  in  which  both  religions  have 
hitherto  been  practised,  it  shall  so  continue,  etc.  The  Protestants  in  the  Catholic 
States,  and  later  on  in  the  spiritual  territories,  required  free  exercise  of  religion  for 
those  sects  related  to  the  Confession  of  Augsburg,  whereas  they  themselves  were 
only  willing  to  grant  toleration  to  the  Catholics  under  their  government,  on  con- 
dition that  they  should  abstain  from  all  public  exercise  of  their  faith  and  the  cere- 
monies connected  with  it."  The  Catholic  States  would  not  assent  to  this ;  but 
Ferdinand  complied  with  their  demand  in  an  accessory  declaration.  See  Menzel, 
iii.  568  sqq. 


THE    REFORMATION  IN  SWITZERLAXlK  177 

obedieut  priest.  In  the  same  year  the  religious  conference  at 
Zurich  took  place,  Jan.  29,  1523.  For  this,  Zwingli  had  prepared 
his  sixty-seven  theses.  The  Catholic  side  was  represented  by  John 
Faber,  Vicar-General  of  Constance.  He  convicted  Zwingli  of  error, 
yet  the  conference  declared  Zwingli  the  victor.  A  second  confer- 
ence was  held  in  October,  1523,  with  the  same  result,  through  the 
partiality  shown  by  the  council.  The  reformer,  thus  encouraged,  and 
aided  by  Leo  Judte,  Louis  Hetzer,  and  others,  became  still  bolder. 
Several  of  his  clerical  adherents  took  wives.  Zwingli  himself  mar- 
rieil  the  widow  Anna  Reinhard,  with  whom  he  had  for  many  years 
previously  lived  in  sinful  intercourse. 

The  chief  motive  which  iniluenced  the  magistrature  of  Zurich  in 
tolerating  the  innovations  had  its  foundation  in  the  wish  to  retain 
possession  of  the  Church  lands,  the  gold  and  silver  vessels,  and  the 
like.  It  was  this  consideration  that  caused  the  defence  of  the  teach- 
ing and  arrangements  of  the  Catholic  Church,  made  by  the  Bishop 
of  Constance,  to  fall  unheeded,  and  that  the  earnest  representational 
of  an  assembly  at  Lucerne,  in  1524,  could  as  little  prevail  on  the 
Great  Council  to  change  their  hostile  attitude.  Even  the  outrages 
perpetrated  by  Felix  ]\Linz,  Blaurock,  and  other  Anabaptists,  who 
had  come  to  Zurich,  could  not  retard  the  progress  of  the  so-called 
Ileformation.  On  Zwingli's  motion,  the  council  fofbade  in  1525  the 
sacrifice  of  the  IMass ;  ordered  the  demolition  of  altars,  pictures, 
crucifixes,  organs,  and  the  like  ;  and  introduced  the  new  action  or 
custom  of  the  Lord's  Supper.  Whoever  refused  to  take  part  in  this 
service  of  God  was  punished  ;  and  in  1529  attendance  at  Mass,  even 
in  another  canton,  Avas  forbidden.  Zwingli  conferred  the  episcopal 
power  of  jurisdiction  on  the  temporal  power.  On  the  synod,  which 
was  entirely  dependent  upon  it,  devolved  the  care  duly  to  uphold 
Christian  discipline. 

The  example  of  Zurich  was  followed  at  Basle,  where,  as  early 
as  the  year  1527,  Wolfgang  Capito,  Roublin,  and  others  had  preached 
the  new  errors,  but  had  been  opposed  by  the  magistrates.  It  was 
John  (Ecolampadins  who  first  broke  down  the  opposition.  Under 
his  leadership  the  innovators,  who,  in  1527,  had  succeeded  in  ex- 
torting toleration  for  themselves,  proceeded  to  take  the  offensive, 
—  excluded  the  Catholic  members  from  the  Great  Council,  forced 
an  entrance  into  the  churches  (where  they  destroyed  altars  and  pic- 
tures, as  had  been  done  in  Zurich),  and  introduced  Zwinglianism. 
The  same  year  the  same  thing  happened  at  St.  Gall,  in  Schaffhausen, 
where  Sebastian  Hofmtister  preached  the  heresy,  which  had  also 

VOL.  II.  12 


178  HISTORY  OF   THE   CATHOLIC   CHURCH. 

beeu  received  at  Muhlhausen  and  Appenzell  as  early  as  the  year 
1524.     In  Glarus  the  innovators  were  victorious  in  1528. 

In  Berne  the  Great  Council  at  first  resisted  the  introduction  of 
Zwinglianism,  but  with  too  little  firmness ;  and  after  the  Catholic 
members  had  withdrawn,  the  priest  Berthold  Haller  (+  153G)  suc- 
ceeded in  gaining  the  favor  of  the  council  for  the  cause  of 
Zwingli.  A  religious  conference  of  1528  decided  for  the  victory  of 
the  heresy,  which  was  then  introduced  by  severe  measures  through- 
out the  whole  canton.  The  Zwinglians  also  gained  a  footing  in 
Graubiinden. 

The  original  cantons  Schwyz,  Uri,  Unterwalden,  as  also  those  of 
Lucerne,  Zug,  and  Freiburg,  remained  faithful  to  their  religion.  The 
proximate  consequence  of  the  religious  revolution  was  the  complete 
alienation  of  the  Protestant  from  the  Catholic  cantons.  In  self- 
defence  against  the  allied  Protestant  cantons,  the  Catholic  cantons 
entered  into  an  alliance  with  King  Ferdinand  of  Austria ;  but  when 
on  the  point  of  breaking  out,  the  impending  struggle  was  for  the 
time  averted  by  the  mediation  of  the  cities  of  Strasburg  and 
Constance. 

The  acts  of  violence  perpetrated  by  the  leaguers  of  Zurich, 
which  were  carried  to  the  length  of  intercepting  convoys  of  pro- 
visions destined  for  the  Catholic  cantons,  caused  at  length  the 
outbreak  of  a  furious  war.  The  battle  of  Cappel,  on  Oct.  11,  1531, 
resulted  unfavorably  for  the  Zwinglians.  Zwingli  himself  was 
among  the  slain.  When  peace  was  conclvided,  the  victors  behaved 
with  great  moderation. 

§  172.    The  so-called  Reformation  in  French  Switzerland.  — 
John  Calvin. 

After  the  battle  near  Cappel  (1531),  Berne  undertook  to  protect 
Zwinglianism,  which  it  also  sought  to  introduce  into  the  French  part 
of  Switzerland.  William  Farel,  Peter  Viret,  and  others  had  en- 
deavored from  the  year  1532  to  introduce  this  heresy,  but  without 
much  result  until  Berne  came  to  their  assistance.  The  Bishop  of 
Lausanne  was  driven  from  his  diocese.  The  troops  were  accompa- 
nied by  preachers,  who  took  forcible  possession  of  the  churches  and 
therein  preached  their  heresies.  Every  opposition  on  the  part  of 
the  people  and  of  the  clergy  was  suppressed  by  force  ;  and  after  a 
discussion  (so  called)  on  certain  points  of  faith,  the  introduction  of 
Zwinglianism  was  decreed  by  authority. 


REFORMATION  IN  FRENCH  SWITZERLAND.         179 

But  the  rich  commercial  city  of  Geneva  was  an  especial  aim  of 
the  innovators.  The  disputes  of  the  city  with  the  Duke  of  Savoy 
and  the  Prince-Bishop  Peter  de  la  Baume  were  well  fitted  to 
serve  their  purpose.  For  the  maintenance  of  its  own  independence, 
Geneva  had  formed  an  alliance  with  Freiburg  and  Berne  on  city 
rights.  This  alliance  Berne  used  in  favor  of  Zwinglianism.  Things 
turned  still  worse  when  Freiburg  receded  from  the  alliance.  The 
Council  of  Geneva  finally  yielded  to  the  stern  demands  of  its  ally ; 
it  renounced  allegiance  to  the  prince-bishop,  who  was  connected  with 
the  Duke  of  Savoy,  and  who  at  a  critical  moment  had  left  the  city 
(1535).  It  permitted  the  images  to  be  destroyed,  the  pictures  and 
crucifixes  to  be  torn  down  without  remonstrance,  and,  finally,  for- 
bade the  exercise  of  the  Catholic  religion. 

This  introduction  of  new  ideas  into  Geneva  was  chiefly  a  political 
work  effected  by  those  in  power ;  and  its  consequences  were  shown 
in  the  decline  of  social,  moral,  and  ecclesiastical  order.  It  was  in 
vain  that  the  leaders  of  the  heresy  did  their  best  to  bring  about  a 
well-ordered  state  of  affairs;  licentiousness  continued  to  spread 
until,  finally,  it  gained  the  upper  hand. 

At  this  critical  moment  John  Calvin  (Chauvin)  ^  arrived  at  Geneva, 
where  his  heresy  soon  obtained  the  victory  over  Zwinglianism.  Cal- 
vin was  born,  July  10,  1509,  at  Noyon,  in  Picardy,  and  pursued  his 
studies  at  Paris,  Orleans,  and  Bourges  ;  and  it  was  at  Paris  that 
he  first  came  forward  as  a  defender  of  the  reformatory  principles, 
which  he  had  been  influenced  to  adopt  by  the  Humanist  ^lelchior 
Volmar.  This  first  attempt  failed,  being  put  down  by  the  French 
Government.  In  consequence  of  his  extremely  intemperate  assaults 
on  the  Catholic  religion,  Calvin,  being  pursued  by  the  authorities, 
wandered  about  hither  and  thither,  —  in  France  itself  for  a  while ; 
till,  in  1535,  he  betook  himself  to  Basle,  where  he  published  his 
*' Institutiones  Christianse,"  addressed  to  Francis  I.  From  Basle 
he  went  to  Ferrara  on  a  visit  to  the  Duchess  Renata,  who  was 
desirous  of  learning  the  new  doctrine.  Thence,  at  the  request  of 
Farel,  he  took  up  his  residence  at  Geneva, 

1  On  the  introduction  of  the  so-called  Reformation,  see  Histoire  de  M.  Vuarin  et 
du  vetablissement  du  Catholicisnie  a  Geneve,  par  M  I'abbe  Martin,  miss,  apost,  etc., 
et  M.  I'abbe  Fleurij.     Paris,  1862. 

2  Calv.,  Op.  ed.  Genev.  1617,  12  vols.  fol.  ed.  Bavm,  Cunitz,  Rciiss.  in  Corpus 
Reformat,  torn.  xxix.  sqq.  Beza,  Hist,  de  la  vie  et  de  la  mort  de  J.  Calvin.  Geneve, 
1564.  Bo/sec,  Hist,  de  la  vie,.moeurs,  actes,  doctrine  de  J.  Calvin  reeditee  par  Chastel. 
Lyon,  1875. 


180  HISTORY   OF   THE    CATHOLIC   CHURCH. 

The  arbitrary  principles  and  harsh  behavior  of  the  new  reformer 
made  him  an  object  of  hatred  to  the  Genevese,  of  which  he  finally 
became  the  victim.  Calvin,  Farel,  and  Couraiilt  were  driven  from  the 
city  in  1538. 

Calvin  went  to  8trasburg,  where  he  married  the  widow  of  an 
Anabaptist,  and  took  part  in  the  religious  conferences  of  Hagenau 
and  Eatisbon.  Then,  at  the  invitation  of  his  adherents,  he  returned 
to  Geneva  in  1541,  where,  from  that  time  forth,  he  wielded  a  power 
which  was  well-nigh  absolute,  and  of  which  he  made  the  most  ex- 
tensive use.  In  the  first  place,  he  regulated  the  ecclesiastical  gov- 
ernment.^ The  chief  part  of  the  worship  consisted  in  sermons  and 
catechetical  instructions  ;  special  prayers  and  psalm-singing  were  also 
ordained.  The  whole  worship  Avas  cold  and  formal.  All  images 
and  other  ornaments  were  removed  from  the  church.  The  adminis- 
tration of  the  Eucharist  took  place  four  times  a  year.  Calvin  wished 
also  to  introduce  a  sort  of  confession.  For  the  maintenance  of  moral 
discdpline,  a  consistory,  composed  of  preachers  and  laymen,  Avas  in- 
stituted. This  was  a  most  fearful  inquisitorial  tribunal,  which  was 
allowed  to  encroach  upon  the  sacred  rights  of  family  life.  The 
members  of  this  tribunal  were  to  keep  watch  over  the  conduct, 
church-going,  etc.,  of  every  individual,  and  to  punish  the  guilty. 
Another  commission,  of  which  Calvin  Avas  likcAvise  the  ruling  spirit, 
had  the  regulation  of  the  administrative  and  of  the  political 
ordinances,  as  also  of  those  appertaining  to  the  police. 

The  ecclesiastical  as  well  as  the  civic  ordinances  contained  the 
most  stringent  measures,  which  were  carried  out  with  the  utmost 
severity.^  It  was  a  real  yoke  of  slavery  that  noAv  lay  on  the  neck  of 
the  Genevese.  Their  domestic,  equally  with  their  public,  life  was 
subjected  to  the  strictest  control.  Even  allowable  pleasures  —  fam- 
ily festivals,  popular  amusements,  and  the  like  —  were  forbidden. 
They  were  not  even  allowed  to  visit  the  bar-room.  The  old  families 
of  the  city  were  not  willing  to  submit  to  a  state  of  such  degrading 
pupillage  ;  biit  Calvin  had  anticipated  any  attempt  at  revolt.     He 

1  Ordonnances  ecclesiastiques  de  I'eglise  de  Geneve.  Printed  in  Ricliter's  Evan- 
gelical Church  Ordinances  of  the  Sixteenth  Century,  i.  342  sqq. 

2  Galife,  (N'ouvplles  pages  d'histoire  exacte  sur  le  proces  de  P.  Ameaux.  Geneve, 
1863.  p.  97)  gives  the  number  of  arrests  during  the  ye»rs  1542-1546  as  amounting 
to  800-900.  KampschvJf.e  (John  Calvin,  his  Church  and  his  State  in  Geneva,  vol.  i.) 
gives  an  a]ipalling  description  of  the  inhuman  severity  exercised  in  judicial  pro- 
ceedings and  executions,  and,  in  conclusion,  says,  "  Human  life  seemed  to  have  lost 
all  its  value  at  New  Geneva." 


JOHN   CALVIN.  181 

had  used  his  influence  with  the  smaller  council  to  secure  the  right 
of  the  city  to  the  numerous  French  fugitives ;  and  by  this  he  had 
acquired  a  large  number  of  adherents,  with  whose  help  he  put  down 
all  opposition. 

As  in  Geneva,  so  also  in  the  rural  congregations,  where  the  popu- 
lations for  a  long  time  resisted  the  introduction  of  the  "  pure  gospel," 
it  was  by  a  despotism  ^  of  force  that  the  heresy  made  its  way. 

And  yet,  although  Calvin  for  the  most  part  adhered  so  obstinately 
to  his  own  opinion,  he  did  not  hesitate  to  modify  that  opinion  when, 
by  so  doing,  he  could  gain  a  momentary  advantage.  It  was  only 
towards  the  Catholic  Church  that  he  was  implacable.  As  a  theo- 
logian, Calvin  was  far  superior  to  the  superficial  Zwingli ;  also  he 
far  surpassed  Luther  in  erudition  and  general  consistency.  The 
characteristics  of  the  reformer  are  haughtiness,  harshness,  and  bit- 
terness. In  his  treatment  of  his  opponents  he  resembles  Luther, 
particularly  in  his  use  of  abusive  language.  The  latter  is  more  given 
to  the  exhibition  of  a  furious  and  insolent  wrath,  while  with  Calvin 
the  malice  is  more  profound  and  bitterness  predominates.'^ 

The  nature  of  the  Genevan  reformer  was  essentially  aristocratic ; 
while  theoretically  defending  the  sovereignty  of  the  people,  he  prac- 
tically decided  in  favor  of  an  oligarchy.  With  regard  to  the  rela- 
tionships subjects  bear  to  their  superiors,  Calvin  gives  utterance 
to  the  most  dangerous  sentiments,^  which  have  been  reduced  to 
practice  by  his  adherents  in  France. 

1  Kampschulte,  p.  448.  GaJiffe,  1.  c.  pp.  40,  115  sqq.  The  civil  officers  had  strict 
orders  to  suppress  every  Catholic  manifestation.  In  each  separate  congregation 
watchers  were  appointed  to  oversee  the  inhabitants.  A  peasant  who  did  not  eat 
meat  on  Friday  or  Saturday  was  imprisoned. 

2  In  the  Instit.  Christ,  iv.  20,  n.  31,  he  calls  his  opponents  "  Blaterones,  nebu- 
lones,  nugatores,  phrenetici,  insulso  cavillo  ludentes,  ore  rabido  latrantes,  insulse  stri- 
dentes,  rabulae,  sacrilegi,  nebulones  prodigiosi,  calumiua tores,  helleboro  niagis  quam 
argumentis  digni,  canes  impuri,  angues,  augues  tortuosi,  furiosae  belluae,  porci."  Cf. 
Bossuct,  Hist,  des  variations,  ix.  82. 

3  Cf.  Instit.  Christ,  iv.  20,  n.  31  :  "At  vero  in  ea  quam  praefectorum  imperils  de- 
beri  constituimus  obedientia,  id  semper  excipiendum  est,  imo  in  priniis  observandum, 
ne  ab  ejus  obedientia  nos  deducat,  cujus  voluntati  regum  omnium  vota  .subesse,  cujus 
decretis  jussa  cedere,  cujus  majestati  fasces  submitti  par  est."  Cf.  n.  30  :  "Nam  modo 
ex  servis  suis  manifestos  vindices  excitat,  ac  mandato  sue  instruit,  qui  de  scelerata 
dondnatione  poenas  sumant  et  op])ressum  injustis  modis  populum  e  misera  calamitate 
eximant."  If  we  take  into  consideration  the  fact  that,  according  to  the  views  of 
Calvin  and  his  followers,  all  Catholic  kings,  princes,  rulers,  and  the  like,  are  the 
enemies  of  God,  the  practical  consequences  of  the  above-named  principles  may  be 
estimated.  Certainly  Calvin  desires  that  even  a  tyrannical  government  should  be 
obeyed,  but  such  injunctions  become  illusory  through  the  theory  laid  down  above. 


182  HISTORY  OF   THE    CATHOLIC   CHURCH. 

In  order  to  establish  his  heresy  on  a  firmer  foundation,  and  to  give 
it  a  wide  scope,  Calvin,  in  1558,  founded  an  academy  in  Geneva, 
which  afterwards  fell  under  the  direction  of  Theodore  Beza.  This 
man  had  stvidied  under  Melchior  Volmar,  and  after  spending  the 
years  of  his  youth  in  profligacy,  became  a  disciple  of  Calvin.  At 
the  death  of  the  latter,  Beza  became  head  of  the  reformed  congrega- 
tions in  Switzerland  and  France  (  +  1605). 

§  173.    Protestantism  in  France. 

In  no  other  country  did  the  prospects  for  the  spread  of  Protestant- 
ism appear  to  be  so  favorable  as  in  France,^  the  relations  of  which 
to  the  Apostolic  See  and  to  the  German  Empire  seemed  alike  to  favor 
the  Reformation.  At  an  early  date  the  works  of  Luther,  Zwingli, 
and  others  were  circulated  and  eagerly  read.  The  first  Protestant 
congregation  was  formed  in  Meaux,  under  the  leadership  of  Farel 
and  Le  Clerc. 

At  first  the  royal  court  took  no  measures  against  the  innovators ; 
in  fact,  Francis  I.  (+  1547)  commissioned  the  two  brothers  William 
and  John  du  Bellay  to  enter  into  negotiations  with  the  German 
Protestants.  On  the  other  hand,  however,  the  Sorbonne  and  the 
Parliament  were  all  the  more  severe  in  their  proceedings  against  the 
sectarians. 

A  vigorous  dealing  with  the  new  sect,  which  was  patronized  by 
Margaret  de  Valois,  the  king's  sister,  and  the  Duchess  d'Etampes, 
the  king's  mistress,  was  all  the  more  necessary  from  the  grievous 
crimes  which  the  adherents  of  the  innovations  permitted  themselves 
to  commit  against  the  Catholic  Church  and  against  her  Head. 

On  the  27th  of  June,  1551,  Henry  II.^  published  the   Edict  of 

1  Very  important  information  on  tlie  so-called  Reformation  in  France  is  given  in 
the  "Collection  complete  des  memoires  relatifs  a  I'histoire  de  France,  par  Petitot,  torn, 
xvii.  sqq.,  Paris,  1821,"  which  contains  the  memorable  events  in  the  lives  of  the  most 
eminent  men  of  this  time.  See,  also,  Thunnus  (De  Thou),  Hist,  sui  temporis  (15i3- 
1607).  7  vols.  fol.  London,  1733.  Maimhourq,  Hist,  du  Calvinisme.  Paris,  1862. 
Berfhier,  Hist,  de  I'eglise  Gall.  Paris,  1749.  Mezeraif,  Abrege  chron.  de  I'histoiie 
de  France,  torn.  iii.  Paris,  1717.  Davila,  Storia  delle  guerre  civile  di  Francia 
1559-1598.  Venet.  1630.  LacrefrUe,  Hist,  de  France  pendant  les  guerres  de  rel. 
4  vols.  Paris,  1815  sqq.  Capefique,  Hist,  de  la  re'forme,  de  la  ligue  et  du  regne  de 
Henri  IV.  4  vols.  Paris,  1834.  Sismondi,  Precis  de  I'histoire  des  Fran9ais,  2  vols. 
Bru.xelles,  1839  ;  and  Histoire  des  Fran9ais,  Aix-la-Chapelle,  1838. 

2  Henry  II.  {  +  1559)  left  four  sons  :  Francis  II.,  Charles  IX.,  Henry  III.,  and 
Francis,  Duke  of  Alen9on. 


PROTESTANTLSM  IN  FRANCE.  183 

Chateaubriand,  by  which  the  inquisitorial  jurisdiction  over  heresies 
was  transferred  to  the  civil  power.  In  September,  1555,  he  con- 
ceded the  right  of  decision  to  the  bishops,  while  the  execution  of  the 
sentence  still  remained  to  the  secular  courts.  Notwithstanding  these 
measures,  the  sects  made  no  small  progress  in  number. 

The  reformers,  called  Huguenots,^  who  had  already  formed  con- 
gregations at  Paris,  Orleans,  Rouen,  Lyons,  Angers,  etc.,  and  held 
tlieir  first  national  council  in  Paris  in  1559,^  became  still  more 
powerful  during  the  reign  of  Francis  II.  The  laws  against  heretics 
were,  indeed,  still  in  force ;  but  the  heretics  themselves  were  pro- 
tected by  Prince  Anthony  of  Bourbon,  King  of  Navarre,  and  his 
brother  Prince  Louis  of  Conde,  who,  vexed  at  the  influence  exercised 
over  the  king  by  the  Duke  Francis  of  Guise  and  his  brother,  Car- 
dinal of  Lorraine,  had  made  common  cause  with  the  Huguenots. 
Their  chief  leader  was  the  Admiral  Coligny. 

Countenanced  by  such  friends  as  these,  the  Huguenots  formed  a 
conspiracy,  known  as  the  Conspiracy  of  Amboise,  to  seize  the  person 
of  the  king  and  transfer  the  government  to  the  two  princes  (1560). 
The  French  and  German  theologians  and  jurists  of  the  sect  approved 
of  the  plan,  but  the  undertaking  was  discovered  in  time.^  The 
leader.  La  Renaudie,  was  put  to  death ;  while  the  real  author  of 
the  conspiracy,  Prince  Conde,  escaped  the  penalty  which  he  had 
so  well  deserved. 

The  Edict  of  Romorantin,  in  May,  1560,  conceded  to  the  bishops 
the  right  of  inquiry  into  heresy.  The  secular  power  was  only  to 
proceed  against  rebellious  and  tumultuous  assemblies.  On  the  20th 
of  August  Coligny  presented  to  the  notables  at  Fontainebleau  a  peti- 
tion, in  the  name  of  the  Huguenots,  which  had  the  effect  of  staying 
all  judicial  proceedings  against  them.  In  December  the  States- 
General  were  to  meet  at  Meaux ;  however,  they  met,  not  at  Meaux, 

1  On  this  name  of  Huguenot  compare  Daniel,  Hist,  de  France,  ed.  Griffet,  x.  54. 
Some  deriv^e  it  from  Eidgnots,  — that  is,  confederates  bound  to  one  another  by  oath  ; 
others,  from  King  Hugo  (Capet),  who,  in  the  popular  belief,  still  haunts  Tours  by 
night  as  a  ghost. 

2  Here  a  profession  of  faith  ("  Confessio  Gallicana")  was  drawn  up,  and  a  system  of 
discipline  prescribed.  This  creed,  or  "  symbolum,"  was  presented  to  Charles  IX.  in 
1561,  and  in  1566  was  translated  into  Latin.  In  it  the  execution  of  heretics  was  de- 
clared to  be  a  duty  in  th"  magistrate  :  "  Ideo  etiam  gladium  in  Magistratuum  manus 
tradidit  [scl.  Deus]  reprimendis  nirairum  delictis,  non  modo  contra  secundam  tabulam, 
sed  etiam  contra  primam  comraissis."     (Augusti,  Corp.  lib.  symb.  p.  145.) 

^  Bossiiet,  Hist,  des  variations,  x.  23.  They  wished,  however,  to  have  a  prince  of 
the  blood  at  their  head. 


184  HISTORY  OF   THE   CATHOLIC   CHURCH. 

but  at  Orleans.  The  Prince  of  Conde  was  present ;  but  as  he  had 
attempted  to  take  possession  of  the  city  of  Lyons,  he  was  arrested 
as  a  traitor  and  condemned  to  death.  Only  the  sudden  death  of  the 
king  (December  5)  pi*evented  his  execution. 

The  king's  brother,  Charles  IX.,  now  ascended  the  throne  of 
France.  As  he  was  still  under  age,  his  intriguing  mother,  Catherine 
de  Medicis,  undertook  the  government.  She  was  bent  on  making 
both  Catholics  and  Protestants  serve  her  own  purposes ;  but  by  this 
dishonest  policy  she  betrayed  the  weakness  of  the  court  part}^  and 
strengthened  that  of  the  Huguenots  yet  more  in  their  opposition. 

The  appointment  of  Anthony  of  Bourbon  as  Lieutenant-General  of 
France  was  favorable  to  the  Calvinists.  The  edict  of  July,  1561, 
however,  forbade  their  assemblies,  and  threatened  sentence  of  death 
to  obstinate  heretics.  But  this  edict  did  not  prevent  the  Hugue- 
nots from  holding  meetings,  which  Catherine  not  only  tolerated,  but, 
to  please  the  Admiral  Coligny,  she  brought  about  a  religious  con- 
ference at  Poissy  (September  3),  at  which  the  Protestants  were 
principally  represented  by  Beza  and  Peter  Martyr  Vermilio,  while 
the  Catholic  side  was  taken  by  the  Cardinal  of  Lorraine,  Claude 
d'Espence,  De  Xaintes,  and  the  Jesuit  Lainez.  The  conference 
ended,  without  result,  on  the  2oth  of  ISTovember.  On  the  17th  of 
January,  1562,  tlie  regent,  out  of  hatred  to  the  triumvirate,^  issued 
the  Edict  of  Toleration,-  which  allowed  the  Huguenots  free  exercise 
of  their  religion  in  the  open  country,  but  forbade  their  assembling 
for  religious  worship  in  the  cities. 

Such  a  concession,  however,  could  not  satisfy  this  party,  which 
was  so  strongly  opposed  to  the  Catholic  Church.  They  did  not  seek 
toleration  for  their  sect ;  their  object  was  the  total  annihilation  of 
the  Catliolic  Church  in  France.  As  long  as  they  were  yet  weak  they 
had  to  content  themselves  with  tumults  and  riots,  with  publishing  in- 
sulting pamphlets,  and  the  like.  But  now  they  proceeded  to  action. 
The  history  of  France  is  filled  with  the  most  atrocious  deeds  of 
violence  which  the  "  faithful  "  allowed  themselves  to  commit  on  the 

^  Francis  of  Guise,  the  aged  High  Constable  Montmorency,  and  the  Marshal  St. 
Andre.     These  were  joined  by  Anthony  of  Bourbon. 

2  Thuan.  1.  c.  xxix.  7.  The  edict  commanded  the  Huguenots  to  restore  their 
churches  and  ecclesiastical  property  to  the  Catholics  ;  it  forbade  them  to  hold  secret 
meetings,  to  levy  taxes  save  for  the  clergy  and  the  poor,  to  enlist  soldiers,  to  destroy 
churches,  crucifixes,  and  pictures  ;  by  which  it  may  be  inferred  what  course  they  had 
hitherto  pursued.  The  Parliament  refused  to  register  this  edict.  Cf.  Daniel,  1.  c. 
viii.  396.     The  Sorbonne  also  declared  against  it. 


PROTESTANTISM  IN  FRANCE.  185 

'*  Papists "  and  their  "  idolatrous  worship "'  for  more  than  forty 
years.^  The  inhuman  atrocities  of  which  they  were  guilty  had  not 
even  the  excvise  of  being  the  effect  of  sudden  excitement ;  they 
were  performed  at  the  instigation  and  with  the  approbation  of  Cal- 
vinistic  preachers  and  synods.  The  principal  scene  of  devastation 
was  southern  France.  ^lany  churches  were  pulled  down ;  the 
Catholic  priests  were  ill-treated  and  driven  away;  pictures,  relics, 
and  in  some  places  —  as  at  Xismes  (1561),  where  Viret  had  stirred 
up  the  passions  of  the  populace  —  even  the  Sacred  Hosts  were  given 
to  the  flames.  Similar  outbursts  of  a  wild  fanaticism  took  place  at 
Paris,  where  (December,  1561)  the  Huguenots  took  the  church  of 
Medardus  by  storm,  ill-treated  the  Catholics,  and  trampled  under- 
foot the  consecrated  Hosts.-  Matters  were  worse  yet  in  the  little 
kingdom  of  Beam.  Here  the  regent  w'as  Johanna  d'Albret,  wife  of 
Anthony  of  Bourbon,  who  in  1563  had  become  a  Calvinist.  She 
deposed  the  Catholics  from  their  dignities,  expelled  the  priests,  and 
replaced  them  by  preachers  ;  while,  at  the  instance  of  the  latter, 
she  forbade  the  exercise  of  Catholic  worship.  Those  of  the  inhabi- 
tants who  resisted  this  command  were  severely  punished,  and  the 
pi'iests  who  refused  to  apostatize  were  cruelly  murdered.^ 

Such  an  insult  to  their  faith,  such  a  profanation  of  all  they  held 
most  sacred,  exasperated  the  Catholics  to  such  a  degree  that  a 
lasting  peace  was  no  longer  possible.^      Shortly  after  the  edict  of 

1  Over  five  thousand  priests  and  members  of  religions  orders  have  suffered  martyr- 
dom during  the  civil  and  religious  wars.  On  the  numerous  martyrs  belonging  to  the 
Order  of  St.  Francis,  see  Annales  Minorum,  continuat,  torn,  xix.,  xx.,  xxi.  P.  Gau- 
dentins.  Contributions,  etc.,  p.  110  sqq.,  where  the  assertion  that  the  so-called  Old 
Orders  were  devoid  of  life  and  energy  is  dis}iroved.  Just  during  the  terrible  wars 
tlie  great  beneficial  reform  of  the  regular  clergy  in  France  took  place. 

2  Hereupon  Beza  writes  to  Calvin,  Dec.  30,  1561;  "Qui  hostibus  armatis  peper- 
cerant,  idolU  et  panacco  illi  Deo  parcere  non  potuerunt,  frustra  reclamantibus,  quibus 
ista  non  placebant." 

3  Poycdavant,  Hist,  des  troubles  du  Beam,  ii.  424.  Pan,  1820.  Scgretain,  Sixte  V. 
et  Henri  IV.  p.  47  sqq.     Paris,  1861. 

*  Cf.  Picot,  Essai  hist,  sur  I'influence  de  la  religion  en  France  pendant  le  17  siecle. 
In  Montpellier  the  Huguenots  destroyed  forty-six  churches  ;  in  Orleans,  nineteen  ; 
in  the  kingdom  of  Beam,  Coligny  had  three  hundred  churches  demolished.  In  the 
Dioceses  Uzes,  Nismes,  Viviers,  and  Mende,  five  hundred  churches  were  torn  down. 
The  magnificent  cathedral  at  Beziers  was  transforme'l  into  a  stable.  About  one 
hundred  and  fifty  cathedrals  and  ablieys  were  ruined  with  the  brutality  of  vandalism  ; 
the  "  idolatrous  pictures  "  burnt,  the  sacred  vessels  desecrated.  At  Nismes  the  Hu- 
guenots murdered  eighty  Catholics  of  good  standing,  and  cast  their  dead  bodies 
into  the    "  bloody  springs."     In   Sully,  Coligny  liad  thirty-five  priests  made  away 


186  HISTORY  OF   THE   CATHOLIC   CHURCH. 

January  the  religious  wars  broke  out  in  France.  The  event,  called 
by  Protestant  writers  the  Massacre  of  Vassy,  on  March  1,  1562,  gave 
the  signal  for  a  general  insurrection  of  the  Huguenots,  who  had 
long  since  been  prepared  by  their  preachers  and  synods  to  "  defend 
the  gospel "  by  an  armed  force.  Beza  had  proposed  the  taking  up  of 
arms,  and  the  Calvinist  synods  had  perfectly  agreed  with  him.^ 

At  the  head  of  the  Huguenots  stood  the  Prince  of  Conde,  to  whom 
Elizabeth,  Queen  of  England,  had  promised  assistance  at  the  price 
of  his  surrendering  Havre-de-Grace  to  her.  But  the  traitor  did  not 
accomplish  his  purpose.  The  insurgents  were  defeated  at  the  bat- 
tle of  Dreux,  Dec.  19,  1562.  Coligny  retreated  to  Orleans.  Duke 
Francis  of  Guise  laid  siege  to  this  city,  but  was  assassinated  by 
Coligny's  master  of  the  horse,  Pol  trot  de  Mere,  February,  1563. 
Catherine  de  Medicis  then  concluded  the  Peace  of  Amboise  with  the 
Prince  of  Conde,  with  which  Coligny  and  the  Huguenot  preachers 
were  not  satisfied.^ 

The  peace  was  but  of  short  duration ;  for  even  as  early  as  1567 
the  well-organized  Huguenots  formed  a  new  plot  against  King 
Charles  IX.,  of  whose  person  they  intended  to  take  possession  in  the 
castle  of  Monceaux.  The  king  fled  to  Paris,  whither  the  rebels  fol- 
lowed him.  The  revolt  had  spread  over  the  whole  of  France.  The 
royal  troops  gained  a  splendid  victory,  under  j\Iontraorency,  near 
St.  Denys,  in  spite  of  which  the  Huguenots,  supported  by  the 
Elector  of  the  Palatinate,  obtained  great  advantages  in  the  Peace 
of  Longjumeau,  March  23,  1568. 

As,  however,  the  Huguenots  did  not  relinquish  their  treasonable 
alliances  with  the  German  princes,  with  England,'  and  the  Nether- 
lands, and  did  not  evacuate  the  strongholds  occupied  by  them,  the 
king  dismissed  the  Chancellor  de  I'Hospital,  who  favored  the  Hu- 
guenots, and  revoked  the  edict  of  January,  1562.  At  this,  the  third 
religious  war  broke  out,  which  was  carried  on  with  great  asperity. 

with  and  their  bodies  thrown  into  the  Loire.  In  Pithiviers  he  had  all  the  priests 
hanged.  When  Gabriel  de  Lorges,  Count  of  Montgomery,  had  freed  Beam,  in  1569, 
from  French  troops,  he  caused  three  thousand  Catholics  of  every  age,  sex,  and  con- 
dition to  be  hewn  down,  the  churches  to  be  laid  in  ashes,  etc.  The  Calvinist  synod 
of  Lescar  demanded  that  every  one  should  be  forced  to  attend  the  Calvinist  sermons. 
Can  we  wonder  that  by  such  conduct  on  the  part  of  the  Huguenots  and  their  leaders, 
the  French  Catholics,  who  constituted  the  immense  majority,  were  driven  beyond  all 
bounds  ?     Cf.  Bossuet,  Hist,  des  variations,  x.  52. 

1  Cf.  Ep.  aux  eglises  principales  du  Royaume,  March  25,  1562.  Cf.  Aymon, 
Synodes  nationaux  des  egl.  ref.  de  France. 

2  See  Bossud,  1.  c.  x.  47. 


» 

I 


PROTESTANTISM  IN  FRANCE.  187 

Notwithstanding  the  victories  of  the  royal  army  near  Jarnac  and 
Moncontour  (1569),^  the  Huguenots  obtained  a  favorable  peace 
(1570)  at  St.  Germain-en-Laye,^  which  not  only  granted  them  free- 
dom of  religious  worship,  but  conceded  to  them  four  fortified  cities, 
—  La  Kochelle,  Cognac,  Montauban,  and  La  Charitc. 

The  marriage^  of  Henry  of  Navarre  with  Margaret  of  Valois  was 
intended  to  cement  this  peace.  The  personal  relationships  between 
Coligny  and  the  royal  court  also  assumed  a  more  friendly  aspect  in 
1571.  The  admiral  made  his  appearance  at  Blois  (September  18), 
and  acquired  great  influence  over  Charles  IX.,  which  he  used  to 
induce  the  king  to  expel  all  the  family  of  Guise  from  court  and 
involve  himself  in  a  war  with  Spain.  Charles  IX.,  who  had  also 
concluded  a  treaty  with  Elizabeth  of  England  (April  29,  1572),  was 
now  ready  to  send  auxiliary  troops  to  the  help  of  the  rebellious 
Netherlands,  when  the  catastrophe  of  Aug.  24,  1572,  gave  a  new 
direction  to  the  course  of  things. 

§  174.  Protestantism  in  France  (^continued}.  —  The  Night  of  St. 
Bartholomeiv.  —  The  League.  —  The  Edict  of  Nantes.  —  Its 
Repeal  under  Louis  XIV. 

The  marriage  of  Henry  of  Navarre  with  the  Princess  Margaret 
took  place  on  the  18th  of  August,  1572,  in  Paris.  The  nobility  of 
the  Huguenot  party  were  present  in  great  numbers ;  they  came 
attended  by  an  armed  retinue.  Coligny  was  also  present,  and  made 
use  of  the  occasion  for  urging  the  war  with  Spain.  He  also  busied 
himself  in  sowing  discord  between  Catherine  de  ]\Iedicis  and  her  son, 
endeavoring  to  exclude  the  former  from  taking  part  in  the  affairs  of 
government.     Exasperated  at  this,  the  queen-mother  sought  to  have 

1  The  Prince  of  Conde  fell  in  battle.  Henry  of  Bonrhon,  Prince  of  Navarre, 
afterwards  Henry  IV.,  leplaced  him,  together  with  Henry  of  Bourbon,  Prince  of 
Conde.  Coligny  commanded  the  troops.  At  the  head  of  the  Catholic  troops  stood 
Henry  of  Anjou,  a  brother  of  Charles  IX.,  and  Henry  of  Guise,  son  of  the  murdered 
Duke  Francis. 

2  In  this  battle  twelve  thousand  men  lost  their  lives.  Coligny,  whom  the  Par- 
liament of  Paris  had  placed  under  ban,  September  13,  had  applied  for  aid  to  England, 
Scotland,  Denmark,  Switzerland,  and  Germany. 

3  Pope  Pius  V.  had  altogether  refu.sed  to  give  dispensation  for  this  marriage. 
Gregory  XIII.  coupled  conditions  with  the  one  he  granted  which  the  court  did  not 
accept.  Margaret  also  refused  her  consent.  On  the  15th  of  December,  1599,  this  mar- 
riage was  declared  null  and  void.  {Davila,  1.  c.  v.  267.  Collection  compl.  des  Me- 
moires,  xx.  148,  149.) 


188  HISTORY   OF   THE    CATHOLIC   CHURCH. 

the  admiral  assassinated.  Maurevert's  attempt  at  assassination 
failed,  and  the  only  result  was  a  great  increase  of  bitterness  on  the 
side  of  the  Huguenots.  This  drove  Catherine  to  do  her  utmost ;  and 
together  with  her  son,  Henry  of  Anjou,  and  others,  she  formed  the 
plan  of  having  all  the  Huguenots  assembled  at  Paris  assassinated. 
Charles,  who  had  himself  been  displeased  at  some  bold  and  daring 
language  used  by  the  admiral,^  at  length  yielded  to  the  representa- 
tions of  his  mother  and  gave  a  tardy  consent.  The  night  from  the 
23d  to  the  24th  of  August  (St.  Bartholomew's  night)  was  fixed 
upon  for  the  execution  of  the  plan.  Coligny  and  many  distin- 
guished Huguenots  lost  their  lives  on  this  night.^  The  murderous 
scenes  were  even  repeated  in  the  provinces  by  royal  command. 
The  number  of  the  Huguenots  murdered  may  be  set  at  about  two 
thousand.^ 

In  order  to  justify  this  atrocious  deed,'*  which  was  neither  the 
result  of  long  premeditation  nor  in  any  way  occasioned  by  motives 
of  religion,^  the  king  informed  the  European  courts  that  a  con- 
spiracy against  his  life  had  been  discovered,  which  had  been  sup- 
pressed at  its  outbreak  by  the  assassination  of  the  conspirators.  On 
receiving  this  declaration,  the  correctness  of  which  even  the  English 
Court  did  not  doubt  at  the  time,  Gregory  XIII.  held  a  feast  of 
thanksgiving  for  the  deliverance  of  the  royal  family  from  danger^ 

1  Cf.  Lingard,  History  of  Englaiul,  viii.  In  a  conversation  with  Coligny  the  king 
once  exclaimed  :  "  It  is  not  long  since  you  were  satisfied  if  you  were  hut  tolerated 
hy  the  Catholics  ;  now  you  demand  equality  with  them  ;  full  soon  you  will  require  to 
be  the  only  ones,  and  then  you  will  hunt  us  out  of  the  khigdom."  ("II  n"y  a  pas 
longtemps  que  vous  vous  contentiez  d'etre  soufferts  par  les  catholiques  ;  niaintenant 
vous  demandez  a  etre  egaux  ;  bientot  vous  voudrez  etre  seuls  et  nous  chassei'  du 
royaume.")     (Poyedavant,  1.  c.  i.  252.) 

2  Oandy  gives  important  information  in  his  article  "  La  Saint  Barthelemy,"  which 
occurs  in  the  "  Revue  des  questions  historiques,"  p.  331  sqq.  Paris,  1866.  Cf. 
Civiltk  cattol.  (1866-1867). 

<*  See  Lingard,  viii.  437. 

*  Civ.  catt.  1.  c.  xi.  649  sqq.     Collection,  etc.  xx.  154. 

5  This  is  proved  :  (1)  By  the  declaration  of  the  king  in  Parliament  (Collection, 
etc.  XX.  160),  "Le  roi  declara,  que  rien  ne  s'etait  fait,  que  par  ses  ordres"  ("The 
king  declared  that  nothing  had  been  ilone  but  by  his  orders  ") ;  (2)  By  the  declaration 
of  his  envoy  in  London,  "  Le  roi  son  maitre  avait  ete  force  a  la  saint  Barthelemy 
pour  I'asseurance  de  sa  personne  et  de  son  e'stat"  ("The  king  was  forced  to  St.  Bar- 
tholomew for  the  safety  of  his  person  and  his  State  ") ;  (3)  By  the  fact  that  no  bishop 
was  in  the  counsel  of  the  king  ;  (4)  That  the  ecclesiastics,  as  Bishop  Hennuyer  of 
Lisieux,  protected  the  persecuted.  Likewise,  (5)  the  Lutheran  theologians  Andrea 
and  Selnecker,  in  their  reports  to  the  Elector  Augustus  of  Saxony,  treated  the  matter 
as  a  political  event.     (Cf.  Civ.  catt.  1.  c.  xi.  656  sqq.) 


THE  LEAGUE.  189 

aud  the  preservation  of  the  Catholic  religion  in  France/  notwith- 
standing that  he  greatly  disa^jproved  of  the  manner  of  the  royal 
proceedings,  and  repeatedly  expressed  his  regret  at,  and  abhorrence 
of,  the  massacre  of  the  Huguenots.^ 

Some  time  after  this  massacre,  which  the  German  Lutherans  de- 
clared to  be  a  just  judgment  of  God  on  the  Huguenots,  the  fourth 
religious  war  began,  which  ended  with  the  peace  of  July,  1573,  after 
Henry  of  Anjou  had  been  elected  King  of  Poland.  Then  came  a 
split  among  the  Catholics  themselves.  The  Duke  Francis  of  Alen(;on 
"headed  a  political  party  which  allied  itself  with  the  Huguenots.  In 
the  following  year  Charles  IX.  died ;  during  his  reign  the  Catholic 
Church  had  been  laid  under  heavy  contributions, 

Charles  left  to  his  brother,  Henry  III.,  King  of  Poland,  a  divided 
and  weakened  kingdom.  The  latter  did  nothing  to  restore  the  wel- 
fare of  France,  but  abandoned  himself  to  a  life  of  dissipation  and 
profligacy.^  A  new  war  with  the  Huguenots  brought  to  the  Calvin- 
ists  the  Amnesty  of  loTO,  or  Peace  of  Beaulieu  (Paix  de  Monsieur), 
in  which  were  guaranteed  to  them  freedom  of  religion  and  eight  new 
strongholds.  This  peace  called  into  existence  the  Catholic  League, 
at  the  head  of  which  stood  the  valiant  Henry  of  Guise.  There 
were  now  two  organized  parties  in  France,  one  of  which  sought  help 
from  the  Protestant'  courts  of  Europe,  the  other  from  the  King  of 
Spain.  Henry  III.,  with  his  brother  Francis,  Duke  of  Alen^on,  and 
after  1573,  of  Anjou,  joined  the  league ;  and  at  the  Diet  of  Blois, 
1577,  the  king  declared,  in  accordance  with  the  wishes  of  the  States 
General,  that  the  Catholic  religion  alone  should  be  tolerated  in 
France.  The  Huguenots  took  up  arms,  and  on  the  17th  of  Septem- 
ber obtained  again,  by  the  Edict  of  Poitiers,  a  limited  permission  to 
practise  their  religion. 

^  Cf.  Hcrgcnrofhcf,  Catholic  Church  and  Christian  State,  p.  654  sqq.  Tlie  man- 
ner in  which  tlie  matter  was  looked  upon  in  Rome  may  be  gathered  from  the  dis- 
course which  Muret  delivered  before  Gregory  XIII.  when  the  Pope  gave  a  public 
audience  to  the  French  ambassador  Rambouillet.  He  said,  among  other  tilings : 
"  Veiiti  non  sunt  [scl.  Hugenotti]  adv.  illius  regis  caput  ac  salutem  conjurare,  a  ([uo 
jiost  tot  atrocia  facinora  non  inodo  veniam  consecuti  erant,  sed  etiam  benigne  et  anian- 
ter  excepti.  Qua  conjuratione  sub  id  ipsum  tempus,  quod  patrando  sceleri  dicatum 
ac  constitutiim  erat,  divinitus  detecta  atque  patefacta,  conversum  est  in  illorum  scele- 
ratorum  ac  foedifragorum  capita  id,  quod  ipsi  in  regem  et  in  totam  prope  domum  ac 
stirpeni  regiam  machinabantur."     (0pp.  Muret  ed.  PMlinkcnius,  i.  177.) 

2  Cf.  Brantome,  Vie  de  M.  TAdiiiiral  de  Chastillon.  (CEuvres  comp.  torn,  iii, 
283.     Paris,  1822.) 

^  Henry  of  Navarre  was,  in  this  respect,  little  better  than  the  king. 


190  HISTORY   OF   THE    CATHOLIC    CHURCH. 

Is"ew  complications  followed  the  death  of  Francis,  Duke  of  Anjou, 
1584.  Henry  III.  being  childless,  Henry  of  Navarre  was  presump- 
tive heir  to  the  throne.  He  w-as  acce}>table  neither  to  the  queen- 
mother  nor  to  the  league.  Henry  of  Guise  therefore  called  upon 
the  Cardinal  de  Bourbon  ^  to  make  good  his  claim  to  the  crown. 
He  did  this,  in  the  manifesto  of  Peronne,  on  the  31st  of  March, 
1585 ;  on  the  7th  of  July  the  king  came  to  an  understanding  with 
the  league,  and  published  the  Edict  of  Kemours,  which  forbade  the 
practice  of  Calvinism  in  France,  expelled  the  Huguenots  from  tlie 
kingdom,  and  declared  them  incapable  of  holding  any  office. 

It  was  in  vain  that  the  chiefs  of  the  league  sought  to  obtain  from 
Gregory  XIII.  a  bull  approving  of  their  arrangement.  Sixtus  V. 
also  refused  assent  to  them,  though  he  declared  in  a  formal  docu- 
ment, Sept.  9,  1585,  that  Henry  of  Navarre  and  the  Prince  of 
Conde,  being  formal  heretics,  were  incapable  of  ascending  the  throne 
of  France,  by  the  laws  that  were  still  in  force  in  that  kingdom. 

INIeantime  civil  war  still  continued  to  rage.  Henry  of  Navarre 
on  the  one  side  gained  the  battle  of  Coutras,  Oct.  20,  1587.  On 
the  other,  Henry  of  Guise,  on  the  20th  of  November,  defeated 
the  German  auxiliary  troops  of  the  Huguenots.  The  conduct  of 
Henry  III.  was  vacillating  and  dishonest.  At  first  he  entered  into 
treaty  with  Henry  of  Navarre ;  then  he  joined  the  league,  and  at 
the  Eeunion's  Edict  of  Eouen  (July  19,  1588)  denied  the  right  of 
succession  to  a  Protestant  prince. 

The  murder  of  Henry  of  Guise  and  of  his  brother  Louis,  committed 
by  royal  mandate,  clearly  showed  the  real  sentiments  of  Henry  III. 
towards  the  league,  at  wdiose  head  now  stood  Charles  of  jVIayennej  a 
brother  of  the  murdered  princes,  who  had  himself  escaped  the  assas- 
sin's dagger.  Consequently  the  league  renounced  allegiance  to  the 
king.  Henry  III.  then  united  with  the  Huguenots,  and  together  with 
Henry  of  Navarre  laid  siege  to  Paris ;  here,  on  Aug.  1,  1589,  he  was 
assassinated  by  the  Dominican  James  Clement. 

The  contest  now  presented  another  phase.  Henry  of  Navarre 
assumed  the  i"oyal  title,  while  the  league  proclaimed  the  Cardinal 
de  Bourbon  king,  as  Charles  X.  (+  May  8,  1590).  The  civil  war  con- 
tinued. Henry  conquered  the  army  of  the  league  at  Arques  and 
Ivry,  but  found  it  necessary  to  become  a  Catholic  in  order  to  secure 
permanent  tranquillity.  Consequently  (July  26,  1593)  he  made  pub- 
lie  profession  of  the  Catholic  belief  in  St.  Denys  ;  he  was  crowned 

1  He  was  Illicit'  to  Henry  of  Navarre. 


THE   EDICT   OF  NAXTES.  191 

king  on  the  LVtli  of  February,  1594,  but  not  absolved  from  excom- 
munication till  the  year  15U5.     After  this  the  league  submitted. 

Although  the  unity  of  France  had  been  in  this  way  re-established, 
interior  peace  was  by  no  means  restored.  The  Huguenots  repeatedly 
revolted,  and  even  the  Edict  of  Nantes  ^  (April  13,  1598)  failed  to 
pacify  them.  Under  Louis  XIII.  (1610-1643)  religious  wars  again 
broke  forth.'-  The  Peace  of  Montpellier  (1622)  restored  peace  for 
a  time  only ;  it  was  not  till  the  capture  of  La  Rochelle,  1628,  that 
the  Huguenots  found  themselves  compelled  to  submit.  The  king's 
minister,  the  Cardinal  Eichelien,  then  deprived  them  of  their  polit- 
ical privileges  and  of  their  strongholds.  The  other  articles  of  the 
Edict  of  Xantes  still  remained  in  force. 

Meanwhile  the  French  clergy  had  displayed  an  unwonted  energy 
and  activity  in  endeavoring  to  bring  back  the  wandering  sheep  to 
the  fold  of  the  Church.  Under  the  reign  of  Louis  XIV.  (1643-1715) 
multitudes  of  the  Huguenots  were  converted.  The  court  counte- 
nanced and  encouraged  the  mission  work,  which  caused  new  seditions 
on  the  part  of  the  sectaries.  These  seditions,  being  sujDpressed  by 
force,  caused  the  abridgment  of  their  privileges  until,  acting  upon 
the  advice  of  his  chancellor,  Le  Tellier,  the  king  finally  revoked  the 
Edict  of  Xantes,  Oct.  18,  1 685. 

The  conduct  of  Louis  XIV.  and  of  his  minister,  Louvois,  by  which, 
notwithstanding  the  disapproval  of  the  Pope,^  they  thought  to 
convert  these  subjects  by  exterior  force,  occasioned  several  rebel- 
lions in  Cevennes.  Fanatics  of  the  school  of  the  prophet  Duserres, 
in  Dauphiny,  inflamed  the  Calvinists  (Camisardes)  of  that  region  to 
acts  of  the  greatest  cruelty.  They  were  finally,  though  with  diffi- 
culty, suppressed  by  the  royal  troops. 

After  the  death  of  Louis  XIV.  the  laws  against  the  Huguenots 

1  The  Edict  of  Nantes  stiimlated,  for  instance,  "that  the  Catholic  religion  should 
be  again  exercised  in  places  where  it  had  been  suppressed."  Bat  neitlier  in  Beam 
nor  in  any  place  where  the  Huguenots  felt  themselves  to  be  in  security,  did  they 
allow  Catholics  the  free  exercise  of  their  religion.     (Picot,  1.  c.  p.  35.) 

2  The  Huguenots  formed  a  politico-religious  party  which,  in  their  provincial  con- 
ventions and  synods,  negotiated  concerning  peace  and  war,  concluded  treaties  with 
foreign  courts,  especially  with  England  (1625,  1627,  and  1659),  and  took  advantage 
of  every  embarrassment  in  which  the  court  found  itself,  to  extort  greater  concessions 
from  the  king.     (Cf.  Picot,  1.  c.  426  s(pi. ) 

3  Pope  Innocent  XI.,  who  at  thai  time  was  not  on  very  good  terms  with  Louis  XIV., 
requested  King  James  II.,  through  D'  Adda,  his  nuncio  in  London,  to  intercede  with 
Louis  XIV.  and  prevail  on  him  to  adopt  a  more  lenient  treatment  towards  the  Hu- 
guenots.    (Miizurc,  Hist,  de  la  revolution  de  1688,  tom.  ii.  126.     Paris,  1825.) 


192  HISTORY   OF   THE    CATHOLIC   CHURCH. 

remained  indeed  on  the  statute-book;  but  they  were  never  put  into 
execution.  In  November,  1787,  Louis  XVI.  allowed  them  the  same 
rights  as  other  citizens. 

The  hostile  position  taken  by  the  Huguenots  towards  the  Catholic  Church 
is  evident  from  the  rancorous  expressions  of  hatred  made  use  of  at  their  national 
synods,  regarding  the  teaching,  the  usages,  and  the  institutions  of  the  Church. 
The  synods  which  thus  assailed  the  Catholic  Church  were  held  after  the  Edict 
of  Nantes,  —  that  is,  after  the  restoration  of  peace.  Cf.  Aymon,  i.  p.  140, 
pp.  83,  84,  142,  219. 


§  175.    Protestantism  in  the  Netherlands. 

Protestantism  was  smuggled  into  the  Netherlands  ^  by  the  proph- 
ets from  Zwickau  and  by  merchants ;  but  it  found  few  adherents, 
and  against  these  few  Charles  V.  took  strong  measures.  But  so  much 
the  greater  progress  did  the  heresy  make  under  Philip  II. ;  while 
the  lower  nobility  (who  for  the  most  part  were  deep  in  debt),  aud  some 
ambitious  men  in  power,  used  the  occasion  as  a  means  to  free  the  coun- 
try from  the  crown  of  Spain.  At  the  head  of  those  who,  under  the 
pretext  of  religion,  sought  this  political  severance  was  the  impious 
and  faithless  prince  William  of  Orange,  who  endeavored  to  decry 
all  the  measures  of  the  king  as  encroachments  on  the  liberties  and 
privileges  of  the  people.  The  discontent  thus  called  forth  was  in- 
creased by  the  new  division  of  dioceses,^  —  a  proceeding  justified  by 
the  necessity  which  occasioned  it,  also  by  the  carrying  into  effect  of 
the  edicts  against  heretics ;  and  other  causes  may  have  contributed 
to  it.  This  discontent  was  chiefly  manifested  at  this  time  by  calum- 
niating and  vilifying  the  able  and  conscientious  Cardinal  Granvella, 
Prime  Minister  to  Margaret,  Duchess  of  Parma,  who  administered 
the  government  for  the  King  of  Spain. 

The  first  attempt  at  revolt  succeeded.  The  Spanish  troops  quitted 
the  Netherlands,  Granvella  resigned  in  1564,  and  the  party  of  the 
nobility  came  into  power. 

William  of  Orange  proceeded  yet  further  in  the  path  of  rebellion ; 
lie  strove  to  stir  up  the  people  by  the  spread  of  false  rumors,  such, 

1  Stradnc  Bomani  (S,  J.),  Hist.  Belgicae  duae  decadps.     2  vols.    Eom.  1640  sqq. 

2  In  the  Netherlands  there  were  four  bishoprics,  —  Utrecht,  Arras,  Cainbray,  and 
Tournay.  At  the  request  of  the  king,  Pope  Paul  IV.,  1559,  by  the  bull  "  Super 
universas  orbis,"  raised  Maliues,  Canibray,  and  Utrecht  to  the  dignity  of  archbishop- 
rics, and  established  fourteen  new  bishoprics.     (Bull.  Rom.  vi.  .'iSQ  sqq.) 


PROTESTANTISM  IN   THE  NETHERLANDS.  193 

for  instance,  as  that  the  king  intended  to  introduce  the  Spanish 
Inquisition  into  the  Xetherhands.  Thus  he  effected,  in  1565,  the 
so-called  compromise,  —  an  alliance  of  Protestant  and  Catholic  mem- 
bers of  the  nobility,  —  the  professed  object  of  which  was  to  keep 
watch  over  the  rights  and  privileges  of  the  country.  The  Govern- 
ment took  no  decisive  measures  against  these  rebellious  nobles,  who, 
aided  and  countenanced  by  the  Protestants  in  France  and  Germany, 
became  bolder  and  bolder  in  their  demands.  At  the  head  of  the 
malcontents,  besides  William  of  Orange,  were  the  Counts  of  Egmont 
and  Hoorne. 

The  rebellion  broke  forth  in  1566.  The  members  of  the  com- 
promise sent,  by  the  hands  of  two  hundred  and  fifty  nobles  (Gueux, 
beggars),  a  petition  to  the  stadtholder  (or  regent)  Margaret,  demand- 
ing the  suspension  of  the  edicts  of  religion  and  the  convocation 
of  the  States  General,  which  demands  they  intended  to  extort  by 
force. 

Meantime  many  Calvinistic  preachers  had  come  to  the  Nether- 
lands under  the  protection  of  the  Gueux,  who,  with  the  help  of  the 
people,  plundered  churches  and  cloisters,  broke  up  or  burnt  pictures 
and  sacred  vessels,  trod  the  Blessed  Sacrament  underfoot,  and  perpe- 
trated many  other  outrages,  which  opened  the  eyes  of  such  Catholics 
as  had  been  led  astray.  They  joined  the  Government  party,  which 
then  defeated  the  rebels.  William  of  Orange  fled  to  Germany,  and 
Count  Egmont  returned  to  his  allegiance  to  the  king. 

Instead  of  coming  in  person  into  the  Netherlands,  Philip  II.  sent 
the  Duke  of  Alva,  whom  he  invested  with  great  powers,  and  placed 
at  the  head  of  a  large  army ;  on  this  Margaret  laid  down  her  office- 
William  of  Orange,  who  had  calumniated  the  king  in  several  pam- 
phlets, raised  troops  with  the  help  of  the  Protestant  princes,  and 
began  the  war  against  Alva.  Alva  dispersed  the  rebels,  but  by  estab- 
lishing a  ''council  concerning  the  disturbances,"  by  commanding  the 
execution  of  the  Counts  of  Egmont  and  Hoorne,  and  especially  by 
the  exaction  of  new  and  very  oppressive  taxes,  he  excited  general 
dissatisfaction,  which  was  heightened  by  the  plundering  carried  on 
by  the  Spanish  troops.  War  broke  out  anew,  which  raged  especially 
in  the  northern  provinces. 

Neither  Alva  nor  his  successor,  Don  Luis  de  Eequesens,  succeeded 
in  putting  down  the  rebellion.  The  intriguing  William  of  Orange 
frustrated  all  concilintory  designs;  for  which  purpose  he  chiefly  used 
Calvinism  as  a  weapon  against  Spain. 

After   the  death  of   Luis  de  Eequesens  (+  1576),.  Don  John  of 

VOL.    II.  13 


194  HISTORY  OF   THE    CATHOLIC   CHURCH. 

Austria,  the  illustrious  hero  of  Lepanto,  succeeded  him  as  stadt- 
holder.  Filled  with  the  desire  to  restore  tranquillity  to  the  country, 
he  tried  most  zealously  to  promote  peace  and  order  by  several  con- 
cessions; but  his  efforts  were  met  with  ingratitude,  and  he  was  at 
length  obliged  to  draw  the  sword  against  the  rebels.  He  vanquished 
them,  but,  being  deserted  by  Spain,  could  not  follow  up  his  victory, 
and  died  of  grief,  Oct.  1,  lo78. 

Under  his  successor,  Alexander  of  Parma,  the  southern  provinces 
submitted  to  the  king  by  the  Treaty  of  Arras,  while  the  northern 
provinces  (Holland),  led  by  William  of  Orange,  entered  into  an 
alliance  for  mutual  assistance  by  the  Union  of  Utrecht,  1579;  and 
when  in  1581  Brabant,  Flanders,  and  Mechlin  had  joined  the  union, 
the  alliance  formally  renounced  allegiance  to  the  king. 

After  the  death  of  William,  in  1584,  the  war  was  continued. 
Maurice  of  Orange  assumed  his  father's  position.  In  the  year  1609 
a  truce  was  concluded,  in  which  the  independence  of  the  northern 
provinces  was  recognized. 

In  1582  William,  in  violation  of  the  solemn  declarations  he  had 
repeatedly  made,  proscribed  in  Holland  the  public  exercise  of  the 
Catholic  religion.  In  the  other  provinces  which  had  torn  them- 
selves loose  from  Spain  the  same  thing  was  done ;  notwithstanding 
which  a  considerable  number  of  Catholics  there  remained  faithful 
to  their  creed. 


§  176.    Apostasy  of  England  from  the  Church. 

A  sinful  love  brought  Henry  VIII.  of  England  ^  into  opposition 
to  the  Church,  which  a  short  time  previously  he  had  defended 
against  Luther.^  He  wished  for  the  dissolution  of  his  marriage 
with  Catherine  of  Aragon,  the  widow  of  his  brother  Arthur,  that 
he  might  be  free  to  marry  Anne  Boleyn.  Pope  Clement  VII.  at 
first  commissioned  Cardinal  Wolsey,  Henry's  minister,  and  Cardinal 

1  Vera  et  siiicera  historia  scliismatis  Auglicani,  de  ejus  origine  et  progressu  a 
N.  Sandero,  aucta  et  castigatius  edita  a  R.  P.  Ribadcncim.  Colon,  1628.  Lingard, 
History  of  England,  vol.  vi.  siiq.  Dodd,  Church  History  of  England,  edited  anew 
by  Tierncy.  5  vols.  London,  1839  sqq.  Bhint,  The  Keforiuation  of  the  Church  of 
England.  2  vols.  London,  1869  and  1882.  Burnet,  History  of  the  Reformation  of 
the  Church  of  England.  CohhctL  History  of  the  Prote.stant  Reformation  in  England 
and  Ireland.  ChaUoncr,  Memoirs,  etc.  Other  works  are  mentioned  in  Dublin 
Ecvieic,  1877,  p.  426  sqq. 

2  Henry  wrote  "  Assertio  septem  sacramentorum  adv.  Luth." 


AP0S7\i:sy   OF  ENGLAND   FROM    THE    CHURCH.      195 

Campeggio,'  the  papal  legate,  to  examine  the  question,  and  at  a 
later  date  (July  19,  1529),  summoned  the  affair  before  his  own 
court ;  but  he  could  not  grant  the  king's  desire,  so  repeatedly  ex- 
pressed, and  in  favor  of  which  he  (Henry)  had  obtained  the  decisions 
of  several  universities.  This  just  refusal  of  the  Pope  to  grant  the 
king's  demand  irritated  Henry  VIII.  to  that  degree  that  he,  by  the 
advice  of  Thomas  Cromwell,  declared  himself  to  be  the  supreme 
head  of  the  English  Catholics,  and  compelled  the  clergy  to  acknowl- 
edge him  as  the  Supreme  Head  of  the  Church  in  England  "  in  so 
far  as  allowed  by  the  law  of  God."  Soon  after  this,  Warham,  Arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury,  died ;  and  the  king  promoted  to  his  place  the 
servile  and  unworthy  flatterer  Thomas  Cranmer,  who  pronounced 
Henry's  marriage  with  Catherine  invalid,  and  the  one  which  the 
king  had  already  contracted  with  Anne  Boleyn  (Jan.  25,  1533) 
to  be  lawful,  and  the  children  of  the  marriage  to  be  capable 
of  inheriting  the  crown.  The  Pope  cancelled  this  decision 
March  23,  1534,  and  this  act  brought  about  the  complete  rupture 
of  the  king  with  Eome.  Cromwell  became  Poyal  Vicar-General 
in  1535. 

The  servile  Parliament  willingly  met  the  wishes  of  the  king.  It 
decreed  the  abolition  of  annates  (first-fruits),  1532,  prohibited  the 
transmission  of  money  to  Eome,  and  appeals  thereto  ;  reserved  the 
right  of  confirming  the  election  of  bishops  to  the  king ;  and  enacted 
the  statute  of  succession,  as  well  as  that  of  taking  the  oath  of 
supremacy.  Whoever  refused  to  acknowledge  this  supremacy  and 
to  take  this  oath  was  severely  punished.  The  distinguished  car- 
dinal John  Fisher,  Bishop  of  Eochester,  and  the  celebrated  and 
learned  Thomas  More,  with  others,  were  condemned  to  the  scaffold 
(1535). 

In  order  to  get  money,  the  king  proceeded  to  suppress  the  monas- 
teries. The  Franciscans  had  already  excited  the  hatred  of  the  king 
by  defending  the  lawful  marriage  with  Catherine.  Many  of  them 
were  imprisoned  and  martyred.  P>y  a  bill  of  the  4th  of  ]\Iarch,  1530, 
the  smaller  communities  were  dissolved,  on  the  plea  of  declining 
discipline  ;  and  after  the  failure  of  the  insurrection  of  the  ''  Pil- 
grims," the  larger  convents  were  suppressed,  and  their  property 
confiscated  to  the  king,  yet  the  larger  portion  of  it  was  practically 
appropriated  by  the  visitors  appointed  to  examine  into  the  derelic- 
tions of  religious  houses.  By  the  year  1540  the  work  of  spoliation 
was  complete.     It  brought,  after  all,  but  little  profit  to  the  crown, 

1  Cf.  Laemmer,  Mon.  Vatic,  p.  25  sqq. 


196  HISTORY  OF   THE    CATHOLIC   CHURCH. 

while  the  want  and  misery  of  the  poor  were  tliereby  greatly 
increased.^ 

The  repudiated  Queen  Catherine  died  in  1536.  Anne  Boleyn, 
charged  with  various  crimes,  was  beheaded  the  same  year.  Cran- 
mer  now  declared  that  Henry's  marriage  with  Anne  had  always 
been  null  and  void.  The  hope  that  Henry  would  become  reconciled 
to  the  Church  died  out ;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  Luther  could  not 
win  over  the  king  to  his  party. 

Irritated  at  the  excommunication  pronounced  upon  him  by  l*aul 
III.,  Henry  ordered  the  Church  pictures,  images,  and  relics  to  be 
burnt ;  and  he  committed  other  atrocities,^  at  the  same  time  that  he 
adhered  to  the  main  points  of  Catholic  dogma,  and  commanded, 
under  pain  of  death,  the  observance  of  the  six  articles  sometimes 
called  "  the  bloody  articles."  These  enforced  belief  in  transubstan- 
tiation.  Communion  under  one  species,  celibacy  of  the  clergy,  vows, 
Masses  for  the  dead,  and  auricular  confession.  Cranmer,  who  had 
married  secretly  Osiander's  niece,  sent  her  and  her  children  back  to 
Geniiany  as  quickly  as  possible.^ 

Catholics  and  Lutherans' were  persecuted  alike  ;  the  former  were 
condemned  to  death  for  high-treason,'*  the  latter  for  heresy.  The 
proceedings  against  heretics  were  conducted  by  Cranmer,  who  held 
the  same  views  himself  for  which  he  at  that  time  condemned  men  to 
death  by  iire,  —  views  which,  after  Henry's  death,  he  professed  and 
defended. 

"  Henry  reigned  for  thirty-eight  years  ;  and  during  that  time  he 
ordered  the  execution  of  two  queens,  two  cardinals,  two  arch- 
bishops, eighteen  bishops,  thirteen  abbots,  five  hundred  priors  and 
monks,  thirty-eight  doctors  of  divinity  and  laws,  twelve  dukes 
and  earls,  one  hundred  and  sixty-four  gentlemen,  one  hundred 
and  twenty-four  commoners,  and  one  hundred  and  ten  ladies  of 
rank."^     The  tyrant  died  in  the  year  1547. 

1  (^n  the  suppression  of  monasteries,  see,  besides  Linganl  and  Cobbet,  La  conver- 
sion de  I'Angleterre  an  christianisnie  coniparee  avee  sa  pretendue  reforme  :  traduite 
par  Niceron,  p.  268  si[(].  Paris,  1729,  Spchnan,  History  and  Fate  of  Sacrilege,  etc. 
London,  1698  and  1846. 

'-  Tlie  king  ordered  St.  Thomas  a  Becket  to  be  arraigned,  and  condemned  as  guilty 
of  high-treason.     He  had  his  bones  dug  up  and  burnt  to  ashes. 

^  Bible-reading  was  confined  to  the  king  and  the  higher  classes,  and  Tyndale's  false 
translation  forbidden. 

■*  Even  near  relatives  of  the  king,  such  as  the  mother  and  bi'others  of  Cardinal 
Pole,  were  put  to  death.  The  cardinal  himself  was  in  safety  on  the  Continent.  Cf. 
Morris,  The  Troubles  of  our  Catholic  Forefathers,  related  by  themselves.     Lond.  1872. 

^  Alzog's  History. 


APOSTASY  OF  ENGLAND  FROM  THE   CHURCH.       197 

Edward  VI.,  a  boy  nine  years  of  age,  then  became  su])reme  head 
of  the  English  Church.  His  uncle,  Lord  Seymour,  under  the  title 
of  Duke  of  Somerset,  held  the  reins  of  government  as  protector  of 
the  realm  ;  and  Granuier  afforded  him  all  possible  aid  in  the  intro- 
duction of  Protestantism.  Parliament  struck  out  the  six  above- 
named  articles  from  the  statute-book,  withdrew  the  right  of  electing 
bishops  from  the  chapters,  and  assigned  to  the  crown  a  considerable 
part  of  Church  property.  Marriage  was  now  also  permitted  to  the 
clergy.  Cranmer  composed  a  book  of  homilies,  the  use  of  which 
was  made  obligatory  on  the  clergy.  Recusant  clergy  were  driven 
from  their  livings.  Bishop  Gardiner  of  Winchester  was  impris- 
oned for  the  resistance  he  showed.  In  order  to  complete  the  vic- 
tory of  the  so-called  Reformation,  the  Parliament  in  1549  passed  a 
law  making  the  use  of  the  liturgy  ^  composed  by  the  primate  "  under 
the  inspiration  of  the  Holy  Ghost "  obligatory  on  all  ministers. 
By  this  measure  the  holy  sacrifice  of  the  Mass  was  abolished,  and 
Communion  under  both  kinds  introduced;  and  thus  "the  Church  by 
law  established  "  was  made  ready. 

Neither  the  risings  of  the  English  people  nor  the  fall  of  Somerset 
through  Warwick,  then  Duke  of  Northumberland,  had  brought  relief 
to  the  Catholics.  The  faithless  primate  made  common  cause  with 
the  new  regent,  at  whose  command  (1552)  he,  in  conjunction  with 
Ridley,  I>ishop  of  London,  drew  up  a  formula  of  belief  in  forty-two 
articles.-  The  liturgy  was  revised,  freed  from  all  ''papistical"  rem- 
nants, and  introduced  in  1552  by  the  Parliament  by  main  force.  The 
primate  also  had  a  collection  of  ecclesiastical  laws^  made,  among 
which  belief  in  transubstantiation  and  in  the  supremacy  of  the  Pope 

1  Book  of  Coinnion  Prayer.  Whosoever  worshippeil  after  any  other  fashion  was 
punished.  {Lingard.)  As  assistants,  Cranmer  summoned  to  Oxford,  1547,  Peter 
Martyr  Verniilio  (born  at  Florence,  1500,  he  entered  the  order  of  Augustinian  Monks  ; 
in  1542  he  fled  to  Zurich,  and  apostatized)  and  Ochino  (§  187).  He  invited  to  Cam- 
bridge Bucer  (§  168)  and  Paul  Fagius  from  Strashurg. 

2  Burnet,  History  of  the  Reformation,  ii.  209  sqq.  All  who  took  the  Doctor's 
degree  had  to  swear  to  them.  In  the  oath  the  following  passage  occurs  :  "  Deo  teste 
promitto  ac  spondeo,  me  scripturae  auctoritatem  hominuni  judiciis  praepositurum  .  .  . 
et  articulos  .  .  .  regia  auctoritate  in  lucem  editos  pro  veris  et  certis  habit urum  et 
omni  in  loco  tan([uam  consentientes  cum  verbo  Dei  defeusurum."  (Livgnnl,  vii. 
106.) 

^  Cf.  Reformatio  legum  ecclesiasticarum.  London,  1640.  Calvin  wrote  to  the 
Protector  Somerset  that  he  should  destroy  by  the  swoid  all  such  as  should  resist  the 
new  church  establishment,  especially  the  Catholics  ("gens  obstines  aux  superstitions 
de  I'Andechrist  de  Rome").  See  Henry,  Life  of  Calvin,  ii.  Appendix,  p.  30  (Joh. 
Calv.  Ep.  Geneva,  1576,  p.  67). 


198  HISTORY  OF  THE    CATHOLIC   CHURCH. 

was  threatened  Avith  cleatii.  It  was  fortunate  for  the  Catholics  that 
Edward  VI.  died  in  1553,  before  these  laws  were  published. 

A  party  headed  by  the  Duke  of  Northumberland,  who  thought  to 
secure  the  succession  to  the  throne  in  his  own  family,  conspired  to 
deprive  the  Catholic  Queen  Mary  of  the  crown,  and  to  substitute  the 
Lady  Jane  Grey  ;  but  these  rebels  were  vanquished,  and  their  leaders 
beheaded.  The  chief  anxiety  of  the  queen,  who  gave  her  hand  in 
marriage  to  Philip  II.  of  Spain,  was  the  reconciliation  of  England 
with  the  Holy  See.  This  took  place  on  the  28th  of  November,  1554. 
Cardinal  Reginald  Pole,^  as  papal  legate,  received  England  again  into 
the  communion  of  the  Church.  The  possessors  of  the  property 
which  had  been  stolen  from  the  Church  were  not  molested  in  their 
ill-gotten  goods  and  lands  ;  but  those  possessions  which  had  lieen 
conliscated  to  the  crown  were  all  restored  to  the  Church.  Cardinal 
Pole  (+  1558)  became  Archbishop  of  Canterbury. 

Unfortunately,  the  conspiracies  of  Wyatt,  Suffolk,  and  others, 
togetlier  with  the  invectives  hurled  by  Protestant  preachers  on  the 
queen.-  compelled  the  latter  to  take  more  stringent  measures  against 
the  heretics.  About  two  hundred  persons  —  some  of  whom,  however, 
were  convicted  of  high-treason,  as  were  Cranmer,  Ridley,  Latimer, 
Bishop  of  Worcester  —  were  executed.  After  a  sliort  reign  Mary 
died  (Nov.  15,  1558),  and  was  succeeded  by  her  sistei-  Elizabeth,  who 
was  a  Pi-otestant  b}^  birth,  although  during  the  last  reign  she  had 
publicly  i)rofessed  Catholicity. 

Elizabeth  was  crowned  after  tlie  Catholic  rite,  and  thereby  com- 
pelled to  take  the  oath  that  she  would  uphold  the  Catholic  faith. 
Nev.M'th  'less,  being  regarded  as  illegitimate  by  her  Catholic  sub- 
jects, and  receiving  from  Pope  Paul  IV.  an  answer  that  offended 
her,  while  it  held  her  claim  to  the  throne  as  doubtful,  she  soon 
after  her  ascension  declared  in  favor  of  Protestantism,  and  took 
measures  against  the  Catholics.  The  religious  indifferentism  ^  of 
those  in  the  higher  ranks  favored  her  policy.  With  a  majority  of 
three  votes  Parliament  renewed  in  1559  the  laws  of  Henry  VIII. 
and  of  Edward  VI.  against  the  Church,  and  by  the  Act  of  Uni- 
formity (June,  1559)  prescribed  Cranmer's  liturgy,*  and  commanded 

1  Epistolanun  Eeginaldi  Poli,  etc.  eJ.  Quirini  (Card,  et  episc).  5  vols.  Brixiae, 
1744.  This  edition  also  contains  a  history  of  the  life  of  the  cardinal,  composed  by 
his  secretary,  BcccadcUo  ( Latin  in  the  first  volume,  Italian  in  the  fifth  volume). 

2  Ridley,  Bishop  of  London,  preached  in  public  against  the  queen. 

3  BcntivoijUo,  Rdazioni,  p.  174.     Lee,  The  Church  under  Queen  Elizabeth. 
*  Lingard,  vii,  2)6. 


APOSTASY   OF  ENGLAND   FROM   THE    CHURCH.      199 

the  exacting  of  the  oath  of  supremacy.  The  members  of  the  two 
universities  and  the  higher  clergy,  especially  the  bishops,  save  one, 
resisted.  Such  as  persisted  in  their  refusal  lost  their  places.  Mat- 
thew Parker,  formerly  chaplain  to  Anne  Boleyn,  was  a})pointed 
Protestant  Archbishop  of  Canterbury.  He  ordained  the  other 
bishops.  In  the  year  1562  the  oath  of  supremacy  was  extended 
to  the  members  of  the  lower  house  of  Parliament  (the  Commons), 
to  public  teachers,  to  lawyers,  to  the  whole  clergy,  etc.  The  con- 
vocation of  clergy  in  the  following  year  reduced  the  fortij-two 
articles  to  tlurty-nine. 

The  Anglican  Church  differed  from  every  other  Protestant  sect  in 
recognizing  a  hierarchy  of  three  orders  of  clergy.  The  ancient  eccle- 
siastical ritual,  as  contained  in  the  Catholic  missal,  in  the  matin 
office,  and  in  vespers,  was,  with  some  alterations,  retained.  The  ordi- 
nal of  Edward  VI.  was  recognized  as  the  authorized  ceremonial  in 
the  consecration  of  bishops  and  in  the  ordination  of  priests  and 
deacons.  The  Established  Church  encountered  opposition  from  the 
so-called  Nonconformists,  who  were  harshly  persecuted  ;  but  under 
this  head  it  was  the  Catholics  ^  rather  than  the  Puritans  "^  who  were 
aimed  at,  though  these  latter  denied  the  royal  supremacy,  the  supe- 
riority of  the  bishops  over  the  presbytery,  and  the  like.  The  exam- 
ination for  religious  delinquencies  was  carried  on  by  the  Court  of 
the  High  Commission,  —  a  terrible  tribunal  of  inquisition,  which 
was  not  bound  to  follow  the  ordinary  forms  of  judicial  inquiry. 

The  attempt  to  liberate  the  unfortunate  Mary  Stuart,  Queen  of 
Scots,  from  the  hands  of  Elizabeth,^  with  whom  she  had  sou.ght 
hospitality  ;  and  the  publication  of  the  bull  "  Regnans  in  excelsis," 
of  February,  1570,  by  which  Pius  V.  excommunicated  Elizabeth,^  — 
rendered  the  condition  of  the  English  Catholics  still  more  unbear- 
able. Parliament  prohibited,  under  heavy  penalties,  every  communi- 
cation with  Rome  by  English  Catholics,  and  also,  under  penalty  of 
punishment  for  disobedience,  commanded  every  subject  to  be  pres- 
ent at  the  Protestant  service.     In  the  year  1581  the  criminal  edicts 

^  Lingard,  vii.,  viii. 

■■^  Lingard,  viii.  134  sqq.  Ncal,  History  of  the  Puritans.  Halle,  1754.  The  Inde- 
pendents, or  Congregationalists,  —  also  called  Brownists,  from  their  founder,  Robert 
Brown,  —  went  farther  yet,  and  established  their  church  on  the  broadest  democratic 
basis. 

3  See  §177. 

*  Bullar,  Rom.  (Taurin.  186?),  vii.  810  sqq.  Compare  Hcrgcnrothcr,  Catholic 
Church,  etc.,  p.  678  sqq.,  in  which  the  absurd  calunmy  that  the  Pope  had  hired 
assassins  to  kill  Elizabeth  is  thoroughly  refuted. 


200  HISTORY   OF   THE    CATHOLIC    CHURCH. 

became  more  and  more  severe,  and  were  more  especially  directed 
against  the  priesthood,  so  that  any  exercise  of  priestly  function  was 
punished  with  death.  After  the  death  of  Thomas  Watson,  Bishop 
of  Lincoln  (+  1584),  the  Catholic  hierarchy  became  extinct.  Gregory 
XV.  appointed  a  Yicar-Apostolic  in  1623. 

In  order  to  provide  for  the  education  of  Catholic  priests  for  Eng- 
land, William  Allen  in  1568  established  a  seminary  at  Douay  in 
Flanders,  which  at  a  later  period  was  transferred  to  Rheims,^  but 
reopened  at  Douay  in  1593.  Pope  Gregory  XIII.  in  1579  also 
founded  the  English  Seminary  in  Rome.  This  increased  the 
already  vehement  severity  of  the  English  Government  against  the 
Catholic  priests.-  Spies  ("agens  provocateurs")  were  employed 
to  lay  snares  for  the  Catholics,  for  the  purpose  of  denouncing  them 
as  traitors  ;  notwithstanding  which  they  gave  many  proofs  of  their 
loyalty  to  the  inhuman  queen,  especially  when  in  the  year  1588 
Philip  threatened  the  shores  of  England  with  the  invincible  Ar- 
mada, in  retaliation  for  the  alliance  which  Elizabeth  had  formed 
with  his  rebellious  subjects  of  the  Netherlands.  Their  reward  for 
this  was  in  new  and  cruel  persecutions,^  which  did  not  cease  even 
after  the  death  of  the  tyrannic  woman. 

Elizabeth  was  the  last  scion  of  the  house  of  Tudor.  She  was 
succeeded  by  James  VI.,  King  of  Scotland,  a  son  of  Mary  Stuart. 
He  ascended  the  thi-one  of  Great  Britain  under  the  name  of 
James  I. 

1  See  Records  of  the  English  Catholics  under  the  Penal  Law,  vols,  i.,  ii.  Bellcs- 
heim,  Cardinal  W.  Allen  and  the  English  Seminaries  on  the  Continent.     Mentz. 

'■^  Lingnrd,  viii.  142  sqq.  Whoever  gave  shelter  to  a  Jesuit,  or  refused  to  betray 
his  place  of  refuge,  was  put  to  death.  Hearing  confessions  was  adjudged  to  he  high- 
treason,  and  was  punished  as  such.  Celebrating  and  assisting  at  Mass  subjected  the 
offender  to  fine  and  imprisonment.  In  the  year  1584  it  was  enacted  that  all  English 
priests  who  did  not  leave  the  land  within  forty  days,  and  all  who  sheltered  them  after 
that  time,  should  undergo  the  penalty  of  high-treason.  Foley,  S.  J.,  Records  of  the 
English  Province  of  the  Society  of  Jesus.  London,  1877.  Mrs.  Hope,  Franciscan 
Martyrs  in  England.  Annal.  Minor,  torn.  xix.  sijq.  The  first  Jesuits  came  to 
England  in  1580. 

^  Respecting  the  executions  under  Elizabeth,  cf.  Challoners  Memoirs  of  the  Mis- 
sionary Priests,  and  his  British  Martyrology,  with  Lingard,  viii.  437.  They  describe 
the  fearful  tortures  of  the  rack  and  instruments  of  martyrdom.  Even  before  the  year 
1588,  twelve  hundred  Catholics  had  lost  life,  projierty,  or  liberty  ;  and  yet  it  was  after 
that  period  that  persecution  proper  may  be  said  to  have  broken  out.  In  the  last  twenty 
years  of  Elizabeth's  reign,  one  hundred  and  forty-two  priests  were  put  to  death,  ninety 
died  in  prison,  while  sixty-two  distinguished  laymen  underwent  martyrdom.  The 
persecution  raged  still  more  furiously  in  Ireland  (see  §  179).  As  to  the  moral  condi- 
tion of  Elizabeth's  court,  see  Lingard,  viii. 


THE   SU-CALLEl)    Iti: I-ol! M A  I'lON    IN    SCOTLAND.      201 

Mattlu'W  Parker,  apiMiiiitod  Arclibisliui)  uf  Canterbury  by  Elizabetli,  was 
cousocratc'd  by  fuur  Prutestaut  bisliops,  —  Barlow,  Scorcy,  Coverdale,  and 
Hodgkins,  —  because  the  Cathdlic  bislwps  refused  to  perform  tlie  consecra- 
tion. The  actual  consecrator  was  Barlow,  who  under  Henry  VIIl.  had  been 
Bishop  of  St.  Davids,  and  under  Edward  VI.  Bishop  of  Bath.  After  the 
accession  of  Mary,  he  had  tied  from  England ;  under  Elizabeth  he  returned, 
and  was  in  15.59  nominated  Bishop  of  Chichester. 

The  Anglican  ordinations  are  considered  invalid.  Cardinal  Pole  so  judged 
them,  and  he  was  certainly  well  acquainted  with  tlie  state  of  things.  He  de- 
clared all  the  orders  conferred  under  Edward  VI.  null  and  void.  Consistently 
with  this  view,  all  the  English  clergymen  who  are  converted  to  the  faith  are 
re-ordained  if  they  desire  to  become  priests. 

The  reasons  for  considering  Parker's  consecration  to  be  invalid,  and  con- 
sequently that  all  orders  conferred  by  him  are  null  and  void,  are  principally 
these:  (1)  It  is  not  proved  that  Barlow  himself  was  really  and  validly  con- 
secrated bishop  ;  (2)  His  character  and  his  doctrine  render  it  doubtful  whether 
he  had  the  right  intention  in  consecratmg ;  (3)  The  formula  of  consecration 
was  so  essentially  changed  under  Edward  VI.  that,  at  a  convocation  of  the 
clergy  in  the  year  1062,  it  was  thought  necessary  to  rechange  the  formula. 

The  efforts  of  the  learned  Anglicans,  which  are  so  worthy  of  recognition, 
have  failed  to  establish  proof  of  the  real  and  valid  consecration  of  Barlow  and 
Parker.  Consult,  on  this  whole  question,  the  valuable  treatise,  Claims  of  a 
Protestant  Episcopal  Bishop  to  Apostolic  Succession  and  Valid  Orders  dis- 
proved, by  S.  V.  Byan,  Bishop  of  Buffalo.  Raynald,  0.  Set.  B.,  The  Ordi- 
nal of  King  Edward  VI.  ;  its  History,  Theology,  and  Liturgy.  London,  1871. 
Cf.  Dublin  Review,  new  series.  No.  41,  July,  1873,  p.  191  sqq.  Estcourt, 
The  Question  of  Anglican  Ordinations  discussed.  Per  contra  :  For  the  valid- 
ity of  the  Anglican  ordinations,  see  Lee,  The  Validity  of  the  Holy  Orders 
of  the  Church  of  England.  Lt.ndon,  1869.  Cf.  Tablet,  V(.>1.  xxxiv.  u.  1543  ; 
vol.  xl.  u.  1688  and  1689;  and  esjiecially  iJatZey,  Ordiuum  sacroruin  in  eccl. 
Anglic,  defensio  .  .  .  London,  1870. 

§  177.    The  so-called  Reformation  in  Scotland. 

The  undue  influence  exercised  by  the  crown  and  the  nobility  in 
the  filling  up  of  ecclesiastical  benefices  led  in  Scotland  ^  to  a  grievous 
decline  in  morals  among  the  clergy,  and  to  gross  ignorance  among 
the  people.  This  rendered  it  possible  for  the  innovators,  under  the 
appearance  of  zeal  for  religion  and  morals,  to  vilify  the  Catholic 
Church  and  to  deride  her  rites  and  ceremonies.  The  first  preacher 
of  heresy,  Patrick  Hamilton  (4- 1528),  Abbot  of  Feme,  with  others, 

^  Lingard,  History  of  England,  vii.  305  s(jq.  James  IVahh,  History  of  the  Catho- 
lic Church  in  Scotland  from  the  Introduction  of  Christianity  to  the  Present  Time. 
Glasgow,  1874.     Bellesheim,  History  of  the  Catholic  Church  in  Scotland. 


202  HISTORY  OF   THE   CATHOLIC   CHURCH. 

died  indeed  at  the  stake  ;  but  the  new  doctrine  found  willing  hearers 
among  such  of  the  nobles  as  were  longing  to  lay  hands  on  the  tem- 
poral goods  of  the  Church.  After  the  death  of  James  V.  (+  1542), 
the  Government,  under  the  regency  of  the  Earl  of  Arran,  favored 
the  apostates,  which  induced  the  Cardinal  David  Beaton,  Archbishop 
of  St.  Andrews,  to  proceed  all  the  more  vigorously  against  them. 
After  his  murder  (May  29,  1546),^  by  a  mob  headed  by  Norman 
Leslie,  the  adherents  of  the  new  heresy,  led  by  the  furious  John 
Knox  and  countenanced  by  Henry  VIII.  of  England,  opened  the  con- 
test against  Church  and  crown.  They  were  defeated,  yet  did  not 
renounce  their  opposition.  In  the  year  1557  the  Protestant  'ords 
formed  the  ''  Congregation  of  the  Lord,"  in  opposition  to  the  "  Con- 
gregation of  Satan  ; "  and,  driven  to  fanaticism  by  John  Knox,  who 
had  spent  some  years  in  Geneva,  and  was  in  1559  recalled  to  Scot- 
land, they  renewed  the  civil  wars,  which  the  Regent  IMary  of  Guise 
thought  to  put  an  end  to  by  the  treaty  of  1559.  This  treaty  insured 
to  Protestants  the  free  exercise  of  their  religion.  But  they  were 
not  content  with  this  ;  they  wanted  the  suppression  of  "  idolatrous 
worship,"  to  effect  which  they  tore  down  Catholic  churches  and 
monasteries,  and  ill-treated  the  priests  and  monks.  The  contest 
broke  out  anew.  The  rebels  were  aided  by  Elizabeth  of  England, 
but  were  not  able  to  attain  the  mastery.  After  the  death  of  tlie 
E-egent  Mary  of  Guise,  her  daughter,  IMary  Stuart,^  who  was  mar- 
ried to  Francis  II.  of  France,  entered  into  negotiations  with  the 
rebels.  Her  plenipotentiaries  concluded  the  Peace  of  Edinburgh 
with  the  Congregation.  This  peace  left  to  the  queen  simply  the 
name  of  royalty ;  the  real  power  was  placed  in  the  hands  of  the 
restless  nobility.  This  decided  the  victory  of  the  so-called  Kefor- 
raation. 

In  1560  the  Parliament  declared  the  Catholic  religion  abolished, 
and  adopted  a  Calvinistic  confession  of  faith.  Knox  then,  by 
his  discipline-book,  organized  the  constitution  of  the  Church  after 
the  Calvinistic  model.  All  remnants  of  papacy  were  destroyed, 
churches  and  monasteries  were  sacked  with  the  fiiry  of  vandals, 
valuable  libraries  were  burnt,  and  the  sacred  vessels  desecrated  and 
broken  up.     Attending  Mass  was  forbidden  under  heavy  penalties. 

^  His  successor  was  John  Hamilton,  the  last  archbishop  of  St.  Andrews  (1547- 
1570),  who  had  two  catechisms  edited.  The  larger,  usually  called  "The  Catechism 
of  John  Hamilton,"  was  republished  in  188-1  ;  a  copy  of  the  .smaller  one  was  found  a 
few  years  ago  by  Rev.  Geo.  Griffin. 

^  Hosak,  Mary  Queen  of  Scots  and  her  Accusers.  2  vols.  Edinburgh  and  London, 
1870  >nY\.  Morris  (S.  J.),  The  Letter-books  of  Sir  Amias  Poulet,  Keeper  of  Mary 
Queen  of  Scots.  London,  1874.  Narratives  of  Scottish  Catholics  under  Mary  Stuart 
and  James  VL     Ed.  by  JV.  Forbes-Leith,  S.  J. 


THB   CATHOLIC   CHURCH    UNDER    THE   STUARTS.    203 

When  jNIary  Stuart  returned  to  Scotland  in  1501,  she  found  a  dis- 
loyal nobility  an  J  a  fanatic  people.  The  concessions  she  made  did 
not  satisfy  the  ecclesiastico-political  demagogues.  The  reformed 
preachers  vociferated  against  "  idolatrous  worship,"  reviled  the 
queen,  and  were  not  willing  to  suffer  jNIass  to  be  said  in  the 
chapel  of  Edinburgh  Castle.  The  insolent  and  hypocritical  Knox, 
who  personally  insulted  the  queen,  was  the  chief  antagonist  of 
the  Catholic  Church.  After  that,  when  Lord  Darnley,  the  queen's 
second  husband,  had  been  murdered  by  a  band  of  conspirators, 
whose  leader  is  said  to  have  been  Bothwell,  Knox  brought  the 
charge  of  adultery  and  murder  against  the  unfortunate  queen,  who. 
deserted  by  her  adherents  and  persecuted  by  her  rebellious  subjects, 
sought  refuge  in  England,  where  after  an  imprisonment  of  twenty 
years  she  was  beheaded  by  order  of  Queen  Elizabeth,  1587. 

During  the  minority  of  her  son,  James  VI.,  the  republican  system 
of  Church  government  as  devised  by  the  Puritans  became  predomi- 
nant ;  and  the  attempt  of  the  king,  in  after  years,  to  introduce  the 
episcopal  hierarchy  only  gave  rise  to  new  revolts,  which  compelled 
him  to  abandon  his  plan  and  content  himself  with  mere  titular 
bishops.^ 

After  James  had  received  the  English  crown  also,  he  reverted  to 
his  former  plan,  and  in  the  year  1610  had  thirteen  bishops  ordained 
for  Scotland.  At  the  price  of  a  persecution  of  the  Catholics,^  Parlia- 
ment yielded  to  his  wishes ;  but  so  strong  was  the  aversion  of  the 
Puritans  to  the  Episcopal  Church  that  the  attempt  of  Charles  I.  to 
introduce  her  constitution  and  liturgy  into  Scotland  created  an 
uproar,  which  lent  powerful  assistance  to  the  other  causes  which 
cost  that  monarch  his  throne  alike  with  his  life. 

§  178.    The  Catholic  Church  in  G-reat  Britain  under  the  Stuarts. 

James  I.^  was  from  policy  devoted  to  the  English  Church,  and 
from  taste  averse  to  the  Presbyterian  Puritans  ;  yet  he  allowed  the 

^  Knox  died  in  1572.  His  successor  was  A.  ilelville.  The  Convention  of  the 
Clergy  at  Leith,  1572,  agreed  to  retain  the  titles  of  archbishop,  bishop,  etc.  ;  but  the 
General  Assembly  at  Perth,  1572,  protested  against  it,  while  another  in  1581  com- 
manded the  bishops  to  lay  down  their  office.  Parliament,  indeed,  in  1584  confirmed 
the  authority  of  the  bishops  ;  but  in  1592  the  Presbyterian  constitution  of  the  Church 
was  legally  acknowledged. 

2  Gordon,  The  Catholic  Church  in  Scotland,  from  the  Suppression  of  the  Hierarchy 
(1603)  to  the  Present  Time.     Aberdeen,  1874. 

^  Lingard,  History  of  England.     Morris,  Condition  of  Catholics  under  James  I, 


204  HISTORY   OF   THE    CATHOLIC    CHURCH. 

laws  against  the  recusants  (those  who  refused  to  attend  Protestant 
worship)  to  be  carried  out  with  great  severity,  though  chiefly 
against  the  Catholics. ^  Their  condition  became  even  more  oppres- 
sive after  the  discovery  of  the  famous  gunpowder  plot.*  A  new 
penal  code  augmented  the  penalties  ^  against  Catholics,  and  the 
oath  of  allegiance  which  was  imposed  on  them  *  subjected  them  to 
the  arbitrary  caprice  of  the  king ;  yet  when  James,  in  the  year  1G16, 
somewhat  alleviated  the  severity  of  their  lot,  Parliament  and  the 
Anglican  clergy  protested  against  his  doing  so. 

During  the   reign  of  Charles  I.,  who  had  married  Henrietta  of 


London,  1872.  Documents  are  in  Butler,  Hist.  Memoirs,  etc.  4  vols.  London, 
1822. 

1  At  first  he  suspended  the  laws,  but  afterwards  broke  his  princely  word,  and  not 
only  had  the  tax  of  twenty  jiounds  per  month  levied,  but  demanded  the  back  pay  of 
forfeiture  for  thirteen  months.  The  money  was  distributed  among  the  Scottish 
favorites. 

'■  2  Livgard,  ii.  The  memoirs  of  the  Jesuit  Gerard  contain  very  interesting  informa- 
tion concerning  the  gunpowder  yilot,  in  which  they  sought  to  implicate  Catholics. 
Gerard  was  a  companion  of  the  innocently  tortured  and  executed  Jesuit  Garnet.  See 
Morris,  Memoirs  of  a  Jesuit.  In  remembrance  of  the  discovery  of  this  conspiracy,  a 
feast  is  yearly  celebrated  on  the  5th  of  November  in  London  and  throughout  England, 
and  a  prayer  was  inserted  in  the  liturgy  for  protection  against  "  malignant  and  blood- 
thirsty enemies."     Daniel,  Cod.  liturg.  iii.  55.5. 

^  Lingard.  Catholics,  among  other  disqualifications,  could  not  be  judges,  physi- 
cians, or  lawyers  ;  could  not  be  executors  of  a  will  or  testament ;  were  obliged  to  be 
married  before  a  Protestant  minister.  Every  recusant  was  considered  excommunicated. 
Instead  of  the  monthly  fine,  the  king  might  appropriate  the  whole  of  the  movable 
and  two  thirds  of  the  immovable  property.  Whoever  kept  Catholic  servants  had  to 
pay  ten  pounds  monthly. 

*  See  Lingnrd,  ix.  81  sqq.  Hergenrother,  Catholic  Church  and  Christian  State, 
p.  686  sqq.  Pope  Paul  V.  forbade  the  taking  of  this  oath  (Sept.  1,  1606,  and  Sept. 
22,  1607),  "  because  it  contained  several  things  contrary  to  faith  and  to  the  welfare 
of  souls."  And  such  was  the  case  ;  for,  in  the  first  place,  the  oath  was  but  a  veiled 
oath  of  supremacy ;  and,  .secondly,  it  condemned  as  imjiious  and  heretical  the  opinion 
asserted  by  many  respected  theologians,  that  in  certain  cases,  especially  in  punish- 
ment of  heresy,  the  Church  had  the  power  to  depose  sovereigns.  According  to  the 
statement  of  De  Breves,  the  French  envoy  at  Rome,  King  James  declared  himself 
ready  to  recognize  the  Pope  as  "the  first  bishop  and  Head  of  the  Church,"  if  he  (the 
Pope)  would  renounce  the  assertion  that  the  Pope  could  depose  kings  ;  on  which 
Paul  V.  had  replied  that  he  could  not  do  this  without  incurring  the  stain  of  her- 
esy ("sans  etre  tache  d'heresie").  (Notices  et  extraits  des  Mss.  de  la  bibliotheque 
nationale,  vii.  310  sqq.  Paris,  1804.)  It  is,  however,  improbable  that  James  I.,  who 
at  the  beginning  of  his  reign  had  said,  "  I  make  what  I  please  law  and  gospel,"  ever 
entertained  such  a  project.  In  fact,  had  he  willed  to  do  it,  he  had  no  power  to  carry 
it  out.     (See,  on  this  matter,  Hergenrother,  new  edition,  p.  481  sqq. ) 


THE   CATHOLIC   CHURCH   UNDER    THE   STUARTS.    205 

France,  the  theory  of  the  sovereignty  of  the  people  was  supplant- 
ing that  of  the  absolute  power  of  the  monarch.  The  patriots  of 
England,  and  the  Puritans,  or  '"Saints,"  were  vociferous  in  advocat- 
ing "  civil  liberty,''  while  the  Episcopalian  clergy  preached  passive 
obedience.  The  Parliament,  in  which  the  Puritans  possessed  the 
])redonnnant  power,  assumed  an  attitude  of  opposition  to  the  crown 
and  to  the  Catholic  Church  (Xo  Popery).  The  king  sacrificed  the 
Catholics  '  to  the  hatred  of  the  Puritans,  without  being  able  thereby 
to  silence  their  clamors  ;  after  which,  from  the  year  1629,  he  souglit 
to  govern  the  country  without  a  parliament  at  all.-  His  ecclesias- 
tical measures  in  Scotland  at  last  brought  affairs  to  a  crisis,  which 
resulted  in  the  inevitable  catastrophe.  The  Scotch  denounced  the 
English  liturgy,  introduced  in  the  year  1G36,  as  the  worship  of  Baal. 
In  1638  they  entered  into  a  national  covenant,  and  in  1639  took 
up  arms  against  the  king.  In  order  to  obtain  the  means  of  carrying 
on  the  war,  Charles  summoned  the  "  Long  Parliament,"  1640-1649 ; 
the  majority  of  the  members  of  which  aimed  directly  at  revolution.^ 
Civil  Avar  began  in  the  year  1642.  In  the  army  of  the  king  were 
the  nobility  and  the  cavaliers ;  his  opponents  were  joined  by  the 
Eoundheads,  who  were  made  up  from  the  fanatical  classes  of  the 
people.  To  excite  the  people  still  more,  the  rebels,  who  in  1643 
had  allied  themselves  with  the  malcontents  in  Scotland,  spread  a 
false  rumor  of  a  papal  conspiracy  against  I'rotestants.  After  the 
unfortunate  battle  of  Xaseby  (1645),  Charles  fled  to  Scotland ;  but 
as  he  did  not  listen  to  the  proposals  made  to  him  by  the  Scotch  to 
adopt  Presbyterianism,  he  was  by  them  surrendered  as  a  prisoner 
to  the  English  Parliament.  Here  the  Independents,  guided  by 
Oliver  Cromwell,  the  general-in-chief  of  the  Presbyterian  army,  had 
the  upper  hand.  The  king  was  conducted  to  prison  at  Holmby, 
and  in  August,  1647,  transferred  to  Hampton  Court.  Thence,  after 
escaping  and  being  recaptured,  he  was  removed  first  to  the  palace 
of  St.  James  and  thence  to  Whitehall,  where,  after  undergoing  a 
trial  by  the  "  Rump  Parliament,"  which  Cromwell  had  purified  and 
Avhich  was  governed  by  him,  Charles  was  sentenced  to  death  ;  which 
sentence  was  carried  into  execution  on  Jan.  30,  1649. 

1  Lingard,  ix.  291.     The  Court  and  Times  of  Charles  I.     2  vols.     London,  1848. 

■•^  The  advisers  of  the  king,  after  the  murder  of  the  Duke  of  Buckingham,  were 
Lord  Strafford,  whom  Charles  betrayed  to  death  on  the  scaffold,  and  Laud,  Archbishop 
of  Canterbury. 

^  The  causes  of  discontent  were,  among  other  things,  the  severity  of  the  Star 
Chamber,  —  the  highest  judicial  court  established  by  Henry  VIL,  — the  proceedings 
of  the  High  Commission  Court  {§  176),  and  the  ship-money. 


206  HISTORY  OF   THE    CATHOLIC   CHURCH. 

Under  the  Lord  Protector  Cromwell,  who  had  dispersed  the  Par- 
liament and  placed  himself  at  the  head  of  the  English  Republic,  all 
sects  were  tolerated,  and  even  the  members  of  the  Episcopal  Church 
were  treated  with  indulgence  ;  Catholics  alone  were  persecuted. 

Even  after  the  restoration  of  the  royal  dignity,  and  also  of  the 
Established  Church,  under  Charles  II.,  Catholics  were  exposed  to 
the  hatred  and  persecution  of  English  fanaticism.  The  Corporation 
Act  of  1661  excluded  all  non-conformists  from  the  magistracy  and 
from  the  corporations.  The  attempts  of  the  king  to  better  their 
condition  signally  failed ;  and  the  return  of  his  brother  James,  the 
Duke  of  York,  to  the  Catholic  communion  increased  the  fury  of 
the  sectaries,  who  then  laid  the  blame  of  the  Great  Fire  of  London 
(1666)  on  the  Catholics.  Puritans  and  Episcopalians  made  common 
cause.  The  king  was  obliged  to  withdraw  his  Declaration  of  In- 
dulgence in  1671,  and  by  the  Test  Act  ^  it  was  made  impossible  for 
Cathobcs  to  hold  any  office  of  public  trust.  The  lie  of  a  "  Popish 
■  Plot,"  ^  invented  by  Titus  Gates,  found  belief  among  high  and  low, 
and  increased  the  fury  of  the  unreasoning  rabble.  Lord  Stafford 
and  six  Jesuits  were  executed  as  participators  in  this  pretended 
conspiracy,  and  many  Catholics  were  cast  into  prison.  Attempts 
made  by  the  House  of  Commons  to  exclude  James,  Duke  of  York, 
from  the  succession  to  the  throne,  were  frustrated  by  the  House 
of  Lords. 

On  the  death  of  Charles,  1685,  the  Duke  of  York  was  recognized 
as  King  James  II.  The  Duke  of  Monmouth's  attempt  at  revolt  was 
suppressed  at  the  battle  of  Sedgemoor;  but  the  fears  of  the  ad- 
herents of  the  High  Church  party  were  excited  by  the  proclamation 
of  freedom  of  conscience,  and  they  were  still  more  alarmed  when 
James  granted  freedom  of  worship  to  the  non-conformists,  dis- 
pensed Catholics  from  taking  the  test  oaths,  declared  them  capable 
of  holding  office,  and  wished  to  abolish  the  disgraceful  laws  of  the 
previous  rulers  against  Catholics  and  Dissenters.  Anglican  preachers 
uttered  warnings  against  the  seductions  to  popery,  and  seven  bisliops 
refused  to  have  the  declaration  of  the  freedom  of  conscience 
announced  in  the  churches. 

The  discontent  was  fomented  by  Prince  William  of  Orange,  who 

1  The  Test  Act  decreed  that  eveiy  one  who  hohls  an  office  must  take  the  oath  of 
.supremacy,  receive  the  Eucharist  according  to  the  Anglican  rites,  and  subscribe  to  a 
formula  denying  the  doctrine  of  transubstantiation. 

2  Cf.  Mazure,  Hist,  de  la  revolution  de  1688  en  Angleterre,  torn.  i.  p.  166  sqq. 
3  vols.     Paris,  1825.     Lingard,  xiii.  60  sqq. 


SCFFElilXaS    OF    THE    CATllUlJCS    IN  IRELAND.     207 

luul  long  been  steadily  intriguing  against  King  James,  his  father-in- 
law.  James  ordered  the  seven  bishops  who  had  refused  to  have 
his  proclamation  read  to  appear  before  the  court  at  Westminster 
Hall,  where  they  were  acquitted.  It  was  at  this  time  that  the  birth 
of  a  son,  the  Prince  of  Wales,  deprived  Mary,  the  daughter  of  James, 
of  her  heirship  to  the  throne.  William  of  Orange,  her  husband, 
angry  at  this  disappointment,  accepted  the  invitation  of  several 
rebellious  lords,  and  landed  with  an  army  in  England.  James, 
betrayed  by  the  English  army  and  "  deserted  by  his  own  children," 
lost  courage  and  fled  to  France.  The  Parliament  declared  the  throne 
vacant,  and  proclaimed  William  conjointly  with  his  wife,  King  and 
Queen  of  England. 

The  sufferings  of  the  Catholics  were  now  renewed.  The  Tolera- 
tion Act  of  1689  revoked  all  the  laws  passed  against  the  non- 
conformists, and  granted  freedom  of  worship  to  all,  save  and 
excepting  Catholics  and  Socinians.  In  England  the  Episcopalians 
were  the  rulers ;  in  Scotland,  the  Presbyterians.  An  act  of  Parlia- 
ment excluded  all  Catholic  princes  from  the  succession  to  the  throne. 
And  this  sad  state  of  affairs  continued  during  the  reign  of  Anne 
(1702-1714),  and  of  her  successors  of  the  house  of  Hanover.^  The 
Bill  of  Relief  of  the  year  1778  called  forth  the  insurrection  of  Lon- 
don (1780),  which  was  headed  by  the  fanatical  Lord  Gordon."^ 

It  was  the  American  War  of  Independence  that  first  led  to  the 
abrogation  of  the  most  stringent  of  these  laws  which  inflicted  pen- 
alty for  conscientious  belief.  A  further  relief  was  afforded  to 
Catholics  by  the  Emancipation  Bill  in  1829. 

§  179.    The  Sufferings  of  the  Catholics  in  Ireland. 

Although  Ireland^  was  not  entirely  conquered  by  England,  it 
suffered  greatly  from  the  oppressions  exercised  by  the  latter.     The 

1  Hiirtpole  Lecky,  Histoiy  of  England  in  the  Eighteentli  Century.  2  vols.  Lon- 
don, 1875. 

2  Mills,  History  of  the  liiots  in  London  in  tlie  year  1780,  commonly  called  the 
Gordon  Riots.     London,  1883. 

3  On  Ireland,  see  Lingurd,  vii.  Thomas  Moore,  Memoirs  of  Captain  Bock,  ed. 
1824  and  1852.  O'GonncU,  A  Memoir  of  Ireland,  Native  and  Saxon.  1  vol.  8vo. 
Dublin,  1843.  Brennan,  0.  S.  F.,  Ecclesiastical  History  of  Ireland.  Dublin,  1864. 
/r.  D.  Killccn,  Ecclesiastical  History  of  Ireland.  London,  1875.  Thomas  D'Arcij 
McGcc,  History  of  the  Attempt  to  establish  the  Protestant  Reformation  in  Ireland. 
Boston,  1853.  The  Analecta  of  David  Rothe,  Bishoj)  of  Ossory,  edited  with  an  In- 
troduction by  P.  F.  Moran,  Bishop  of  Ossory.  Dublin,  1884.  B'/girell,  Ireland 
under  the  Tudor.s.     London,  188.5.     (S.-e  Dublin  Review,  Apr.  1886.) 


208  HISTORY   OF   THE    CATHOLIC   CHURCH. 

members  of  the  so-called  Irish  Parliameut,  who  decided  on  the 
destinies  of  the  island,  were  selected  from  English  colonists  who 
had  recognized  the  supremacy  of  Henry  VIII.  in  1536.  George 
Brown,  who  was  appointed  to  the  Archiepiscopal  See  of  Dublin  by 
Cromwell,  the  tool  of  Henry  VIII.,  submitted  willingly  to  this  rec- 
ognition. But  the  native  clergy  and  the  people  of  the  country  op- 
posed with  persevering  and  vigorous  resistance  the  encroachments 
of  the  tyrant.  Under  Edward  VI.  there  were  but  few  of  the  natives 
who  did  not  withstand  the  introduction  of  the  English  liturgy 
into  Ireland ;  Irish  nationality  and  the  Catholic  faith  remained 
bound  up  together.  Under  Queen  Mary  (1553-1558)  the  Irish  en- 
joyed their  faith,  and  Protestantism  became  nearly  extinct  in  Ire- 
land. This  hopeful  aspect  of  affairs  was,  however,  entirely  changed 
by  Elizabeth,  who  was  intent  on  subjugating  and  protestantizing  the 
whole  island.  A  series  of  atrocious  and  systematic  persecutions  was 
inaugurated,  for  which  it  is  difficvilt  to  find  a  comparison.  After 
long  and  bloody  conflicts  the  Irish  were  defeated  and  subjugated 
(1603).  But,  despite  confiscation,  rack,  and  scaffold,  the  Irish 
clergy  and  people  remained  steadfast  and  loyal  to  the  ancient  faith. ^ 
Among  those  that  suffered  martyrdom  were  Dermot  O'Hurley,  Arch- 
bishop of  Cashel ;  Patrick  O'Healy,  Bishop  of  Mayo ;  and  Richard 
Creagh,  Archbishop  of  Armagh. 

When  James  I.  came  to  the  throne,  the  poor  Irish  people  were 
soon  disappointed  in  their  hope  of  religious  freedom.  The  new  king, 
in  an  act  of  amnesty  which  he  granted,  excluded  from  the  benefits 
thereof  only  "papists  and  assassins."  Catholic  religious  services 
were  forbidden ;  and  in  1605  all  Catholic  priests  were  ordered  to 
leave  the  country  under  pain  of  death.  Confiscation  and  coloniza- 
tion were  resorted  to,  but  even  this  wholesale  robbery  of  property 
could  not  suppress  the  religion. 

These  unrighteous  persecutions  continued  under  the  reign  of 
Charles  I.,  who  was  weak  enough  to  yield  to  the  influence  of  wicked 
advisers.  The  Earl  of  Strafford,  Viceroy  of  Ireland,  used  his  emi- 
nent talents  for  the  oppression  of  the  Ii-ish,  and  continued  the  system 
of  robbery.    The  king,  in  1628,  granted  to  the  Irish  who  had  assisted 

1  Lingard,  x.  T.  D'A.  McGce.  Wanicr,  History  of  Eebellion  and  Civil  War  in 
Ireland,  p.  294.  London,  1768.  Up  to  the  death  of  Elizabeth  not  even  sixty  of  the 
natives  had  be<^.ome  Protestants.  On  the  great  number  of  Franciscan  Observants 
who  suffered  martyrdom,  see  Annal.  Minor,  torn.  xx.  sqq.  The  Order  of  St.  Francis 
has  given  to  the  Irish  Church  seventy-three  bishops,  eighteen  of  whom  lived  during 
the  time  of  the  cruel  persecutions. 


SUFFERINGS    OF    THE    CATHOLICS   IN   IRELAND.     209 

him  with  money  lifty-one  graces,  but  failed  to  keep  his  word;  by 
the  influence  of  Strafford,  these  graces  were  not  confirmed,  but 
the  pkmdering  and  oppression  still  kept  on.  These  drove  the 
people  to  revolt  as  a  means  of  putting  an  end  to  this  grievous 
wrong.  At  last  the  nation  arose,  as  one  man,  for  "  God,  king,  and 
fatherland."  This  rising  first  took  place  in  the  province  of  Ulster. 
Early  in  the  year  1642  the  national  convention  at  Kilkenny  pro- 
claimed war  for  the  Irish  religion,  for  independence  of  the  Irish 
Parliament,  for  the  ui>holding  of  the  graces  conferred  in  1628,  and 
for  the  exclusion  of  foreigners.  A  national  synod  declared  these 
demands  to  be  just  and  lawful.  The  combat  was  maintained  on 
both  sides  with  great  bitterness,  though  at  first  with  success  for  the 
Irish,  as  some  outrages  committed  by  the  English  on  peaceful  and 
unarmed  natives  had  roused  the  natives  to  take  a  bloody  vengeance. 
Strafford's  successor,  the  IVIarquis  of  Ormonde,  concluded  an  armis- 
tice (1643)  known  as  "  The  Cessation."  But  the  negotiations  for 
peace  were  frustrated,  because  Charles,  from  fear  of  the  English 
and  Scotch  Parliaments,  dared  not  grant  the  Irish  that  freedom  of 
religion  which  they  demanded  with  so  much  justice.  When  the 
king  afterwards  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Scotch  and  English 
rebels,  the  Irish  rose  to  free  him;  but  being  defeated  by  the  over- 
whelming power  of  Oliver  Cromwell,  they  had  to  pay  a  dear  pen- 
alty,—  the  usurper  made  the  conquered  feel  the  weight  of  his 
cruelty  and  of  his  fanaticism.^  Loss  of  their  possessions,  exile,  and 
slavery  became  the  lot  of  Catholics.  A  price  of  £5  was  set  on 
the  head  of  a  priest.  Five  millions  of  acres  were  confiscated  and 
divided  among  those  who  had  advanced  money  to  pay  the  army ; 
twenty  thousand  people  were  transported  to  the  West  Indies,  and 
many  thousands  more  to  the  American  colonies.  Under  Cromwell 
three  hundred  ecclesiastics  were  martyred  and  one  thousand  others 
banished.  A  law  was  enacted  confining  the  Catholics  to  the  prov- 
ince of  Connaught,  which  they  were  not  to  leave  on  pain  of  death. 
This  command  could  not  be  carried  out ;  but  it  furnished  the  Pro- 
tector's adherents  an  oi)portunity  of  cooling  their  fanaticism  on  the 
papists.     The  Pi*otestant  Irish  were  spared  completely. 

The  restoration  of  the  monarchical  dignity  in  England  brought  no 
great  advantage  to  the  Catholics  of  Ireland.  The  regicides  remained 
in  possession  of  the  lands  they  had  stolen,  and  the  Catholic  owners 

1  Hi.storical  Sketch  of  the  Persecutions,  etc.,  by  Most  Rev.  P.  F.  Moran,  Arch- 
bishop of  Sidney.     Cromwell  in  Ireland,  by  Rev.  D.  Muiyhij,  S.  J.     London,  1883. 
VOL.  II.  14 


210  HISTORY   OF    THE    CATHOLIC   CHURCH. 

received  but  a  small  part  of  their  property  back  again.  The  con- 
cessions which  the  king,  Charles  II.,  was  willing  to  make  to  the 
Catholics  met  with  strong  opposition  on  the  part  of  Protestant 
fanaticism.  A  short  interval  of  peace  took  place  under  the  vice- 
royalty  of  Lord  Berkeley ;  after  which  oppression  began  anew,^  and 
continued  until  the  accession  of  James  II.  (1685),  who  publicly  ac- 
knowledged himself  to  be  a  Catholic.  He  sent  Lord  Clarendon  to 
Ireland  as  viceroy,  and  granted  freedom  of  worship,  with  civil  and 
political  equality,  to  Catholics,  to  place  them  on  the  same  footing 
with  Protestants.  The  latter  took  the  alarm  ;  and  the  hopes  cher- 
ished by  the  Irish  people  were  overthrown  when  James  was  driven 
from  his  throne  by  William  of  Orange  (1688).  James  fled  to 
Prance,  whence  he  passed  over  to  Ireland,  to  place  himself  at  the 
head  of  the  Irish  people,  who  had  remained  loyal  to  him  throughout 
his  adversity ;  but  he  and  they  were  defeated  by  William  (1690). 

William  of  Orange  began  a  new  sort  of  persecution  in  Ireland, 
which  reminds  one  of  the  Eonmn  Emperor  Julian's  administration. 
The  capitulation  of  Limerick  (1691)  promised,  indeed,  freedom  of 
conscience  to  the  Catholics  such  as  they  had  enjoyed  under  Charles 
II.,  and  the  peaceable  enjoyment  of  their  property;  but  the  con- 
ditions of  the  treaty  were  not  kept.  New  persecutions  were  set  on 
foot,  which  were  prefaced  by  a  confiscation  of  property ;  and  these 
persecutions  continued  with  increased  violence  during  the  reign  of 
Queen  Anne  (1702-1714),  the  second  daughter  of  James  II.  As 
early  as  1698  the  Catholic  bishops  were  banished  from  the  island ; 
the  priests,  indeed,  were  allowed  to  remain,  but  under  the  most 
oppressive  supervision  and  control.^  Attendance  at  a  Catholic  place 
of  Avorship  was  annexed  to  disgraceful  conditions ;  ^  and  the  right  of 
educating  their  children  was  withdrawn  fi-om  Catholic  parents,  or 
was  at  least  so  hampered  as  to  make  it  very  difficult.     The  estab- 

1  On  the  execution  at  Tyburn  (July  11,  1681)  of  Olivi'v  Pluukett,  ArcliTiishoii  of 
Armagh,  see  his  Life  by  Rev.  Dr.  Crohj,  of  Mayuooth,  Dublin  ;  Brciinan,  y.  44t)  sii<i. 

2  They  had  to  take  the  oath  of  abjuration  (against  the  Stuarts),  to  have  their 
names  registered,  to  give  two  securities  (each  of  £50)  ;  they  could  never  leave  their 
county,  or  perform  ecclesiastical  functions  in  other  parishes  (1704  and  1710). 

3  Every  divine  service  outside  the  churches  was  forbidden,  under  pain  of  banish- 
ment, as  also  the  use  of  bells,  wearing  a  priest's  dress,  and  every  outward  sign  by 
which  a  building  might  be  recognized  as  a  Catholic  church  ;  images  and  crucifixes  were 
demolished,  and  pilgrimages  punished  with  lashes  (1704).  The  justice  of  the  peace 
could  question  every  Catholic  as  to  where  he  attended  Mass,  who  had  said  it,  and 
who  else  had  been  present.  If  these  questions  were  not  satisfactorily  answered,  the 
Catholic  was  subject  to  a  tine  of  £20. 


SUFFERINGS   OF  THE   CATHOLICS   IN  IRELAND.       211 

lishment  of  schools  was  forbidden  to  Catholics.^  Any  one  convicted 
of  having  sent  his  children  to  the  Continent  to  be  brought  up  in 
the  Catholic  faith  was  liable  to  civil  disqualification.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  Government  established  schools  to  proselytize  the  children. 
Catholic  orphans  received  Protestant  guardians.  Apostasy  was 
rewarded; 2  Catholics  were  excluded  from  all  offices  of  State  and 
from  Parliament.^  The  purchase  of  landed  property  was  forbidden 
to  them,  and  they  had  already  been  robbed  of  the  most  of  what  they 
had  possessed  in  times  past.  Leases  could  not  be  held  for  longer 
than  thirty  years,  and  the  tenant  had  to  leave  two  thirds  of  his 
earnings  to  the  oAvner.  A  Catholic  practising  the  trade  of  an 
artisan  could  only  do  so  subject  to  mortifying  restrictions.  Nor 
could  a  Catholic  become  a  lawyer  or  a  juryman. 

The  Anglican  clergy  took  possession  of  the  rich  Catholic  benefices 
(livings)  ;  ■*  and  the  Catholic,  overburdened  with  taxes  and  robbed 
of  his  possessions,  had  to  pay  titlie  to  the  bishops  and  pastors  of  the 
High  Church,  who,  having  frequently  no  congregations  of  their  own, 
travelled  away  from  their  homes.  They  had,  besides  this,  to  con- 
tribute to  the  expenses  of  a  religious  worship  in  which  they  could 
not  join ;  while  the  Catholic  priests,  nearly  starving  with  hunger, 
had  only  the  free  contributions  of  the  faithful  to  look  to  for 
support. 

Still  more  revolting  was  the  insulting  behavior  to  which  the  Irish 

1  Catholic  teachers  were  banished.  Tlieir  return  rendered  them  liable  to  capital 
punishment  (1704).  The  Government  paid  £5  a  head  for  the  deportation  of  Catholic 
teachers  to  the  West  Indies.  Catholics  were  not  allowed  to  have  their  children  edu- 
cated on  the  Continent,  and  were  obliged  to  bring  forward  their  children  to  be  seen  at 
the  demand  of  the  magistrate. 

'■^  An  apostate  priest  at  first  (1704)  received  £20,  afterwards  (1705)  £30,  and  at 
last  £40.  When  the  eldest  son  of  a  Catholic  family  turned  Protestant,  he  became 
possessed  of  the  whole  property  of  his  parents,  who  in  that  case  had  only  the  usufruct 
of  it  (1703).  Did  a  younger  son  or  daughter  fall  away,  the  Chancellor  of  Ireland  de- 
termined their  share  in  the  inheritance  (1703).  A  woman  who  turned  Protestant 
might  separate  herself  from  her  husband.  Priests  were  forbidden,  under  pain  of  death, 
to  solemnize  marriage  between  Protestants  and  Catholics. 

*  They  were  not  admissible  to  any  office  whatsoever,  whether  in  the  army,  in  the 
magistracy,  or  of  any  kind  whatever  (1703).  A  law  ot  1692  and  1703  excludes  them 
fro!H  both  houses  of  Parliament. 

*  In  Ireland  there  were  4  Anglican  archljishopries  and  18  bishoprics  ;  326  other  dig- 
nitaries, 1,330  parish  parsons,  and  752  vicars.  In  all  Ireland  the  Protestants  num- 
bered about  1,500,000,  of  whom  only  about  half  belonged  to  the  Anglican  Church. 
In  198  parishes  not  a  single  adherent  to  the  High  Church  dwelt.  In  spite  of  which 
the  Anglo  pastors  received  the  incomes  of  the  prebends. 


212  HISTORY  OF   THE    CATHOLIC   CHURCH. 

were  subject  from  their  Protestant  landlords,  from  government  offi- 
cers, at  theatres,^  and  public  places,  without  being  protected  by  the 
law-courts  from  such  misvisage ;  such  protection  being  nevertheless 
due  to  the  lowest  individual  when  calumniated  or  ill-treated. 

This  was  a  tyranny  of  which  the  history  of  civilized  nations  offers 
no  other  example,  and  it  had  to  be  suffered  by  a  people  whose  onl\- 
crime  was  their  loyalty  to  the  Catholic  faith. 

During  the  reigns  of  George  I.  and  of  George  II.  these  disgraceful 
laws  remained  in  full  force  ;  nay,  new  ones  were  added  to  them.  It 
was  when  English  statesmen  began  to  perceive  how  fruitless  were 
such  measures,  and  when  the  War  of  Independence  broke  out  in 
America,  that  they  began  to  feel  the  necessity  of  awarding  some 
measure  of  justice  to  the  Irish  Catholics.  Their  lot  underwent 
some  amelioration  in  1778,  and  especially  after  the  Irish  Parlia- 
ment was  freed  from  its  state  of  vassalage  to  the  Euglish  Parliament 
in  1782.2 

Further  concessions  were  granted  by  the  relief  acts  of  1792  and 
1793,  when  the  French  Revolution  inspired  the  Government  of 
Great  Britain  with  fear.^  The  insurrection  in  Ireland  (1798),  which 
the  Catholic  clergy  opposed  with  all  their  energy,  was  followed  by 
the  union  of  Ireland  with  England,  and  the  dissolution  of  the  Irish 
Parliament.  The  condition  of  tlie  Catholics  was  in  no  degree  bettered 
by  this  measure.  It  was  the  P)ill  of  Emancipation  in  1829  that  raised 
them  the  first  step  from  their  condition  as  helots. 

'  Beaumont,  1.  c.  i.  129  sqq. 

-  In  the  year  1778  Catholics  were  permitted  to  rent  land  for  nine  hundred  nnd 
ninety-nine  years  ;  moreover,  the  law  before-named  in  favor  of  children  who  became 
Protestants  was  revoked,  and  the  same  law  of  inheritance  was  made  applicable  to 
Catholics  as  to  Protestants.  In  the  year  1782  they  were  permitted  to  ac([nii-e 
landed  property  by  purchase  or  inheritance,  to  possess  horses  above  the  value  of  £5, 
to  establish  schools,  to  become  guardians  ;  besides  this,  the  laws  which  punished  the 
Catholic  priest  for  performing  his  functions,  and  the  layman  for  refusing  to  say  where 
he  had  heard  Mass,  were  repealed.  The  law  concerning  the  immovability  of  the 
judges,  and  the  introduction  of  the  Habeas  Corims  Act,  wei-e  also  of  advantage  to 
Ireland. 

3  In  the  year  1792  the  Catholics  obtained  permission  to  practise  as  lawyers,  to 
receive  apprentices,  and  to  contract  mixed  marriages.  In  1793  the  light  of  educating 
their  own  children  was  restored  to  them  ;  the  right  of  voting  at  elections  for  members 
of  Parliament  (not  of  being  elected)  was  given  to  them  ;  and  also  the  right  of  admis- 
sion to  those  civil  and  military  offices  which  did  not  reijuire  the  test  oath  ;  while 
the  act  of  uniformity  which  required  them  to  attend  the  Anglican  worship  was 
abolished. 


APOSTASY  IN  SCANDIXAVIA.  213 


§  180.   Apostasy  in  Scandinavia. 

The  expulsion  of  Cliristiau  II.,*  the  King  of  Denmark  and  the 
tyrant  of  the  Union,  together  with  the  election  of  Gustavus 
(Ericson)  Wasa  to  the  throne  in  1523,  was  in  Sweden  followed  by 
a  great  change  in  religious  matters,  since  the  newly  elected  king 
availed  himself  of  Lutheranism  in  order  to  win  for  the  crown  the 
political  rights  of  the  bishops  and  the  property  of  the  Church. 

At  first  Gustavus  contented  himself  with  favoring  the  spread  of 
the  Lutheran  heresy,  for  which  from  the  year  1519  the  brothers 
Olaf  and  Lorenzo  Peterson,  and  at  a  later  period  Lorenzo  Anderson, 
labored ;  striving,  in  fact,  to  undermine  the  Catholic  faith  without 
formally  breaking  with  the  Church.  This,  however,  led  to  no  result. 
The  Swedes  showed  no  inclination  for  the  new  doctrine  in  any  shape, 
—  either  for  Lutheranism,  for  Anabaptism,  or  for  any  other ;  and 
tlie  earnest  zeal  of  the  Catholic  bishops  confirmed  them  yet  more 
in  their  faith.  Even  the  disputation  at  Upsala  (1524)  between  Olaf 
Peterson  and  Peter  Galle  won  no  victory  for  Lutheranism.  It  was 
the  threat  of  the  king  to  abdicate  the  crown  that  induced  the  Diet 
of  Westeraes  (1527),  in  spite  of  the  remonstrances  of  the  bishops,  to 
give  the  Catholic  Church  and  her  property  into  his  royal  hands. 

The  king  now  proceeded  to  inaugurate  the  reformation  by  a  law 
of  censure,  and  by  heavy  penalties  he  provided  against  a  reaction. 
To  deceive  the  people,  he,  at  the  Synod  of  Oerebro,  retained  many 
Catholic  usages.  On  the  other  hand,  he  was  eager  to  obtain  posses- 
sion of  all  Church  property,  —  of  the  valuable  vessels,  the  vest- 
ments, and  even  of  the  bells. 

The  introduction  of  the  new  doctrine  met  with  great  opposition. 
Gustavus  put  down  the  rebellion,  but  came  into  collision  with  the 
preachers  who  withstood  his  despotism.  The  moral  effects"^  of  this 
so-called  reformation  were  by  no  means  gratifying.  Olaf  Peterson 
and  Lorenzo  Anderson  were  condemned  to  death  for  high-treason, 

1  The  treaty  called  tlie  Union  of  Calmar  (1-397)  placed  the  three  united  kingdoms 
of  the  North  (Sweden,  Norway,  and  Denmark)  under  the  supremacy  of  the  Danish 
King.  Sten  Sture,  the  Regent  of  Sweden,  sought  to  free  his  country  from  the  thral- 
dom of  Denmark.  Christian  II.  coni;iuered  him,  and  after  his  coronation  by  Arch- 
bishop Trolle  of  Upsala,  he  commenced  a  course  of  extermination  at  Stockholm. 
Among  those  he  put  to  deatli  were  ninety-four  Swedes  of  high  birth,  one  of  whom  was 
the  father  of  Gustavus  Wasa. 

2  See  the  pastoral  letter  of  Lorenzo  Peterson,  155S.  Baazii,  Inventarium  eccl, 
Suevo-goth.  p.  271.  sqq.     Lincop.  1642. 


214  HISTORY  OF   THE   CATHOLIC   CHURCH. 

having  conspired  against  the  king's  life  ;  their  sentence  was  remitted, 
however,  on  payment  of  a  heavy  line. 

The  attempt  of  Erich  XIV.  (1560-1568)  to  introduce  Calvinism 
cost  him  his  throne  (  +  1577).  Under  his  successor,  John  III. 
(1568-1592),  prospects  seemed  more  favorable  for  the  Catholic  relig- 
ion, love  for  which  still  dwelt  in  the  hearts  of  the  Swedish  people. 
In  the  year  1571  the  liturgy  received  some  Catholic  additions.  The 
new  archbishop  of  Upsala,  Lorenzo  Peterson  Gothus,  was  consecrated 
according  to  the  Catholic  rite,  and  the  new  liturgy  published  under 
his  name  received  the  approbation  of  the  diet  (1577).  Only  Charles 
of  Suedermaniand,  a  brother  of  the  king,  protected  Lutheranism. 

In  the  same  year  the  king,  through  his  chancellor,  Peter  Fecht, 
and  the  nobleman  Pontus  de  la  Gardie,  entered  into  negotiations 
with  the  Apostolic  See,  which  were  carried  forward  by  the  learned 
Jesuit  Anthony  Possevin,  papal  legate  in  Stockholm.  As,  however, 
the  Pope  could  not  concede  every  demand  made  by  John,  the  latter, 
after  the  death  of  the  Catholic  (j^ueen,  Catherine  (1588),  was  influ- 
enced by  his  second  wife,  Guneila  P>jelke,  again  to  favor  Lutheran- 
ism, after  which  all  that  he  retained  was  the  liturgy. 

After  the  death  of  John,  whose  Catholic  successor,  Sigismund  III., 
was  also  King  of  Poland,  Charles  of  Suedermaniand,  at  the  so-called 
Council  of  Upsala  (1593),  had  the  liturgy  rejected  and  the  Augsburg 
Confession  prescribed.  Sigismund  ratified  what  had  been  done, 
though  he  reaped  only  ingratitude  and  abuse  for  so  doing.  After 
Sigismund  had  left  Sweden,  Charles  took  forcible  possession  of  the 
government,  and  the  Diet  of  Suederkoeping  in  1595  forbade  the 
exercise  of  the  Catholic  religion. 

The  king  reappeared  in  1598  with  an  army  in  Sweden,  but  was 
too  forbearing  with  his  faithless  uncle,  who  was  first  elected  admin- 
istrator of  the  realm ;  then,  when  Sigismund  refused  to  accede  to  the 
disgraceful  conditions  proposed  to  him,  he  ascended,  as  Charles  IX., 
in  1604  the  royal  throne,  his  pretensions  to  which  he  sought  to 
fortify  by  beheading  many  of  the  noblest  Swedes  in  the  kingdom. 

While  Christian  II.  pretended  to  enter  Sweden  as  the  executor  of 
the  papal  bull  of  excommunication,  he  was  seeking  to  render  Den- 
mark Protestant ;  but  in  1523  he  was  deposed  by  the  Estates  for  ill- 
treating  the  prelates  and  for  attempting  to  introduce  Lutheranism.^ 

1  "  Nobilissiniam  et  ex  catholica  stirpe  genitam  conjugem  siiam  Lutherana  haeiesi 
infecit,  ejusdem  haeresis  pullwlatores  contra  jus  pietatemque  in  regnuin  nostrum 
catholicum  inilu.xit,"  etc.  (Ludcwig,  Keliquiae  manuscript,  v.  321.  Frcfrt.  et  Lips. 
1723. 


PROTESTANTISM  IN  LIVONIA,    ETC.  215 

His  uncle  and  successor,  Frederic  I.  (1523-1533),  had  indeed 
bound  himself  by  oath  at  his  election  to  maintain  the  Catholic  re- 
ligion ;  but  in  the  year  1526  he  formally  went  over  to  Lutheranism, 
and  at  the  Diet  of  Odensee  (1527)  succeeded  in  obtaining  the  decree 
that  Catholics  and  Lutherans  shovild  be  placed  on  an  equal  footing 
in  regard- to  civic  rights,  that  priests  should  be  permitted  to  marry, 
and  that  the  contirmation  of  bishops  should  be  the  privilege  of  the 
king.  The  Danish  bishops  could  offer  no  effective  resistance.  At 
the  Diet  of  Copenhagen  (1530)  the  Lutheran  party,  through  John 
Tausen,  presented  a  confession  of  faith  (Confessio  Havnica).  The 
bishops  caused  a  written  refutation  to  be  composed.  The  disputa- 
tion projected  was  set  aside  hy  the  Lutherans.  The  king  now  took 
part  with  them  decidedly  ;  but  the  iconoclasts  and  the  invasion  of 
Christian  XL,  who  had  been  driven  from  the  kingdom,  compelled  him 
to  proceed  with  more  moderation. 

After  the  termination  of  the  civil  war.  Christian  III.,  whose 
election  had  been  opposed  by  the  prelates,  had  all  the  bishops 
ill) prisoned  (Aug.  20,  1536),  and  at  the  Di^^t  (jf  Copenhagen  the 
episcopal  dignity  was  abolished  by  law.  The  imprisoned  prelates 
could  only  regain  their  liberty  by  resigning  their  dignities.  Their 
revenues  were  divided  between  the  king  and  the  nobility.  John 
Bugenhagen  (Pomeranus)  was  invited  by  the  king  to  come  from 
Wittenberg  to  complete  the  work  of  reformation.  His  ecclesiastical 
organization  was  approved  by  the  Diet  of  Odensee  (1539).  The  new 
bishops,  or  superintendents,  were  consecrated  by  Bugenhagen.  The 
Catholic  priests  were  forbidden,  under  pain  of  death,  to  enter  Den- 
mark.    Efforts  made  by  the  Jesuits  in  after  times  had  no  effect. 

The  inhabitants  of  the  kingdom  of  Xorway,  which  had  been  con- 
nected with  Denmark,  had  hitherto  repulsed  all  the  efforts  made  by 
heresy  to  find  a  footing  among  them ;  but  after  the  flight  of  the 
Archbishop  Olaf  of  Drontheim,  the  introduction  of  Lutheranism 
took  place  through  the  Government. 

Iceland  for  a  long  time  withstood  the  attacks  of  Protestantism, 
which  did  not  prevail  in  the  country  until  after  the  execution  of  the 
zealous  bishop  Juhn  Aresen  of  Holum  (1550). 

§  181.    Protestantism  m  Livonia,  Courland,  Poland,  and  Sihsia. 

As  in  Prussia,  so  also  in  Livonia  and  Courland,  Protestantism  was 
introduced  by  apostate  members  of  the  Teutonic  (^rder.  From  the 
year  1521  the  chief  commander,  Walter  of  Plettenburg,  favored  the 


216  HISTORY  OF   THE   CATHOLIC   CHURCH. 

so-called  Reformation  iu  Livouia,  where,  when  William  Margrave  of 
Brandenburg  (1539)  had  been  elevated  to  the  archiepiscopal  see  of 
Riga,  Protestantism  could  freely  spread.  In  Courland,  when  the 
chief  commander,  Gotthard  Kettler,  in  1561  assumed  the  title  of 
Duke,  he  also  accepted  the  Confession  of  Augsburg.  The  apostasy 
of  the  Bishop  of  Courland,  John  of  Monnichhausen,  facilitated  the 
victory  of  the  novel  heresy. 

The  watchfulness  of  Sigismund  I.  (+  1548)  and  of  the  episcopate, 
particularly  that  of  the  able  archbishop  of  Gnesen,  John  Laski 
(+  1531),  could  not  indeed  hinder  the  introduction  of  Protestantism 
into  Poland,^  but  it  rendered  the  spread  of  it  more  difficult.  Yet 
under  the  feeble  and  vacillating  king  Sigismund  Augustus  II. 
(1548-1572),  Poland  became  the  refuge  of  almost  every  sort  of  apos- 
tates, such  as  the  Bohemian  Brethren,  Lutherans,  Reformed  Chris- 
tians, and  Unitarians,  or  Socinians.^  In  order  not  to  divide  their 
strength  by  doctrinal  dissensions,  the  various  sectarians  in  1570  con- 
cluded the  Union  of  Sendomir  (Consensus  Sendomirieusis)  on  a 
broad  basis  of  belief,  which  included  all  parties.  The  religious 
peace  of  Warsaw,  1573  (Pax  Dissidentium),  granted  to  all  dissenters  — 
that  is,  to  all  non-Catholics  —  religious  liberty.^  The  condition  of  the 
Catholic  Church  was  seriousl}'  endangered,  and  the  more  so  in  that 
the  Archbishop  Uchanski  of  Gnesen  (+  1581)  took  no  energetic 
measures  for  the  suppression  of  heresy.  But  the  danger  was  hap- 
pily removed  by  the  papal  legates  Lipomani  (since  1556)  and  Com- 
mendone  (1563),  but  principally  by  the  celebrated  cardinal  Hosius, 
Bishop  of  Ermland,  who  brought  the  Jesuits  into  Poland,  through 
whose  efforts  many  dissidents  were  brought  back  to  the  Church. 

The  kings  Stephen  Bathory  (1576-1586)  and  Sigismund  III.,  with 
the  Archbishop  Stanislaus  Karnkowski  (-f  1603)  and  other  prelates, 
afforded  powerful  assistance  to  the  Jesuit  Fathers  ;  and  this  excited 
the  indignation  of  the  dissidents,  who  were  still  more  exasperated 
by  some  measures  taken  by  the  king.  Foreign  rulers  fanned  the 
flame  of  revolt.  It  was  in  vain  that  Ladislaus  IV.  in  1645  made  an 
attempt  to  reconcile  the  dissidents  with  the  Church,  by  a  religious 
conference  at  Thorn,  thinking  thereby  to  avert  the  threatened  ruin. 
His  well-meant  experiment  failed.  The  distracted  kingdom  finally 
fell  a  victim  to  the  avarice  of  Russia  and  her  allies. 

The  Duchy  of  Silesia,  which  had  been  politically  connected  with 

1  Lubienicki,  Hist,  reform.  Polonicae.     Freist.  1685. 

'^  Concerning  this  sect,  see  §  198. 

3  Nova  Acta  historico-eccles.  vii.  726  sqq. 


I 


PROTESTANTISM    IN   HUNGARY,    ETC.  217 

Poland,  and  since  1392  with  Bohemia  also,  had  been  prepared  for 
the  acceptance  of  the  so-called  Reformation  by  the  Bohemian 
Brethren,  the  introduction  of  which  by  the  secular  power  met  with 
no  effective  resistance  from  the  weak  and  in  part  demoralized 
clergy.  It  Avas  the  Duke  Frederic  II.  of  Liegnitz  who  first  invited 
the  Lutheran  preachers  in  152.3.  His  example  was  followed  by 
the  Municipal  Council  of  Breslau,  who  had  fallen  out  with  the 
Cathedral  Chapter,  and  who  permitted  the  Catholic  religion  to  be 
scoffed  at  with  impunity ;  they  drove  away  the  clergy  and  the 
monks  who  were  displeasing  to  them,  and  installed  the  apostate 
priest  Dr.  Hess  as  rector  of  the  church  of  St.  Mary  Magdalen. 

The  half-measures  of  the  Bishop  James  of  Salza  Avere  of  too 
undecidetl  a  character  to  avail  anything. 

King  Louis  II.  (4- 1526)  was  too  much  engaged  with  the  Turks  ; 
he  could  effect  nothing,  and  the  remonstrances  of  King  Sigismund 
Augustus  of  Poland  were  not  heeded.  When  the  government  came 
into  the  hands  of  the  Archduke  (King)  Ferdinand  I.,  Lutheranism 
had  already  made  great  progress.  Even  then  the  bishops  to  whom 
the  general  government  was  intrusted  might  have  erected  a  barrier 
against  the  incoming  innovations.  But,  alas !  the  clergy,  both  high 
and  low,  showed  themselves  cowardly  and  undecided,  and  even 
manifested  sympathy  for  Luther's  errors.  The  Wittenberg  reformer, 
however,  himself  found  a  rival  in  Caspar  of  Schwenkfeld,  who 
differed  from  him  in  many  points. 

§  182.     Protestantism  in  Hungary  and  Transylvania. 

The  political  disorders  in  Hungary  and  Transylvania  ^  were  very 
favorable  to  the  propagation  of  Protestantism,  the  introduction  of 
which  had  been  vainly  resisted  by  King  Louis  II.  and  the  bishops. 
After  the  battle  of  Mohacz  (1526),  a  part  of  Hungary  passed  under 
the  dominion  of  the  Turks,  who  rather  promoted  the  progress  of  the 
new  doctrine  than  restrained  it.  Many  bishops  had  fallen  in  this 
unfortunate  battle,  and  their  possessions  had  been  seized  by  the 
nobles,  who  now  sought  to  secure  their  plunder  by  adopting  Protes- 
tantism. Even  a  part  of  the  clergy,  many  of  whom  were  far  from 
being  models  of  virtue,  vmited  with  them.  Ferdinand  I.  and  his 
antagonist,  John  of  Zapolya,  dissipated  their  strength  in  civil  wars, 

1  P.  Emher,  Dcbrcceni,  Hist.  Ecrl.  Reform,  in  Hung,  et  Transylvania,  locupletata 
;i  F.  A.  Lampe.  Traj.  ad  Rlien.  1728.  Pdbini  (Preacher  in  Pressb.),  Memorabilia 
A  ;f;nst.  conf.  in  refrno  Hung,  a  Ferd.  I.  usque  ad  Carol.  VI.     2  vols.     1787. 


218  HISTORY   OF   THE    CATHOLIC    CHURCH. 

and  could  make  no  headway  against  the  sects,  which,  under  the 
protection  of  the  higher  nobility  and  even  of  some  Palatines,  as 
Tarzo  and  Nadasdy,  continued  to  spread  far  and  wide.  The  most 
active  agents  in  this  work  were  Matthias  Devay,  in  Hungary,  and 
John  Honter,  in  Transylvania.  At  first  Lutheranism  prevailed  ex- 
clusively, but  soon  found  a  rival  in  Calvinism.  At  the  Synod  of 
^Nlediasch  the  Saxon  nation  decided  for  the  Augsburg  Confession, 
the  Magyars  adopted  Calvinism.  The  Unitarians,  or  Socinians, 
whose  leaders  were  George  Blandrata  and  Francis  Davidis,  also 
gained  many  adherents. 

In  Hungary  the  Protestants  also  split  into  Lutheranism  (the 
German  creed)  and  Calvinism  (the  Hungarian  creed).  The  dispu- 
tations, controversies,  and  synods  only  served  to  reveal  the  interior 
contradictions  of  the  sectarians  without  re-establishing  unity;  but 
this  interior  discordance  brought  many  of  those  who  had  been 
wandering  from  the  fold  to  their  senses.  At  this  time,  likewise, 
the  Catholic  clergy,  although  hampered  in  many  ways,  exerted 
themselves  actively.  Among  them  the  Archbishop  Olahus  of  Gran 
distinguished  himself ;  he  invited  the  Jesuits  to  Tyrnau  in  1561, 
The  noted  Stephen  Bathory  had  already  brought  them  to  Transyl- 
vania. Hated  as  they  were  by  the  Protestants,  and  repeatedly 
banished  the  country,  the  Fathers  of  the  Society  displayed  here,  as 
later  on  in  Hungary  in  1586,  an  indefatigable  zeal  for  the  conver- 
sion of  apostates  which  did  not  remain  fruitless.^  A  great  number 
of  the  nobility  returned  to  the  Church,  and  established  the  Catholic 
worship  on  their  own  domains.  After  the  death  of  Maximilian  II., 
who  had  favored  Protestantism  not  a  little,  the  Government  also 
adopted  more  stringent  measures.  Rudolph  II.  ordered  some  of  the 
churches  taken  from  the  Catholics  to  be  restored  to  them,  and 
renewed  the  laws  in  favor  of  the  Catholic  religion.  The  Protes- 
tants, in  unison  with  Stephen  Bocskai,  Prince  of  Transylvania, 
raised  the  standard  of  revolt,  and  in  the  Peace  of  Vienna,  1606, 
obtained  freedom  of  religious  worship. 

The  distinguished  Jesuit,  Peter  Pazman,  afterwards  Archbishop 
of  Gran,  and  Cardinal,  labored  successfully  in  the  cause  of  the 
Church  -  and  of  his  own  Society.  King  Ferdinand  II.  seconded  his 
efforts  ;  but  this  imbittered  the  Protestants  yet  more,  and  they, 
assisted  by  Gabor,  Prince  of  Transylvania,  revolted. 

1  A.  Sochcr,  Hist.  prov.  Anstr.  Soc.  Jesii.  Vieime,  1740.  Cf.  Barker,  1.  c. 
p.  660. 

2  HhiifJi/,  Hist.  Collegii  Pazmaniani.     Vienne,  1865. 


CATHOLICS  AND  PROTESTANTS  IN   GERMANY.      219 

Under  Leopold  I.  many  Protestants  mixed  themselves  up  in 
political  conspiracies  (1670;  1G73),  which  compelled  the  Government 
to  have  recourse  to  stringent  measures  ;  and  the  friction  between 
Protestants  and  Catholics  still  continued.  The  Diet  of  Oedenburg 
(1681)  confirmed  the  Peace  of  Vienna,  and  made  still  greater  con- 
cessions ;  yet  the  Protestants,  still  dissatisfied,  repeated  their  de- 
mands at  the  following  diets.  New  seditions  took  place.  The  law 
of  1715,  on  religion,  seemed  to  be  equally  unsatisfactory;  neither 
did  the  Edict  of  Toleration  of  Joseph  II.  (1781)  appear  fully  to 
correspond  to  their  wishes. 

In  Italy  and  Spahi  the  new  heresies  found  no  admittance.  All  the  efforts 
made  to  introduce  them  were  frustrated  in  consequence  of  tlie  aversion  of  the 
people,  the  watchfulness  of  the  Inquisition,  and  the  measures  taken  by  the 
authorities  against  the  sectaries.  The  Duchess  Renata  of  Ferrara  (see  ^  172) 
was  a  special  friend  of  the  so-called  Reformation.  Most  of  the  apostate 
Italians  passed  over,  in  after  times,  to  Sociuianism.  Cantii,  gli  Eretici  d'  Italia. 
^^  vols.      Turin,  1865  sqq. 

§  183.     RelatAon  between  the  Catholics  and  Protestants  in   G-er- 
many.  —  The  Thirty  Years'  War.  —  The  Peace  of  Westphalia. 

The  stipulations  of  the  religious  peace  of  Augsburg  satisfied 
neither  Catholics  nor  Protestants,  and  the  reciprocal  bitterness  soon 
became  even  greater  than  of  yore.  In  spite  of  the  "  spiritual  reser- 
vations," the  Protestants  took  possession  of  most  of  the  religious 
foundations  -^  in  northern  Germany,  and  rigidly  carried  into  effect  the 
so-called  rights  of  the  Reformation,^  even  extending  those  rights  to 
the  Calvinistic  States,  which  had  hitherto  been  excluded  from  the 
treaty.  On  the  other  hand,  they  made  bitter  complaints  when  the 
Catholic  States  reclaimed  the  secularized  bishoprics  and  the  like,  or 
the  right  to  determine  the  fate  of  their  subjects.  Ferdinand  I.  in 
vain  exerted  himself  to  obtain  unity  of  spirit  between  Catholics 
and  Protestants.  The  religious  conference  at  Worms  (1558)  had 
the  same  result  as  those  of  former  times ;  and  the  j)ropositions  of 

1  In  this  way  were  lost  the  archbishoprics  of  Magdebm-g  and  Bremen,  the  bishop- 
rics of  Havelbevg,  Brantb^nburg,  Lebus,  Merseburg,  Nmimhurg,  Meissen,  Caniin, 
Scbwerin,  Halberstadt,  Miiiden,  Liibeck,  Verden,  Osnabriick,  Ratzeburg,  and  others. 
See  Eichhorn,  History  of  German  States  and  Laws,  iv.  146  sqq. 

2  In  the  Palatinate  religion  was  three  times  changed  by  the  ruler  between  1563 
and  1584.  The  imperial  city,  Oppenheim,  had  to  change  its  religion  ten  times  before 
the  Peace  of  Westphalia. 


220  HISTORY  OF   THE    CATHOLIC    CHURCH. 

peace  made  by  Witzel,  F.  Staphylus,  and  George  Cassander  could 
not  obtain  a  hearing.  The  Protestant  States  even  refused  to  intro- 
duce into  their  territory  the  almanac  which  had  been  amended  by 
Pope  Gregory  XIII.  While  men's  tempers  were  in  this  state, 
various  events  occurred  which  tended  to  increase  the  hostile  feeling 
on  both  sides  and  bring  matters  to  a  crisis. 

Henry  IV.  of  France  took  advantage  of  the  inimical  sentiments 
of  some  of  these  Protestant  princes,  to  weaken  the  house  of  Haps- 
burg  and  humble  the  imperial  power.  It  was  mainly  at  his  insti- 
gation that  the  Calvinistic  princes  at  Ahausen,  in  Franconia,  formed 
the  Protestant  Union  in  1608  (May  4),  of  which  Elector  Frederic  IV. 
of  the  Palatinate  became  the  head  (+ 1610).  The  Catholic  princes 
opposed  to  this  the  Holy  League,  formed  at  Munich  on  the  10th  of 
July,  1609,  under  Duke  Maximilian  of  Bavaria.  Germany  at  that 
moment  was  on  the  eve  of  a  terrible  civil  war,  which  the  assassina- 
tion of  Henry  IV.  hindered  from  breaking  out  immediately. 

The  religious  conflicts  in  Bohemia  iinally  gave  the  signal  for 
beginning  that  war,  which  devastated  Germany,  degraded  her 
princes,  and  offered  to  foreign  potentates  the  opportunity  of  inter- 
meddling with  the  interior  affairs  of  the  country. 

Notwithstanding  the  penal  edicts,  the  so-called  Reformation  had 
made  its  way  into  the  hereditary  territories  of  the  emperor. 

Maximilian  II.  had  in  1571  granted  to  the  Protestants  of  Bohe- 
mia, who  were  at  war  alike  with  the  Church  and  with  their  king, 
a  religious  liberty,  which  was,  however,  limited  to  the  lords  and 
knights.  The  sectarians,  fortified  by  the  Utraquists  who  had  gone 
over  to  them,  extended  these  concessions  to  the  cities,  and  in  1609 
extorted  from  Rudolph  II.  an  imperial  rescript  by  which  their 
demands  were  granted,  while  the  Protestants  in  Silesia  and  Austria 
obtained  by  force  similar  concessions  for  themselves. 

Under  IVIatthias  disorders  broke  out  in  Bohemia,  occasioned  by 
the  erection  of  Protestant  churches  on  the  domain  of  Catholic 
landlords,  in  violation  of  the  imperial  rescript.  The  pulling  down 
or  closing  oi  these  churches  by  command  of  the  emperor  brought 
about  the  revolt.  The  rebels,  headed  by  the  Count  of  Thurn,  made 
their  way  into  the  royal  castle  at  Prague  (May  23,  1618),  threw 
the  two  imperial  counsellors,  Martinitz  and  Slawata,  out  of  the 
window,  and  set  up  a  new  government ;  then,  aided  and  abetted  by 
the  Protestant  Union,  they  not  only  persecuted  the  Catholics  and 
those  cities  of  Bohemia  which  remained  faithful  to  the  king,  but 
made  their  way  into  Austria  also. 


THE    THIRTY    YEARS'    WAR.  221 

On  the  death  of  tlie  Emperor  ^Matthias  (1C19),  the  Protestants  of 
Bohemia,  unwilling  to  recognize  his  nephew,  Ferdinand  II.,  as  his 
successor,  bestowed  the  crown  on  Frederic  V.  of  the  Palatinate. 
Ferdinand  II.,  although  reduced  to  great  necessity,  remained  stead- 
fast in  his  most  embarrassing  condition,  and  finally,  with  the  aid  of 
the  Elector  of  Saxony  and  Duke  Maximilian  of  Bavaria,  defeated 
Frederic  in  the  battle  on  the  White  Mountain  near  Prague  (Nov.  8, 
1620).  Some  other  attem})ts  were  set  on  foot  by  his  adherents,  but 
the  imperial  generals,  Tilly  ^  and  Wallenstein,  defeated  the  cham- 
pions of  Frederic's  cause. 

The  victory  of  Tilly  near  Lutter,  on  the  Barenberg  (1626),  com- 
pelled Christian  IV.  of  Denmark,  who,  aided  by  England  and  the 
Netherlands,  had  engaged  in  the  war,  to  conclude  the  Peace  of 
Liibeck  (1629)  with  the  emperor.  Frederic  lost  the  electoral  dig- 
nity which  was  conferred  on  the  Duke  of  Bavaria ;  the  rebels  were 
obliged  to  submit,  and  peace  appeared  to  be  again  restored. 

The  Restitution  Edict  issued  by  Ferdinand  II.  in  1629,  though 
just  in  itself  and  strictly  justifiable,  exasperated  the  Protestant 
princes,  who  thought  themselves  injured  in  their  own  interests,  and 
gave  an  occasion  to  the  Swedish  king,  Gustavus  Adolphus,"  which 
life  had  long  wished  foi*,  of  aggrandizing  his  power  at  the  cost  of 
the  empire.  Under  the  hypocritical  pretext  of  rendering  assistance 
to  his  distressed  fellow-believers,  he,  assured  of  the  support  of 
Kichelieu,  landed  in  1630  with  an  army  in  Germany,  and  with  the 
aid  of  the  Protestant  princes,  gained  a  victory  over  Tilly  ^  at  Breiten- 
feld,  near  Leipsic,  16.31,  whence  his  troops,  murdering  and  plundering, 
marc'.ied  forward  into  southern  Germany. 

After  the  death  of  Tilly,  Wallenstein  became  commander-in-chief. 
The  King  of  Sweden  met  his  death  at  the  battle  of  Liitzen,  in  Sax- 
ony (Nov.  6,  1632).  The  war  was,  however,  not  yet  at  an  end. 
The  ambiguous  conduct  of  W^allenstein  and  the  French  subsidies 
gave  encouragement  to  the  Swedish  generals  to  continue  hostilities 

1  Concerning  the  so  shamefully  calumniated  Tilly,  the  brave  and  virtuous  general 
of  the  League,  see  ViUermont,  Tilly  ;  or,  the  Thirty  Years'  War.  For  the  history  of 
the  whole  war,  see  the  important  writings  of  Onno  Klopp. 

2  Historical  researches  have  unveiled  the  true  plan  of  the  Swedish  king,  who  has 
been  the  object  of  so  much  unmerited  praise.  Before  his  invasion  of  Germany  he  had 
already  entered  into  treasonable  relationship  with  the  enemies  of  the  German  Empire. 
See  the  historians  Gfrorcr,  Onno  Klopp,  Droyscn,  Chronliolm,  Hurler,  Leo,  and 
others. 

*  On  the  20th  of  May  (1631)  Magdeburg  was  taken  by  Tilly  ;  but  Heising  and 
others  prove  that  he  (Tilly)  was  not  responsible  for  the  destruction  of  the  city. 


222  HISTORY  OF   THE   CATHOLIC   CHURCH. 

under  the  command  of  Duke  Bernluird  of  Weimar.  The  rebellious 
Protestant  princes  were  so  lost  to  every  honorable  feeling  as  sub- 
missively to  entreat  Oxenstiern,  the  Swedish  Chancellor,  to  under- 
take the  direction  of  the  new  confederation  of  the  Protestant 
States. 

The  battle  of  Nordlingen  (1634)  ended  with  victory  to  the 
emperor,  with  whom  the  Elector  of  Saxony  then  concluded  the 
Peace  of  Prague  (May  30,  1635).  The  interests  of  France  and 
Sweden,  however,  demanded  the  continuance  of  the  contest ;  and 
unhappy  Germany,  betrayed  and  humiliated  by  her  own  princes,  had 
to  be  for  long  years  the  scene  of  a  civil  war  which  converted  her 
most  beautiful  provinces  into  deserts.  It  was  in  vain  that  Ferdi- 
nand II.  (+  1637)  and  his  son  Ferdinand  III.  sought  to  put  an  end 
to  it.  The  war  continued  with  varying  fortune  till  the  year  1648. 
Then  the  Peace  of  IVestpJt'iUa  was  concluded,  which  deprived  Ger- 
many of  several  provinces,  opened  the  way  for  foreign  potentates 
to  interfere  in  the  interior  regulation  of  affairs,  and  sanctioned  the 
so-called  right  of  the  States  to  introduce  the  Reformation.  Not  only 
the  Lutherans,  but  the  Calvinists  or  members  of  the  Reformed 
Church  also  were  recognized  and  considered  as  a  religious  body. 
The  protest  of  the  papal  legate  Fabio  Chigi  against  the  articles  of 
the  treaty  which  violated  the  rights  of  the  Catholic  Church,  and  the 
ratification  of  this  protest  by  Innocent  X.  in  his  bull  "  Zelo  domus 
Dei,"  of  the  26th  of  November,  1648,  were  not  taken  notice  of,  or 
in  any  way  treated  with  respect. 

The  Peace  of  WestphaUa  fixed  Jan.  1,  1624,  as  the  normal  day  ("dies 
decretorius  "j  with  regard  to  the  secidarization  of  ecclesiastical  property  (Art.  5, 
M),  aud  confinned  the  "  reservatuni  ecclesiasticum "  of  Augsburg  (^  15). 
For  all  matters  of  religion  at  the  diet  the  "jus  eundi  in  partes,"  witliout  re- 
gard to  the  majority  of  votes  was  decreed  (§  52,  "  Corpus  Evangelicorum  et 
Catholicorum  ").  The  "jus  reformandi  "  (the  right  of  reforming)  was  limited 
by  the  decision  that  the  Catholics  and  Protestants  who  in  the  normal  year  of 
1624  had  public  or  private  divine  services  should  retain  them,  together  with 
all  "  aiinexa  reliaionis  "  (^  31).  The  jurisdiction  of  the  bishops  over  Protes- 
tants was  suspended  (§  48).  See  Instrumentum  pacis  Westph.  in  Meiern, 
Acta  pacis  Westph.  Adam  Adam i,  Relatio  hist,  de  ])acif.  (;)snabrugo-Monast. 
Francof.  1707.  On  the  change  which  the  Peace  of  Westphalia  underwent  by 
the  so-called  Clause  of  Ryswnck  (1697),  see  Instr.  pacis  Ryswic,  Art.  4,  in 
Schmauss,  Corp.  Jur.  Publ.  p.  1104.  Putter,  Historical  Development  of  the 
Present  State  Constitution  of  the  German  Empire,  ii.  300  sqq. 


GENERAL   REMARKS.  223 


§  184.    Greneral  Remarks  on  the  Propagation,  Nature,  and  Effects 
of  the  Reformation. 

The  introduction  and  spread  of  Protestantism,  as  shown  histori- 
cally in  dilTerent  countries,  are  not  everywhere  to  be  ascribed  to  the 
same  causes. 

One  cause  which  conduced  very  much  to  promote  the  so-called 
Reformation  consisted  in  the  unfavorable  sentiments  prevalent,  alike 
among  the  clergy  and  the  laity,  towards  the  Apostolic  See,  and  the 
call  so  often  repeated  for  a  reformation  of  the  Church  in  the  Head 
and  members.  This  facilitated  the  work  of  the  authors  of  the  new 
heresies,  who,  under  the  mask  of  reformers,  won  to  their  side  many 
well-disposed  men,  who,  at  least  in  the  beginning,  forwarded  the 
work  of  the  false  reformers. 

The  frivolous  satires  and  caricatures  on  the  clergy  and  on  the 
usages  of  the  Church,  the  popular  German  writings  of  Luther,  with 
his  coarse  attacks  on  the  Pope,  and  the  misrepresentations  of  Catho- 
lic doctrine  and  institutions  made  by  him  and  his  associates,  con- 
tributed not  a  little  to  the  spi-ead  of  the  innovations. 

Another  cause,  not  to  be  undervalued,  of  the  spreading  of  the  so- 
called  Reformation  was  the  Protestant  theory  of  justification,  which 
frees  man  from  the  need  of  co-operation  in  the  work  of  sauctifica- 
tion,  and  was  most  welcome  to  such  as  led  lives  in  direct  opposition 
to  the  dictates  of  conscience. 

The  abolition  of  the  necessity  for  celibacy,  and  the  dispensation 
from  all  monastic  vows  seduced  numerous  persons  to  become  pro- 
moters of  the  new  religion,  both  from  the  secular  and  the  regular 
clergy ;  the  novelty  was,  in  fact,  also  promoted  by  the  weakness  and 
negligence  of  several  of  the  prelates  as  well  as  of  the  lower  clergy 
in  many  countries  :  to  these  causes  may  be  added  the  ignorance  of 
the  people  and  the  base  avarice  of  a  portion  of  the  nobility  and 
princes. 

As  regards  the  common  people  in  particular,  they  were  alienated 
from  the  faith  of  their  fathers  by  various  means.  As  most  of  the 
old  forms  of  worship  were  retained,  very  many  persons  did  not 
perceive  the  interior  contradiction  between  the  doctrines  of  the  old 
Catholic  Church  and  the  new  errors  ;  while  the  abolition  of  the 
days  of  fast  and  abstinence,  of  auricular  confession,  and  of  other 
precepts  and  practices  so  irksome  to  sensual  men,  was  of  no  little 
influence  when  deciding  in  favor  of  the  "  purified  gospel."     More- 


224  HISTORY  OF   THE   CATHOLIC   CHURCH. 

over,  the  increasing  distribution  of  the  Holy  Scriptures  in  the 
mother-tongue,  —  the  interpretation  of  wliich  was  left,  at  least  in 
theory,  to  the  private  judgment  of  each  individual,  —  with  the 
communion  at  the  Lord's  Supper  under  both  species,  and  the  use 
of  the  vernacular  in  the  worship  of  God,  invested  the  innovations 
with  a  peculiar  charm. 

As  for  the  rest,  people  of  simple  earnest  faith  almost  everywhere 
showed  so  great  an  aversion  to  heresy  and  those  who  preached  it, 
that  in  most  places  the  whole  power  of  the  secular  arm  was  needed 
to  tear  from  the  heart  of  the  Catholic  Church  those  congregations 
which  had  been  deprived  of  their  pastors,  even  if  they  had  been 
deserted  or  betrayed  by  them. 

In  this  manner  the  rapid  spread  of  the  heresy  may  be  explained ; 
it  was  principally  the  work  of  despotic  severity  and  of  tyranny 
on  the  part  of  apostate  princes  or  magistrates  ruling  over  an 
unprotected  people. 

The  chief  characteristics  of  the  various  Protestant  sects  are  their 
denial  of  the  infallible  doctrinal  oifice  of  the  Church,  which  they 
replaced  by  Holy  Scripture  as  the  only  source  of  faith ;  their  re- 
jection of  the  ecclesiastical  hierarchy,  the  rights  of  which  were 
transferred  to  the  secular  power  ;  ^  their  disturbance  of  the  univer- 
sality of  the  Church,  by  founding  national  and  territorial  churches, 
of  which  the  secular  TvHev  became  virtually  the  supreme  bishop. 

Another  mark  of  these  sects  which  they  have  in  common  is  the 
continual  change  in  matters  of  faith,  united  to  a  fearful  bigotry  and 
intolerance,  which  are  the  more  remarkable  from  the  fact  that  their 
originators  can  neither  prove  their  mission  and  succession  ^  to  be 
legitimate,  nor  in  any  other  way  demonstrate  that  they  have  received 
a  divine  commission. 

The  effects  of  this  so-called  Reformation  may  be  summarized  in 
the  following  manner  :  — 

Although  it  cannot  be  denied  that  the  so-called  reformers  had 
a  learned  education,  and  did  much  for  the  education  of  the  people 

1  At  the  convention  iu  Naumburg  (1554),  the  Lutheran  theologians  founded  the 
doctrine  of  the  dependence  of  the  Church  on  the  temporal  ruler  on  Ps.  xxvii.  7,  "At- 
tollite  portas,  principes,  vestras,"  etc.,  and  on  Isa.  xl.  23,  "  Et  erunt  reges  nutritii 
tui,"  etc.,  which  they  cite  from  the  Vulgate,  as  the  Hebrew  text  affixes  another  meaning 
to  the  words.  Camer,  Vita  Melanchth.  ed.  Sirobel,  p.  319.  The  Lutheran  and  the 
reformed  symbols  attribute  to  princes  the  dominant  power  in  religious  affairs. 

2  The  High  Church  Anglicans  are  the  only  ones  who  seek  to  d^ve  thei)-  bishops 
from  apostolic  succession  (§  176). 


I 


GENE  UAL    REMARKS.  225 

and  of  youthful  students,  yet  it  is  not  less  a  fact,  acknowledged  by 
the  Protestants  themselves,  that  the  Reformation  exercised  a  lam- 
entable influence  iu  the  decline  of  learning;  that,  in  especial,  the 
suppression  of  the  monasteries  was  a  great  disadvantage  for  the 
elementary  development  of  youthful  education  ;  and  that  even  Lu- 
ther uttered  the  bitterest  complaints  of  this  neglect  of  elementary 
instruction. 

The  reformers  themselves  also  describe  the  moral  condition  in- 
duced by  the  religious  movement  as  one  of  neglect  of  prayer,  re- 
ligious worship,  and  good  works,  as  shown  in  contempt  for  the 
preachers,  in  hard-heartedness,  debauchery,  and  immorality  among 
their  adherents,  and  the  like.  Their  words  leave  no  doubt  of  the 
destructive  tendency  of  the  "  new-  gospel "  in  all  that  concerns 
piety  and  virtue,  and  this  testimony  is  confirmed  by  contemporary 
and  later  authors. 

History  also  shows  us  that  the  Protestant  princes  gave  their 
subjects  arbitrary  rules  of  faith ;  that  they  treated  the  preachers 
with  contempt,  and  forced  all,  both  preachn-s  and  subjects,  to  change 
their  religion  according  to  their  own  whims,  or  to  leave  the 
country. 

This  tyi-anny  exercised  over  the  conscience  was  simultaneous 
with  the  annihilation  of  civil  liberty.  The  Protestant  princes,  with 
.the  consent  of  their  theologians,  restored  and  made  ample  use  of 
the  absolutism  in  political  affairs  which  Christianity  in  the  Middle 
Ages  had  so  triumphantly  overcome.  One  extreme  naturally  led  to 
another.  Side  by  side  with  the  duty  of  obedience  to  power  concen- 
trated in  the  hands  of  the  prince,  came  the  theory  of  the  lawful- 
ness of  active  revolt  against  authority,  —  a  theory  of  revolt  which 
even  permitted  the  assassination  of  princes.^ 

While  these  effects  of  Protestant  principle  became  daily   more 

1  See  §§  164,  170,  172,  173,  178.  Bossuet,  Hist,  des  variations,  x.  45,  and  Aver- 
tissements  aux  protestants  sur  les  lettres  du  niinistre  Jurieu  ((l^luvres  compl.  vii. 
451  si|ii.).  Defense  d'  I'histoiie  des  variations  contre  la  reponse  de  JI.  Basnages,  1.  c. 
p.  500  sqq.  The  Calvinistic  preacher  Jurieu  taught  in  1689,  in  a  pastoral  letter,  that 
kings  are  but  the  depositaries  of  sovereignt}^ ;  that  they  are  responsible  to  the  people 
for  the  bad  administration  of  this  deposit  ;  that  the  people  have  a  right  to  withdraw 
this  deposit  whenever  the  public  welfare  and  the  interest  of  religion  re(juire  it,  and  in 
that  case  to  confide  it  to  whosoever  seems  best  fitted  to  use  it  properly.  Cf.  Traite 
de  I'eglise,  c.  21.  The  whole  ([iiestion  is  treated  at  large,  with  proofs,  by  Bianchi, 
Delia  potesta  e  della  pi)litia  della  Cliiesa,  torn.  i.  lib.  i.  §§  6  and  7.  Cf.  Hergenrother, 
Catholic*  Church,  etc.,  p.  485  sijcj.  On  the  existence  and  operation  of  the  so-called 
Reformation,  see  Bass,  Converts,  etc. 

VOL.   ir.  15 


226  HISTORY   OF   THE    CATHOLIC    CHl'llCH. 

manifest,  and  were  not  without  injurious  influence  on  the  Catholic 
Church  itself,  that  Church,  through  the  Council  of  Trent,  was 
developing  the  principles  on  wliich  a  true  reformation  is  founded,  — 
a  reformation  in  the  Head  and  its  members,  which  called  forth  an 
indefatigable  activity,  displayed  in  converting  the  heathen,  in  call- 
ing back  the  wanderer  to  the  fold,  and,  above  all,  in  regulating  the 
moral  and  religious  life  of  its  own  members  after  the  true  pattern. 

The  relation  of  the  CathoUc  States  to  the  Cliureh,  especially  to  the  Apostolic 
See,  caunot  be  represented  without  touching  on  ecclesiastical  constitution  and 
discipline.  It  will  therefore  be  referred  to  in  the  history  of  the  constitution  of 
the  Church  and  of  the  development  oi  doctrine. 


B.     HISTORY  OF  THE   INTERIOR   CONDITION   OF   THE    CHURCH. 

I.     CONSTITUTION   OF  THE   CHURCH. 

§  185.    The  Council  of  Trent 

As  soon  as  the  impediments  which  had  heretofore  rendered  the 
convocation  of  an  oecumenical  council  impossible  were  even  par- 
tially removed,  Paul  III.  (1534-1549)  convoked  such  a  council  to 
meet  at  Mantua  in  1537 ;  but  it  was  found  that  it  could  not  be  held 
in  that  city,  nor  yet  in  Vicenza  in  1538.  The  Pope,  therefore,  some 
years  after  (in  1542)  summoned  a  new  council  to  meet  at  Trent ;  - 

1  Pictro  Soavc  Polano  (Paul  Sarpi,  a  Servite  monk),  Istoiia  del  Cone,  di  Treuto. 
London,  1619.  This  partial  and  untrue  history  was  translated  into  several  languages. 
Pallavicini,  wlio  had  been  a  Jesuit,  and  was  subsequently  a  cardinal,  wrote  his  Istoria 
del  Cone,  di  Trento,  Rom.  1652,  in  confutation  of  Sarpi.  Cf.  Brisclmr,  Ciiticism  on 
the  Controversies  of  Sarpi  and  Pallavicini.  Gbschel,  Historic  Review  of  the  Council  of 
Trent.  The  protocols  written  by  the  secretary  of  the  council,  Masarello,  Bishop  of  Tele- 
.sia,  form  a  principal  source  of  information.  These  were  given  to  the  world  by  Aug. 
Thcinr.r  (see  §  238)  in  an  incomplete  form,  in  violation  of  his  oath  and  against  the 
express  will  of  the  Pope,  under  the  title  Acta  genuina  SS.  cone.  Tridentini.  2  vols, 
tol.  Zagrab.  in  Croatia,  1874,  Canones  et  decreta  Cone.  Trid.  Rom.  1564,  ed.  Judoc 
le  Plat,  Lovan.  1770.  From  the  same  author  appeared  :  Monunientorum  ad  hist. 
Cone.  Trid.  potissimum  illustrandam  spectantium  ampl.  collectio.  7  vols.  Lovan. 
1781  sc\i\.  Can.  et  dec.  ed.  stereotypa  Lips.  1846  ;  ed.  PdcMcr  et  SchuUe.  Lips.  1853. 
Acta  et  dec.  Cone.  Trid.  ab  anno  1562  a  Gabr.  Card.  Palcotta  descript.  ed.  Mcndham. 
London,  1842.  Cf.  Laemmer,  Monum.  Vatieana,  Friburg,  1861  ;  Meletematum  Ro- 
manorum  mantissa,  p.  iii.  Ratisbon,  1875.  Bollinger's  Unprinted  Reports  and 
Diaries  of  the  Hist.  Cone.  Trent.     Nordl.  1876. 


THE    COUNCIL    OF    TRENT.  227 

and  even  here,  on  account  of  the  war  carried  on  between  the  emperor 
and  the  King  of  France,  the  first  session  could  not  be  opened  till 
Dec.  13,  1545.^  When  it  did  meet,  however,  there  were  present 
the  papal  legates  Del  Monte,  Cervini,  and  Pole,  with  four  arch- 
bishops, twenty-two  bishops,  and  five  generals  of  religious  orders. 

After  the  Nicene  Creed  had  been  read,  at  the  third  session,  the 
assembled  Fathers,  having  agreed  concerning  the  formation  of  cer- 
tain congregations,  and  on  the  form  to  be  given  to  the  decrees,  on 
the  subjects  that  were  first  to  engage  their  attention,  on  the  kind 
and  manner  of  voting,'-^  proceeded,  at  the  fourth  session,  to  enact 
decrees  concerning  the  canon  and  the  interpretation  of  Holy  Writ, 
on  the  use  of  the  Vulgate,  and  subsequently,  at  the  fifth  and  sixth 
sessions,  to  discuss  the  doctrine  of  original  sin  ^  and  of  justification, 
and  condemned  the  errors  that  had  arisen  in  respect  to  these.  At 
the  eighth  session  the  doctrine  on  the  Sacraments  in  general,  and  on 
Baptism  and  Confirmation  in  particular,  was  treated. 

The  unfriendly  relations  in  which  the  emperor  stood  to  the  Pope 
after  the  termination  of  the  war  of  Smalkald,  together  with  a 
pestilential  disease  which  broke  out  in  Trent,  at  the  eighth  ses- 
sion caused  (March  4,  1547)  the  synod  to  be  transferred  to  Bo- 
logna, where,  after  some  unimportant  sessions,  it  was  indefinitely 
prorogued. 

Pope  Julius  III.  (del  Monte,  1550-1550)  retransferred,  on  March 
4,  1551,  the  council  to  Trent, ^  whither,  however,  the  French  bishops 
would  not  come,  because  King  Henry  XL,  being  angry  with  the 
Pope,  protested  against  the  synod  and  forbade  his  bishops  to  take 
any  part  in  it. 

After  two  preparatory  sessions  the  Fathers,  in  the  thirteenth 
session,  entered  on  the  discussion  of  the  doctrine  of  the  Holy 
Eucharist,  and  condemned  the  errors  of  the  so-called  reformers. 
They,  however,  gave  no  attention  to  the  scholastic  controversy  on 

1  See  Cardinal  Manning's  treatise  in  the  March  number  of  the  Nineteenth 
Century,  1877. 

2  The  voting  was  not  to  be  regulated  according  to  nationalit}',  but,  as  it  had  been 
before  the  Council  of  Constanct-,  by  the  individual  voices  of  those  present.  The  pro- 
curators of  absent  bishops  were  not  to  be  allowed  to  vote  {Theiner,  1.  c.  i.  24).  The 
generals  of  religious  orders  were  allowed  one  vote,  and  one  vote  was  accorded  to  every 
three  abbots. 

^  To  the  decree  the  synod  added  :  "  Non  esse  suae  intentionis,  comprehendere 
in  hoc  decreto,  ubi  de  peccato  original!  agitur,  beatam  et  immaculatam  Virginem 
Mariain,"  etc. 

*  §  170. 


228  HISTORY  OF   THE   CATHOLIC   CHURCH. 

the  mode  of  Christ's  presence  in  the  Blessed  Sacrament,  whether 
it  is  by  production  or  adduction.  In  the  same  session  a  form  of 
safe-conduct  was  drawn  up  for  Protestants  wishing  to  visit  the 
council. 

Out  of  consideration  for  them,  the  council,  which  in  the  four- 
teenth session  had  defined  the  doctrines  of  Penance  and  of  Extreme 
Unction,  prolonged  the  proceedings  in  the  fifteenth  session,  and  on 
Jan.  25,  1552,  drew  up  another  form  of  safe-conduct,  as  the  former 
had  not  been  considered  satisfactory.  But  the  expectations  they 
had  entertained  were  not  fulfilled.  The  Protestants  had  many  ob- 
jections to  raise  against  the  new  letter  of  safe-conduct ;  then  they 
desired  seats  and  votes  for  their  own  theologians,  fresh  discussion 
of  the  subjects  already  decided  on,  recognition  of  the  Bible  as  the 
sole  source  of  faith,  the  subordination  of  the  Pope  to  the  council 
according  to  the  decrees  of  the  synods  of  Constance  and  Basle, 
and  the  release  of  the  bishops  from  their  oath  of  allegiance  to 
him.  Such  exorbitant  commands  could  not  be  complied  with  by  the 
synod  ;  therefore  the  envoys  from  Wurtemberg  and  Electoral  Saxony 
again  left  Trent. 

The  revolt  of  Maurice,  Elector  of  Saxony,  necessitated  the  sus- 
pension of  the  synod.  The  excellent  Pope  Marcellus  II.  ("  Cervini  ") 
reigned  only  twenty-one  days.^  His  successor,  Paul  IV.^  (Caraffa, 
1555-1559)  soon  became  involved  in  strife  with  the  emperor  and 
his  brother  and  successor  Ferdinand  I.,  so  that  the  reopening  of 
the  council,  which  was  refused  by  Paul  IV.,  could  not  take  place 
until  the  time  of  Pius  IV.  ("Medici"),  when  it  resumed  its  sit- 
tings on  Jan.  18,  1562.  The  Pope  nominated  five  legates ;  namely, 
the  Cardinals  Gonzaga,  Bishop  of  Mantua,  Dupuy,  Seripand,  Stan- 
islaus Hosius,  and  Simonetta.  In  the  first  sessions  (17-20)  no 
important  subjects  were  discussed,  as  it  was  hoped  that  the  I^rotes- 
tant  princes  of  Germany  and  of  other  countries,  for  whose  envoys 
a  new  form  of  safe-conduct  had  been  drawn  up  in  the  eighteenth 
session,  would  send  representatives  to  the  council. 

After  the  Fathers  had  for  some  time  waited  in  vain  for  the 
arrival  of  these  Protestant  representatives,  they,  in  the  twenty-first 
session,  pronounced  decisions  on  giving  Communion  in  both  kinds 
to  the  laity  ^  and  on  the  communion  of  children.     The  following 

1  Polidori,  De  vita  Marcelli  II.  comnientai'.     Koiii.  1744. 

-  On  the  good  (jualities  and  zealous  labors  of  this  Pope,  see  Herr/cnrbtlicr,  Church 
History,  etc.,  ii.  411. 

3  On  the  proceedings  regarding  the  chalice  for  the  laity,  cf.  Thf.iner,  I.  c.  ii.  7  sqq. 


THE    COUNCIL    OF   TRENT.  229 

sessions  treated  of  the  Saeritice  of  tlie  Mass  (Sess.  22),  of  the 
Sacrament  of  Holy  Orders  (Sess.  23,  July  15,  1563),^  and  of 
Marriage  (Sess.  24).^ 

At  the  twentj'-fifth  and  last  session  the  members  of  the  council 
occupied  themselves  with  the  dogmas  of  purgatory,  of  the  invocation 
of  saints,  with  that  of  the  veneration  to  be  paid  to  images  and  relics, 
with  the  doctrine  concerning  indulgences,^  with  the  precepts  on 
fasting  and  those  on  keeping  the  feasts  of  the  Church,  etc. 

The  Fathers  of  the  council  did  not,  however,  content  themselves 
with  condemning  heresy ;  they  issued  the  most  salutary  decrees  on 
reformation. 

They  attached  pre-eminent  importance  to  the  instruction  and 
training  of  the  clergy,  and  laid  their  injunctions  on  the  bishops  to 
provide  theological  professors'  chairs.  (Sess.  5)  and  to  provide  semi- 
naries for  youth  ("  Seminaria  puerorum,"  Sess.  23,  c.  18,  de  reform.). 

The  bond  of  unity  among  the  clergy  was  to  be  strengthened  by 
provincial  and  diocesan  synods  (Sess.  24),  the  holding  of  which 
was  imposed  as  a  duty  upon  the  bishops. 

The  duty  of  residence  was  inculcated  on  both  the  higher  and  the 
lower  clergy  (Sess.  6  and  23).  Simplicity  in  dress  and  housekeeping 
(Sess.  14  and  25)  was  prescribed,  and  bishops  were  enjoined  to 
visit  and  watch  over   their   dioceses  (Sess.  6).     Kegulations  were 

Pallav.  1.  c.  xviii.  4.  The  council  left  the  decision  to  the  Apostolic  See.  Pius  IV.,, 
by  a  hull  of  April  16,  1564,  permitted  the  German  bishops,  under  certain  conditions, 
to  distribute  Holy  T'ommuniou  under  both  kinds. 

1  A  vehement  controversy  ensued  respecting  the  question  whether  the  bishops  re- 
ceived their  power  and  mission  immediately  from  God,  or  only  mediately  from  Peter 
and  his  successors.  The  Spanish  and  French  bishops  decided  for  the  first  view,  while 
the  Itahan  bishops  maintained  the  latter  proposition.  Cf  Thcincr,  1.  c.  ii.  1,56  sqq. 
Pallav.  1.  c.  xviii.  14  and  15  ;  xix.  6  ;  xxi.  11.     Pht'Nijis,  Ch.  R.  i.  186  sqq. 

2  Canon  7,  which  treats  of  the  inviolability  of  marriage,  at  first  ruled  :  "Si  quis 
dixerit,  propter  adulterium  alterius  conjugum  posse  matrimonium  solvi,  et  utrique 
conjugum  vel  saltern  innocenti  .  .  .  lieere,  altero  conjuge  vivente,  aliud  matrimo- 
nium contrahere  .  .  .  anath.  sit."  In  deference  to  the  representation  of  the  Vene- 
tian ambassadors,  the  canon  was  so  worded  as  to  take  into  account  the  condition  of 
the  United  Greeks,  and  stands  thus  :  "Si([uis  dixerit,  ecclesiam  errare,  quum  docuit 
et  docet  .  .  .  propter  adulterium  alterius  conjugum  matr.  vinculum  non  posse  solvi," 
etc.  Cf.  Theiner,  1.  c.  ii.  3.35  sqq.  Pallav.  1.  c.  xix.  7,  n.  27.  Carriere,  Praelect. 
theol.  p.  ii.  n.  295. 

3  Leo  X.  had  already  given  a  dogmatic  decision  on  indulgences  (see  §  160),  oti 
which  account  the  council  only  explained  that  the  Church  has  received  power  from 
God  to  grant  indulgences,  and  that  the  use  of  indulgences  is  very  salutary  to  Chris- 
tian people,  but  that  the  use  of  them  .should  be  moderated,  "ne  minia  facilitate 
eccle^iastica  disciplina  enervetur"  (Deer,  de  Indulg.). 


230  HISTORY  OF   THE    CATHOLIC   CHURCH. 

also  passed  respecting  benefices  (Sess.  7j.  The  jurisdiction  of 
bishops  was  discussed  (Sess.  13)  ;  regulations  respecting  ordination 
and  the  installation  of  clerics  were  made  (Sess.  21).  The  monas- 
teries also  received  the  attention  of  the  council  (Sess.  25).  The 
decree  it  passed  on  marriage  protected  the  sanctity  of  that  sacra- 
ment. Clandestine  marriages  were  forbidden  under  pain  of  losing 
their  validity.  This  enactment  was  to  take  effect  thirty  days  after 
its  publication,  which  publication  was,  however,  to  be  made  in  every 
single  parish.  By  special  enactment  (Sess.  25),  the  Fathers  sought 
to  prevent  the  barbarous  practice  of  duelling,  and  the  misuse  of  the 
power  of  excommunication. 

In  order  to  protect  the  faithful  from  dangerous  reading,  a  prohi- 
bition of  certain  books  was  passed,  and  a  commission  appointed  to 
make  a  catalogue  of  forbidden  books  ("Index  librorum  prohi- 
bitorum  "). 

The  Catechism  ("Catechismus  Eomanus"),  ordered  by  the  council, 
was  composed  by  several  learned  men,  among  whom  St.  Charles 
Borromeo  occupied  a  prominent  position  :  it  appeared  under  Pius  V. 
(1566),  and  is  truly  a  masterpiece  in  form  and  contents.  The 
im])roved  Breviary  was  published  in  1568,  and  the  Missal  in  1570. 

After  the  twenty-fifth  session  the  Council  of  Trent,  which,  with 
two  interruptions,  had  lasted  eighteen  years,  was  closed  on  Dec.  4, 
1563.  The  bull  of  confirmation  by  Pius  IV.  appeared  on  Jan. 
26,  1564. 

To  the  decrees  were  affixed  the  signatures  of  the  four  legates,  and 
of  two  other  cardinals,  of  twenty-five  archbishops  and  a  hundred 
and  sixty-eight  bishops,  of  seven  abbots,  and  of  seven  generals  of  re- 
ligious orders,  all  of  whom  added  the  words  "subscripsi  definiendo  ;  " 
also  of  thirty-nine  procurators,  who  added  "  subscripsi,/?/(//m?«f/o." 

It  is  true  that  this  synod,  so  fraught  with  blessings,  and  at  which 
the  most  excellent  bishops  and  the  most  distinguished  theologians 
were  assembled,  also  met  with  censure,  as  had  been  the  case  with 
other  councils ;  but  the  charges  brought  against  it  are  utterly 
unfounded,  and  to  the  Fathers  of  this  council^  belongs  the  high 
merit  of  having  investigated  and  defined  with  admirable  clearness 
the  dogmas  of  the  Church,  and  of  having  issued  the  wisest  and  most 
beneficial  reformatory  decrees. 

The  Tridentine  profession  of  faith,  drawn  up  at  the  command  of 

1  Of  these,  the  Venetian  Jerome  Ragosini,  Archbishop  of  Naziaiizum,  says  :  "At 
quos  viros  ?  Si  doctriiiam  spectemus,  eruditissinios  ;  si  nsnm,  peritissimos  ;  si  inge- 
nia,  perspicacissimos  ;  si  pietatem,  religiosissimos  ;  si  vitam,  imiocentissimos  ! " 


DECREES   OF   THE   COUNCIL    OF   TRENT.  231 

Pope  Pius  IV.,  gives  special  prominence  to  the  dogmatical  differ- 
ences between  the  Catholic  Church  and  Protestantism. 

The  decrees  of  the  council,  without  further  restriction,  were 
published  in  most  of  the  Italian  States,  in  the  republic  of  Venice, 
in  Portugal  and  Poland.  Philip  II.  also  accepted  them  for  Spain 
and  Naples,  with  the  proviso  "without  detriment  to  the  regal 
prerogatives."  Their  acceptance  or  publication  encountered  greater 
difficulties  in  Germany.  Ferdinand  I.  and  Duke  Albert  of  Bavaria 
expressly  demanded  the  chalice  for  the  laity,  and  marriage  for  the 
priesthood,  of  which  demands  the  Pope  granted  the  former  only. 
After  the  death  of  Ferdinand,  in  1564  jVIaximiliau  II.  had  the 
decrees  published  in  the  States  of  the  Empire.  The  Catholic 
princes  of  Germany  accepted  them  at  the  Diet  of  Augsburg  in 
1566.  France  offered  no  opposition  to  the  dogmatic  decisions, 
but  protested  against  several  regulations  of  discipline,  for  which 
reason  a  formal  reception  of  all  the  decrees  was  not  made  on  the 
part  of  the  State,  but  such  took  place  at  various  provincial  synods, 

§  186.    Carrying  into  Effect  the  Reformatory  Decrees  of  the 
Council  of  Trent. 

iSTotwithstanding  the  opposing  efforts  of  heretics  and  of  states- 
men who  were  inimical  to  the  Church,  notwithstanding  also  the 
resistance  made  by  some  depraved  clergymen  and  laymen,  the  true 
reformation  of  the  Church  in  her  Head  and  members,  which  was 
inaugurated  at  the  Council  of  Trent,  was  gradually  carried  into  effect 
in  Catholic  countries. 

The  moral  and  religious  regeneration  of  their  contemporaries  is 
due  to  the  numerous  members  of  the  clergy  and  laity  who  were 
distinguished  for  learning  and  virtue,  and  whose  work  was  essen- 
tially forwarded  by  the  new  and  religious  orders  and  by  the  great 
saints  of  this  age.  The  chief  merit,  however,  is  due  to  the  Apostolic 
See. 

All  the  true  reformers  recognized,  as  a  chief  means  of  attaining 
their  end,  the  necessity  of  a  moral  and  religious  training  for  the 
clergy,  of  thorough  instruction  for  the  people,  of  the  cultivation  of 
a  genuine  religious  life  in  high  and  low,  and  especially  of  the  fre- 
qvrent  reception  of  the  Holy  Sacraments. 

Properly  speaking,  the  work  of  reform  began  soon  after  the  public 
appearance  of  Luther,  and  made  a  peculiarly  good  progress  under 


232  HISTORY  OF   THE   CATHOLIC   CHURCH. 

Pope  Paul  III.  (Farnese),  who  invited  the  most  eminent  men  to 
his  court  in  order  to  have  a  plan  of  reform  drawn  up  by  them 
(1537),^  and  who  for  tlie  same  purpose  convoked  the  Council  of 
Trent. 

For  the  reformation  of  Italy  and  the  lands  beyond  its  boundaries, 
the  following  men,  most  of  whom  became  cardinals,  were  specially 
energetic  :  the  Apostolic  Bishop  John  Giberto  of  Verona,  the  rules  of 
whose  diocese  served  in  many  respects  as  a  model  to  the  Fathers  at 
Trent ;  and  his  friends  the  Cardinals  John  Peter  Caraffa  (Paul  IV.) 
and  James  Sadolet,  Bishop  of  Carpentras ;  and,  besides  these,  St. 
Cajetan  of  Thiene,  the  open-hearted  Venetian  Contarini,  Gregory 
Cortese,  Reginald  Pole,  Legate  of  England  (§  189),  Fregosa, 
Bishop  of  Gubbio,  the  "Great"  Cardinal  Farnese,  and  his  col- 
leagues Hippolyte  of  Este,  and  Morone,  jNIadruccio,  the  ''  Great  " 
Cardinal  of  Trent,  Sirletto,  Paleotto,  Gesualdo,  the  saintly  ]Mar- 
cellus  Cervini  (Marcellus  II.),  the  pious  and  learned  Thomas 
Badia,  "  Magister  Sacri  Palatii,"  Jerome  Aleander.  Rudolph  of 
Carpi. 

With  the  above,  St.  Philip  Neri  and  St.  Ignatius  of  Loyola  united 
their  efforts.  To  these  may  be  added  the  Bishops  Thomas  Cam- 
peggio  of  Feltri,  Aloysius  Lippomano  of  Verona,  and  Cardinal 
Francis  Commendone,  but,  above  all,  St.  Charles  Borromeo,^  Car- 
dinal Archbishop  of  Milan.  These  all  displayed  an  admirable 
diligence  in  reawakening  and  cherishing  true  religious  fervor. 

What  Charles  Borromeo  did  for  Italy  was  also  done  for  Portugal 
by  Bartholomew  de  INIartyribus,  Archbishop  of  Braga,  whose  "  Stimu- 
lus pastoruni  "  is  a  collection  of  flowers  culled  from  the  works  of 
the  Fathers  of  the  Church.  Equally  successful  is  his  brother  in  the 
Order  (Dominican),  Louis  of  Granada,  whose  merits  were  publicly 
acknowledged  by  the  Popes  Gregory  XIII.  and  Sixtus  V.  St. 
Thomas  of  Villanova,  Archbishop  of  Valencia,  St.  Peter  of  Alcantara, 
St.  Theresa,  St.  John  of  the  Cross,  John  of  Avila,  and  others  gave 
a  new  impetus  to  religious  life  in  Spain,  which  was  favored  and 
fostered  l)y  King  Philip  II. 

In  France  the  person  who  specially  interested  himself  in  carrying 

1  See  Lc  Plat,  Monum.  etc.  ii.  596  sqq.  Nnt.  Alex,  Hist.  eccl.  saec.  16,  c.  i. 
art.  16. 

-  Acta  eccles.  Mediolanensis.  2  vols.  Mediolani,  1599.  Giussano,  Life  of  St. 
Charles  Borromeo.  Histoire  de  Saint  Charles  Borromee,  etc.,  par  I'abbe  Ch.  Si/Ivam. 
3  vols.  Societe  de  Saint-Augustin,  1884.  Dieringer,  St.  Charles  Borromeo.  Co- 
logne, 1846.      Von  Ah.  Life  of  St.  Charles.     1885. 


DECREES    OF   THE    COUN(_:iL    OF    TRENT.  233 

out  the  decrees  of  reform  was  the  Cardinal  of  Lorraine  (Guise). 
His  work  was  rendered  the  more  dittlcult  by  the  Huguenot  warfare 
and  by  the  vacillating  conduct  of  the  court.  French  Switzerland 
and  Savoy  found  an  apostle  in  St.  Francis  de  Sales. -^  He  strength- 
ened the  faith  in  Catholic  souls,  and  brought  back  a  number  of 
the  wandering  sheep  to  the  true  fold  of  the  Church. 

Great  difficulties  had  to  be  overcome  in  Germany.  But,  notwith- 
standing this,  the  true  reformation,  founded  on  the  decrees  of  the 
Council  of  Trent,  made  considerable  progress.  Among  the  Catholic 
princes,  the  Dukes  William  IV.  and  Albert  V.  of  Bavaria  distin- 
guished themselves  by  their  zeal  for  religion.  Equally  successful 
were  the  efforts  of  the  three  electoral  princes  of  the  Rhine,  James 
von  Elz  (1567-1581),  Archbishop  of  Treves,  Daniel  Brendel  (1555- 
1582),  and  John  Adam  of  Bicken  (1601-1604),  Archbishop  of  Mentz, 
with  those  of  Duke  Ernest  of  Bavaria  (+ 1612),  Archbishop  of 
Cologne  and  Bishop  of  Munster  and  Hildesheim,  in  purifying  their 
dominions  from  the  heresy  with  which  they  were  permeated.  Their 
example  was  followed  by  Balthasar  of  Dermbach  (1570),  the  Abbot- 
prince  of  Fulda,  and  by  Theodore  of  Fiirstenberg,  Bishop  of 
Paderborn. 

The  two  cardinals  Stanislaus  Hosius,  Bishop  of  Culm  and  after- 
wards of  Ermland,  and  Otho  of  Truchsess,  Bishop  of  Augsburg, 
were  veritable  ornaments  of  the  German  episcopate.  In  Wiirzburg 
Bishop  Julius  Echter  of  Mespelbrunn,  and  in  Bamberg  Bishop 
Ernest  of  Mengersdorf,  labored  for  true  reformation. 

A  cheering  religious  revulsion  also  took  place  in  the  hereditary 
States  of  the  emperor.  A  prominent  merit  of  this  is  due  to  the 
Jesuits,  who  had  already  been  invited  thither  by  the  Emperor  Fer- 
dinand I.,  and  to  the  Capuchins.  The  celebrated  Peter  Canisius,  a 
Jesuit,  for  a  time  administered  the  bishopric  of  Vienna,  and  in 
unison  with  other  companions  of  his  order  labored  at  the  univer- 
sity in  that  place.  Cardinal  Melchior  Klesel  successfully  combated 
the  innovations.  Finally,  it  is  not  to  be  forgotten  that  the  noble 
regents  of  the  House  of  Hapsburg  ^  have  done  great  things  for  the 
preservation  of  the  Catholic  religion. 

1  Vie  de  St.  Francois  de  Sales.  Pans,  1858.  (Euvres  comp.  ed.  Paris,  1836. 
4  vols.     The  best  known  of  his  works  is  the  Philothea. 

2  A  faithful  picture  of  their  lives  is  given  by  P.  Gaudentius,  0.  S.  F.,  in  his  Con- 
tributions to  the  Church  History  of  the  Sixteenth  and  Seventeenth  Centuries. 


234  HISTORY  OF   THE   CATHOLIC   CHURCH. 

§  187.    Tlie  Jesuits  and  the  Order  of  Capuchins. 

Among  those  Avho  took  an  active  part  in  the  great  struggle  against 
heresy  and  the  moral  depravity  of  the  times,  were  the  members  of 
the  newly  founded  orders  and  congregations,  who,  taking  posses- 
sion not  only  of  pulpits  and  of  confessionals,  but  also  of  professorial 
chairs  at  universities  and  seminaries,  strove,  by  writing  learned 
works,  popular  books  of  devotion,  and  catechisms,  by  prayer,  and  by 
the  practice  of  works  of  Christian  love  to  one's  neighbor,  to  renew, 
alike  in  the  palaces  of  the  nobility,  in  the  houses  of  the  middle 
classes,  and  in  the  hovels  of  the  poor,  the  fervor  and  piety  that 
characterize  Christianity,  and  by  inflaming  the  hearts  that  are  too 
much  given  to  earthly  considerations  to  direct  them  to  higher  views. 

Of  these  congregations,  those  of  the  Jesuits  and  Capuchins  are 
the  most  renowned ;  mutually  assisting  one  another,  they  were  suc- 
cessful alike  in  refuting  heresy  and  iii  renewing  religious  fervor 
among  the  Catholics. 

The  founder  of  the  Society  of  Jesus  was  St.  Ignatius  di  Loyola, 
born  in  1491.^  His  order  was  approved  by  Paul  III.  in  1540.  Its 
constitution  differs  in  many  points  from  the  rule  of  the  earlier 
orders,^  The  members  of  the  society  are  divided  into  lay-brothers, 
or  temporal  coadjutors,  and  clerics;  these  again  are  subdivided  into 
scholastics,  spiritual  coadjutors,  and  the  professed.  Only  the  last- 
mentioned  add  to  the  usual  vows  of  religion  a  fourth  one,  —  that  of 
unconditional  obedience  to  the  Holy  See  with  regard  to  missions. 
The  general  is  elected  from  the  number  of  the  professed.  On  his 
part,  he  appoints  the  other  superiors,  as  the  provincials,  rectors,  etc., 
and  the  professors  of  theology,  who  must,  however,  all  belong  to  the 
professed.     Assistants,^  elected  in  the  general  congregation,  are  ap- 

1  He  was  joined  by  St.  Francis  Xavier  of  Navarra  (see  §  157),  Peter  Le  Fevre 
(Faber)  from  Savoy,  the  Spaniard  .Jacob  Lainez,  Alphonsus  Salineron,  Nicholas  Boba- 
dilla,  and  the  Portuguese  Rodriguez.  To  them  came  Le  Jay  from  Savoy,  John  L'odure 
from  the  Dauphiue,  and  Pascal  Broet  from  Piuardy.  Life  of  St.  Ignatius,  ap.  BoUand. 
m.  Jul.  VIL  420  S(iq.  (ed.  Paris,  1868).  Rib(idencira,\\ti\  \gi\.  Neap.  1572.  Newer 
biographies  by  BoahoiLrs,  German  of  Haza-Rndlitz.  Vienna,  1835.  Geneili,  liisbi-. 
1847,  etc.  See  Potfhast,  Bibliothek  hist,  medii  aevi,  i.  572.  Hist,  of  the  Soc'y  of 
Jesus,  by  A.  Wilmot. 

2  Institutum  Soc.  Jesu,  Pragae,  1767.  Concerning  the  institution  and  fate  of  the 
Jesuit  Order,  see  Crctineau-Johj,  Hist,  of  the  Society  of  Jesus. 

^  At  first  there  were  five  ;  later  on,  six,  —  one  each  from  Italy,  France,  Gennany, 
Spain,  Portugal,  and  Poland.  Poland  was  at  last  combined  witli  Germany,  while  an 
assistant  for  England  has  been  added.  That  of  Portugal  was  abolished  when  the 
order  was  stippressed  in  that  country. 


THE  JESUITS   AND    THE   ORDER    OF  CAPUCHINS.     235 

pointed  to  aid  him,  besides  which  he,  with  every  other  superior,  has 
a  special  admonitor  to  warn  and  advise  him.  The  order  has  houses 
of  the  professed,  colleges,  residences,  and  mission-houses.  Only  the 
colleges  are  allowed  to  receive  endowments.  No  special  dress  is 
prescribed,  nor  was  the  office  in  choir  introduced.  Admission  into 
the  society  is  preceded  by  a  two  years'  novitiate,  at  tlie  end  of 
which  the  studies  begin.  When  these  are  ended  the  candidate  has 
another  year  of  novitiate  to  spend.  The  members  of  the  society  are 
not  allowed  to  accept  dignities  of  the  Church  except  at  the  command 
of  the  Holy  Father. 

The  new  community  spread  very  quickly.  In  1540  it  had  already 
made  its  appearance  in  Germany,  where  the  first  Jesuit  who  arrived 
there,  Peter  Faber,  received  Peter  Canisius  into  the  order.  Here 
they  found  a  rich  field  for  their  labors.  In  the  year  1542  King 
John  III.  of  Portugal  invited  them  thither.  Their  first  college  was 
established  at  Coimbra.  They  were  not  received  with  the  same  cor- 
diality in  Spain  ;  for  there  they  found  an  implacable  enemy  in  the 
person  of  the  celebrated  Dominican  Melchior  Cano,  who  was  at 
that  time  professor  in  the  University  of  Salamanca  (1548).  On  the 
other  hand,  they  were  all  the  more  aided  and  favored  by  the  Duke 
of  Gandia,  St.  Francis  Borgia,^  who  himself  entered  the  order,  and 
did  much  to  extend  it  in  Spain. 

But  Spain  did  not  stand  alone  in  its  opposition  to  the  Jesuits ; 
they  found  enemies  as  well  as  friends  in  France  also.  To  the 
former,  besides  the  Huguenots,  belonged  the  Parliament,  the  Sor- 
bonne,  and  some  bishops,  —  as  Eustace  du  Bellay,  Archbishop  of 
Paris.  The  Convocation  of  Poissy,  in  1561,  was  the  first  to  allow 
them  to  settle  down  in  France,  under  the  name  of  the  College  of 
Clermont.  The  numerous  limitations  attached  to  the  permissions 
happily  fell  off  in  the  course  of  time,  and  in  1564  the  Jesuits  were 
allowed  to  begin  a  course  of  lectures  in  Paris.  They  were  soon 
admitted  at  Lyons,  Bordeaux,  Toulouse,  and  other  cities,  so  that 
in  a  short  time  many  colleges  were  erected.  Unfortunately,  the 
labors  of  the  Jesuits  were  rendered  much  more  difficult  by  vehe- 
ment polemics  and  persecutions  on  the  part  of  the  Huguenots, 
as  well  as  by  the  false  accusations  and  calumnies  with  which, 
during  the  war  with  the  League,  they  were  assailed.  The  motion 
for  their  expulsion  from  France,  which  was  brought  forward  by  the 
rector  of  the  University  at  Paris,  James  Amboise,  and  by  the  par- 

1  Vie  de  saint  Fran9ois  de  Borgia.  Bruxelles,  1824.  Bartoli,  Saint  Francis 
I'ortria. 


236  HISTORY  OF   THE   CATHOLIC   CHURCH. 

liamentary  couusellor-at-law,  Anthony  Arnauld,  did  not  pass  the 
house  at  that  time ;  but  after  the  assault  of  Chatel  on  the  life  of 
Henry  IV.,  they  were  banished  by  order  of  the  Parliament  of  Paris, 
on  the  29tli  of  December,  1594.  But  this  edict  was  not  carried  out 
everywhere,  and  was  in  1603  revoked  by  the  king ;  whereupon  the 
Jesuits  returned  to  their  former  houses,  to  be,  however,  exposed  to 
new  trials  after  the  murder  of  Henry  IV.  by  Ravaillac  (1610).^ 

The  order  was  always  held  in  high  esteem  by  the  Apostolic  See  •, 
but  under  Paul  IV.  and  Sixtus  V.  it  was  threatened  with  dangers, 
which  were,  however,  soon  removed. 

Some  years  before  the  foundation  of  the  Society  of  Jesus  the 
Order  of  the  Capuchins  took  its  rise.'^  Its  founder  was  the  Minorite 
Observant  Matthew  Bassi,  who  received  (1526)  from  Clement  VII.  the 
permission  to  wear  the  genuine  dress  of  St.  Francis  of  Assisi,  and 
to  imitate  that*  saint's  austere  mode  of  living.  The  first  years  of 
this  new  society  (confirmed  in  1528)  were  years  of  great  trials. 
Bassi  himself  retired  from  the  order;  and  the  third  vicar-general, 
Bernardin  Ochino,  embraced  the  Protestant  heresy,  which  act  of  his 
for  a  time  rendered  the  whole  existence  of  the  order  questionable. 
The  danger  fortunately  passed  away;  and  the  society,  which  hitherto 
had  been  confined  to  Italy,  began  to  make  its  way  into  other  coun- 
tries also.  King  Charles  IX.  invited  the  Capuchins  to  France  in 
1573,  where  in  a  short  time  they  founded  several  convents.  By  the 
exertions  of  St.  Charles  Borromeo  they  came  to  Altdorf,  in  Switzer- 
land, in  1580.  In  1593  Archduke  Ferdinand  built  them  a  cloister  in 
Innsbruck.  Rudolph  II.  asked  Clement  VIII.  for  some  members  of 
the  order  for  his  hereditary  States.  In  all  the  Catholic  territories 
of  the  German  Empire  convents  of  this  order  were  established,  espe- 
cially in  the  Rhenish  archbishoprics  and  in  most  of  the  other  dioceses. 
Pope  Paul  V.  allowed  the  Capuchins,  in  1606,  to  accept  the  convents 
offered  to  them  in  Spain.  The  same  Pope  granted,  in  1619,  to  the 
faculty  of  the  members  of  the  order,  who  had  been  hitherto  subject 
to  the  general  of  the  Minor-Conventuals,  the  right  to  elect  a  general 
of  their  own,  independently  of  the  others. 

1  Cretineau-Joly,  ii.  334  ;  iii.  34,  175  sqq.  Matthieu,  Hist,  de  la  mort  deplorable 
de  Henri  IV.  p.  120.     Duplcix,  Hist,  de  Henri  le  Grand,  p.  163. 

2  BuUarium  ordinis  fratrum  niin.  s.  P.  Francisci  Capuchinorum  notis  et  scholiis 
elucubratuni  a  Michael  a  Tugio.  7  vols.  fol.  Rom.  1740.  Bovcrio,  Annal.  ord.  niin. 
qui  Capuc.  nuncnpatur.  3  vols.  fol.  Lugd.  1632  sqq.  Lechner,  Lives  of  Saints  of 
the  Order  of  Capuchins.  3  vols.  Munich,  1863.  P.  Gaudentius,  Contributions, 
etc.,  p.  275  sqq. 


OTHER    ORDERS    OF    THIS    ERA.  237 

The  Order  of  Capuchins,  which  bestowed  its  care  and  attention 
in  tending  souls  of  the  lower  classes  of  society,  has  been  of  great 
service  to  the  Church  and  to  religion.  ]\Iore  than  one  tract  of  coun- 
try in  Germany  owes  the  preservation  of  its  religion  or  the  restora- 
tion of  the  Catholic  faith  to  the  indefatigable  zeal  of  the  Capuchins; 
with  equal  fervor  and  generous  self-sacrifice  they  undertook  the 
conversion  of  the  heathen,  especially  in  Africa  and  America. 

With  regard  to  the  accusations  hrouiilit  against  the  Order  of  the  Jesuits,  we 
may  add  a  few  words. 

1.  The  assertion  that  the  Jesuits  approved  and  practised  the  principle 
"The  end  sanctifies  the  means,"  is  an  untruth  which,  contradicted  as  it  is  by 
the  lives  and  writings  of  the  Jesuit  Fathers,  needs  no  further  refutation. 

2.  Not  less  false  is  the  reproach  cast  at  them,  that  the  superior  can  bind  an 
inferior  to  commit  a  sin.  This  calumny  originated  in  the  misapprehension  of 
the  words  of  the  constitution,  which  declares  that  the  rules,  save  in  the  obser- 
vance of  the  three  or  four  vows,  do  not  oblige  under  pain  of  sin  ("ad  pecca- 
tuin"),  unless  the  superior's  command  be  given  in  the  name  of  Jesus,  and  by 
virtue  of  holy  obedience.  The  expression  "ad  peccatum"  cannot  be  con- 
strued "obliged  to  sin:"  but  means  "under  pain  of  sin,"  in  which  sense  the 
phrase  is  used  by  St.  Thomas,  and  also  in  the  rules  of  the  third  order  of  St. 
Francis,  and  in  the  Dominican  Rule  (c.  4-6:  "  Regulae  nostrae  non  obligent 
uos  ad  culpam  sed  ad  poenam  nisi  propter  praeceptum  vel  contemptum  "). 
(1.  c.  iv.  p.  13.) 

3.  With  regard  to  the  unjust  accusation  that  the  Jesuit  Order  teaches  that 
the  murder  of  tyrants  (not  of  kings)  is  allowed,  we  reply :  (a)  This  doctrine 
was  taught  long  before  the  foundation  of  the  order.  (Compare  the  assertion  of 
Jean  Petit,  Doctor  of  the  Sorl)onne,  condemned  at  Constance,  1414.)  (6)  Cath- 
olic and  Protestant  writers  of  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth  centuries,  even 
Luther  himself  (TraZc/i,  xxii.  2151),  defended  the  doctrine,  (c)  Only  a  few 
(fourteen)  members  of  the  Society  of  Jesus  were  in  favor  of  it,  while  the  great 
majority  of  them  condemned  it ;  and  (d)  Aquaviva,  the  general  of  the  society, 
after  reading  the  book  of  Mariana  ("  De  rege  et  regis  institutione,"  lib.  iii.  Tolet. 
1599),  which  goes  the  furthest  respecting  the  murder  of  tyrants,  in  a  decree 
of  July  6,  1610,  forbade  the  discussion  of  the  doctrine,  either  publicly  or  pri- 
vately, whether  by  lectures  or  in  writings.  Cf.  Documents  historiques,  critiques 
apolog.  concernant  la  Compagnie  de  Jesus,  torn.  ii.  82.     Paris,  1828. 

4.  The  so-called  "Monita  secreta  "  —  Secret  Instructions  of  the  Society 
of  Jesus  —  was  first  published  in  Cracow  in  the  years  1612  and  1761,  and 
afterwards  in  Paris  and  other  places.     It  is  the  work  of  a  calumniator. 

§  188.    Other  Orders  and  Congregations  of  this  Era. 

The  age  of  the  so-called  Eeformation  was  very  prolific  in  religious 
societies,  which  in  course  of  time  came  to  be  acknowledged  by  the 


238  HISTORY  OF   THE   CATHOLIC  CHURCH. 

Church  as  separate  congregations  or  orders.  Those  who  devoted 
themselves  to  the  education  and  the  literary  and  scientific  training 
of  the  clergy,  together  with  the  holding  of  missions  for  the  people, 
were  :  — 

1.  The  Theatines,  founded  by  St.  Cajetan  of  Thiene  (+  1547) 
and  Peter  Caraffa  (Paul  IV.),  Bishop  of  Chieti  (Theate),  in  1524,  and 
approved  by  Clement  VII.  They  also  took  care  of  the  sick,  and 
asked  no  alms,  but  lived  on  the  "providence  of  God,"  —  that  is, 
on  the  contributions  freely  brought  to  their  convents. 

2.  The  Barnabites  (1530)  were  austere  preachers  of  penance,  who 
at  the  same  time  took  charge  of  the  seminaries  for  the  priesthood. 

3.  The  same  may  be  said  of  the  Oratorians  of  St.  Philip  Neri  in 
Italy,  which  were  approved  by  Pope  Gregory  XIII.  in  1574,  and 
those  of  Cardinal  de  Berulle  ^  in  France,  which  congregation  was 
sanctioned  by  Paul  V.  in  1613.  Both  congregations  have  gained 
great  renown  by  their  learning  and  their  scientific  attainments. 
Unfortunately,  many  French  Oratorians  inclined  to  Jansenism. 

4.  The  Lazarists,  or  the  Priests  of  the  Mission  of  St.  Vin- 
cent de  Paul,"^  from  the  year  1624  have  effected  more  good  than 
even  the  Oratorians  in  missionary  work  and  in  educating  secular 
priests.  Pope  Urban  VIII.  in  1632  approved  them  as  a  congre- 
gation. 

5.  The  Redemptorists,  or  the  Congregation  of  the  Most  Holy 
Redeemer,  the  founder  of  which  was  St.  Alj^honsus  Liguori,'*  Bishop 
of  St.  Agatha  of  Goti  in  1732,  are  to  be  classed  among  the  most 
prominent  missionaries.  In  the  nineteenth  century  they  have 
extended  their  labors  beyond  Italy. 

6.  The  Passionists  of  St.  Paul  of  the  Cross  (+  1775)  also  devoted 
themselves  to  the  missionary  work. 

Those  who  especially  devoted  themselves  to  the  instruction  of 
youth  were  :  — 

1.  The  Congregation  of  the  Oblates  of  St.  Ambrose,  founded  in 
1578  by  St.  Charles  Borromeo,  who  also  occupied  themselves  in  the 
care  of  souls. 

2.  The  Hierony mites,  or  Somaschaus  (from  the  year  1526),  who 

1  Tabaraud,  Hist,  de  P.  de  Berulle.     Paris,  1817. 

2  Abelhj  (+  1691),  Vie  de  St.  Vincent  de  Paul,  etc.  Paris,  1664.  Stolbcrg,  Life 
of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul.     Munster,  1819. 

3  On  the  7th  of  July,  1871,  Pope  Pius  IX.  named  St.  Alphonsus  "  Doctor  eccle- 
siae."  CoUezione  conip.  opere  di  St.  Alphon.  Maria  de  Liguori.  Monza,  1839  sqq. 
68  voU.  12.     Giatini,  Vita  del  b.  Alphonso.     Rom.  1815. 


or II Ell    UltDElLS    OF    THIS   ERA.  239 

were  principally  devoted  to  the  care  of  orphans.  Their  founder  was 
the  Venetian  nobleman  Jerome  ^milian.^ 

3.  The  Fathers  of  the  Christian  Doctrine  of  Caesar  de  Bus  (1592), 
and  the  Clerici  Regulares  Minores  of  John  Augustus  Adorno  (1588) ; 
the  Congregation  of  the  Brothers  of  the  Christian  Schools,  founded 
in  1680  by  John  Baptist  de  la  Salle,  Canon  of  Rheims  (+  1714),  and 
the  Fathers  of  the  Pious  Schools,  or  Piarists,  of  St.  Joseph  Cala- 
sanctius  (+  1648). 

The  Ursuline  Nuns,  founded  by  St.  Angela  Merici  (+  1540)  in 
Brescia,  were  devoted  to  the  education  of  young  girls.  In  1544 
Pope  Paul  III.  elevated  the  institution  to  the  dignity  of  a  religious 
congregation.  There  was  also  an  association  of  "English  Young 
Ladies,"  whose  rules  were  approved  by  Pope  Benedict  XIV.  ;  ^ 
and  the  Order  of  the  Visitation  of  our  Blessed  Lady,  founded 
in  1618  by  St.  Francis  de  Sales  and  St.  Frances  de  Chantal,  the 
original  and  principal  object  of  which  was,  however,  the  tending  of 
the  sick. 

The  Brothers  of  Mercy,  founded  by  St.  John  of  God  (  +  1550), 
and  recognized  as  a  religious  order  by  Paul  V.  in  1617.  The 
Bethlehemites,  the  Sisters  of  Charity  (''Filles  de  la  charite,"  "Soeurs 
grises ")  of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul  and  the  widow  Le  Gras  (1618), 
whose  rule  was  confirmed  by  Pope  Clement  IX.  in  1668,  and  the 
Sisters  of  St.  Charles  Borromeo,  to  whom  the  Cistercian  abbot 
Epiphanius  Louis  de  Estival  gave  a  rule  of  life,  devoted  them- 
selves to  the  care  of  the  sick. 

The  Sisters  of  the  Good  Shepherd  take  care  of  fallen  women. 
The  Nuns  of  the  Adoration  were  founded  for  the  continual  adora- 
tion of  the  Blessed  Sacrament.  But  the  growth  of  religious  ardor 
in  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth  centuries  was  not  only  manifested 
in  the  foundation  of  new  orders  ;  it  showed  itself  also  in  the  re- 
generation of  the  older  ones.^  The  first  order  that  was  regenerated 
in  the  sixteenth  century  was  that  of  the  Carmelites,  the  renewal 

1  Cf.  Bolland,  M.  Febr.  ii.  217  sqq.  (ed.  Paris,  1867). 

^  The  first  attempt  at  founding  such  an  order  was  made  by  Maria  Ward,  an  English 
lady  (-1-1645)  ;  yet  Urban  VIII.  abolished  the  institute  by  his  bull  "  Pastoralis 
Komani  Pontificis,"  on  Jan.  13,  1630.  Nevertheless,  separate  houses  still  continued 
their  work,  and  finally  obtained  recognition  from  the  Apostolic  See.  Benedict  XIV. 
gave  the  last  decision  through  his  constitution  "  Quam  vis  justo,"  on  April  30, 
1749.  See  Schels,  The  Associations  of  Religious  Women,  p.  59  scjq.  Schaffhausen, 
1857.     Leitner,  History  of  English  Women.     Ratisbon,  1869. 

^  On  the  great  reform  of  the  Franciscan  Observants  after  their  reunion  by  Leo  X- 
(1517),  see  P.  Gandentius,  p.  240  sqq. 


240  HISTORY  OF   THE   CATHOLIC   CHURCH. 

of  which  was  the  work  of  St.  Theresa  and  of  St.  John  of  the 
Cross. 

The  Benedictine  Order  also  underwent  a  salutary  reform  in  France 
by  means  of  the  Congregation  of  St.  Vannes  and  St.  Hidulph, 
founded  by  Didier  de  la  Cour,  prior  of  the  abbey  of  St.  Vannes 
("  scti  Vitonis  "),  from  which  the  Congregation  of  St.  Maur  took  its 
rise,  the  members  of  which  produced  valuable  works  in  the  depart- 
ments of  theology  and  of  history.^ 

The  Trappists  are  remarkable  on  account  of  the  rigorous  austerity 
of  their  discipline.  They  are  a  branch  of  the  Cistercians.  Their 
founder  is  Bouthillier  de  Kance,^  Abbot  of  La  Trappe  (+  1700)> 
who  reintroduced  the  old  strict  rule  of  the  Cistercians  into  his 
abbey. 

§  189.    Exertions  of.,  and  Enmity  totvards,  the  Holy  See. 

The  work  of  the  true  reformation,  to  forward  which  Adrian  VI., 
Clement  VII.,  and  Paul  III.  had  exerted  themselves  so  much,  still 
continued  uninterruptedly  after  their  death.  Julius  III.  and  Mar- 
cellus  II.  followed  in  the  path  indicated  by  their  predecessors.  Paul 
IV.  was  also  intent  on  the  preservation  of  the  purity  of  faith  and 
the  improvement  of  morals ;  but  he  injured  his  own  authority  by  his 
excessive  rigor,^  especially  b}'  his  conduct  towards  the  cardinals  Pole 
and  Morone.^     He  is  also  open  to  the  charge  of  nepotism. 

Under  Pius  IV.^  the  Council  of  Trent  was  closed.  The  same  Pope 
took  great  pains  to  enforce  the  decrees  of  the  council,  in  which  he 
was  greatly  aided  by  his  nephew  St.  Charles  Borromeo.  His  succes- 
sor, St.  Pius  V.^  (Ghisleri,  1566-1572),  issued  very  salutary  decrees 
in  the  interests  of  faith  and  of  religious  life,  which  he  enforced  with 
uncompromising  rigor.  He  was  a  loving  consoler  and  helper  to  the 
oppressed  Catholics  of  England,  while  he  was  a  sturdy  opponent  of 

1  Tassin,  Hist,  liter,  de  congreg.  de  St.  Maur.     Paris,  1726. 

2  Cliateauhricmd,  Vie  de  Ranee.  Paris,  1844.  Dubois,  Hist,  de  I'abbe  de  Ranee. 
2  vols.     Paris,  1866.     Gaillardin,  Les  Trappistes,  etc.     Paris,  1844. 

3  On  his  two  bulls,  "  Qiuim  quorumdam  "  of  Aug.  7,  1555,  and  "Cum  ex  aposto- 
latus  officio"  of  Feb.  15,  1559,  see  Hcrgcnrothtr,  Catholic  Church,  etc.,  p.  763  sqq. 

■*  He  deposed  Pole  from  his  office  as  Legate  of  England,  and  imprisoned  Cardinal 
Morone  on  suspicion  of  heresy.  See  Qicerini,  Vita  Card.  Poli,  c.  31,'  in  Epistolar. 
Card.  Poli,  i.  43  sq.  Pius  IV.  set  Morone  at  liberty,  and  afterward  named  him  as 
his  legate  to  the  Council  of  Trent.     Morone  died  as  Cardinal-Bishop  of  Ostia. 

5  He  founded  the  Congregatio  interpretum.  Cone.  Trid. 

6  Falloux,  Vie  de  St.  Pie  V. 


ENMITY    TOWARDS    THE   HOLY   SEE.  241 

the  deplorable  policy  of  the  French  court,  and  in  other  countries  also 
was  a  firm  and  indomitable  defender  of  the  Church.  During  his 
pontificate  the  brilliant  victory  at  Lepanto  took  place  in  1571,  to 
which  he  contributed  no  little  share.  His  decree,  however,  that  the 
bull  "  In  Coena  Domini "  should  be  proclaimed  every  year  throughout 
the  whole  of  Christendom  met  with  vehement  opposition.^ 

Pius  V.  was  succeeded  by  Gregory  XIII.  (Buoncompagni,  1572- 
1585),  a  man  deeply  versed  in  canon  and  civil  law.-  By  founding  six 
new  colleges^  in  Rome,  and  by  endowing  others, he  did  much  for  the 
promotion  of  learning  in  Rome.  He  sent  nuncios  to  Lucerne  (1579), 
to  Vienna  (1581),  and  to  Cologne  (1582);  he  also  had  the  Julian 
Calendar  rectified.^  His  relations  to  the  Catholic  States  were,  on 
the  whole,  friendly.  The  republic  of  Venice  formed  the  only  excep- 
tion. For  the  embellishment  of  Rome  this  Pope  effected  much ;  on 
the  other  hand,  he  was  not  able  to  suppress  the  banditti. 

Yet  this  was  successfully  achieved  by  his  genial  successor,  Six- 
tus  V.^  (1585-1590).  I^eing  descended  from  an  impoverished  family, 
he  had  raised  himself  to  the  highest  dignities,  and  in  this  stormy 
time  with  indomitable  firmness  and  courage  steered  the  helm  of 
the  Church.  The  administration  of  strict  and  impartial  justice 
distinguished  his  pontificate.     By  successful  financial  operations  he 

1  This  bull  is  the  work  of  several  Popes.  Its  first  composition  dates  from  the  four- 
teenth century.  Urban  VIII.  in  1627  had  it  revised,  since  which  time  it  has  received 
no  essential  alteration.  It  begins  with  the  words  "Pastoralis  Eom.  pont.  vigilantia  " 
(Bull.  Rom.  ed.  Taurin.  xiii.  530  si^q.),  and  contains  a  catalogue  of  such  crimes  as 
subject  the  offender  to  excommunication.  It  .specially  condemns  public  heretics, 
schismatics,  apostates,  falsifiers  of  ilontifical  writings,  pirates,  etc.  ;  those  who  ap- 
peal from  the  Pojie  to  an  oecumenical  council,  or  from  the  spiritual  to  the  secular 
courts  ;  those  who  are  robbers  of  Church  property  or  who  plunder  pilgrims  ;  those 
who  assist  the  enemies  of  religion,  especially  the  Turks,  with  ammunition  ;  those 
who  levy  unjust  taxes,  etc.  In  1770  Clement  XIV.  suspended  the  proclamation 
of  this  bull  ;  also  in  the  Greek  Church,  on  Orthodox  Sunday  (first  Sunday  of  Lent), 
heretics  and  other  criminals  were  excommunicated.  By  the  constitution  "Apos- 
tolicae  sedis  moderationi"  of  Oct.  12,  1869,  Pius  IX.  abolished  many  censures  of 
the  bull  "  Coena  Dom."  (Cf.  Acta  et  decret.  S.  S.  concilii  Vaticani,  Fasc.  i.  77  sqq. 
Frib.  1870.) 

■■^  FAlition  of  the  improved  Corp.  juris  canonici. 

3  These  were  colleges  for  Catholic  Englishmen,  for  converted  Jews,  for  Greeks, 
Maronites,  and  Piomans  (Coll.  Eomanum).  He  also  endowed  the  German  College 
(Coll.  Germauicum),  with  a  sufficient  income.  Cordara,  Hist.  Colleg.  Germ,  et  Hun- 
gar.     Rom.  1770. 

*  It  was  introduced  by  the  bull  "Inter gravissima,"  of  Feb.  24,  1582.  See  Jaiisscn, 
vol.  V.  p.  343  Sqi|. 

5  Felix  Peretti,  .oiinnoiily  called  I'anlinal  Montalto.      Tcmpesti,  Storia  della  vita  e 
geste  di  Sisto  V.     R,,;na,  1754.     H^ich,!,,-,  Sixte  Quint.     Paris,  1870. 
viii..  ir.  To 


242  HISTORY   OF    THE    CATHOLIC    CHURCH. 

laid  the  foundation  of  the  papal  treasury.  He  also  embellished 
Rome  by  the  erection  of  new  buildings,  and  by  opening  new 
streets;  he  likewise  enriched  the  Vatican  Library.^  In  the  political 
questions  of  his  day,  Sixtus  V.  took  the  warmest  interest.^  He 
labored  for  the  well-being  of  the  Church  by  reforming  the  College 
of  Cardinals,  whose  number  he  fixed  at  seventy,  by  the  establishment 
of  fifteen  congregations,*  and  by  salutary  laws  of  discipline.  Nor  is 
Sixtus  behindhand  in  the  promotion  of  learning.  Like  his  prede- 
cessor, he  also  patronized  educational  institutes.  He  was  feared  and 
honored  by  the  Romans. 

The  Popes  Urban  VII.  (Castagna),  Gregory  XIV.  (Sfondrato), 
Innocent  IX.  (Fachinetto),  reigned  successively  till  1592.  Clem- 
ent VIll.  (Aldobrandiui,  1592-1605)  called  Baronius,  Bellarmine, 
and  other  learned  celebrities  into  the  College  of  Cardinals,  under- 
took the  publication  of  the  revised  edition  of  the  Vulgate,  and 
appointed  the  so-called  "Congregatio  de  auxiliis."^  He  reunited 
Ferrara  with  the  Papal  States  in  1598,  and  caused  the  war  against 
the  Turks  to  be  prosecuted  with  great  zeal.  The  Jubilee  published 
by  this  pontiff:  brought  about  three  millions  of  pilgrims  to  Rome. 

Leo  XL  (de'  Medici)  died  twenty -five  days  after  his  election,  and 
was  succeeded  by  Cardinal  Camillo  Borghese  of  Rome,  who  took  the 
name  of  Paul  V.  (1605-1621).  During  his  pontificate  the  hostili- 
ties began  against  the  Apostolic  See,  whose  relations  to  the  Catholic 
States  undei'went  a  great  change  in  consequence  of  the  religious 
upheaval  of  the  sixteenth  century.  The  views  of  the  Middle  Ages 
succumbed  more  and  more  to  the  false  theories  of  the  omnipotence 
of  the  State,  which  violated  the  rights  of  the  Church,  especially  in 
the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centuries. 

1  Sixtus  liad  the  cupola  of  St.  Peter's  conii)leted,  the  obelisk  (Nero's  Needle)  placed 
on  St.  Peter's  Square,  and  an  excellent  aqueduct  (Aqua  Felice)  built.  The  architect 
he  employed  was  Domenico  Fontana. 

2  See  §  174. 

3  There  were  eight  congregations  for  ecclesiastical  purposes,  which,  although  not 
all  newly  established  by  Sixtus,  were  better  organized  by  him.  To  these  the  Inqui- 
sition also  belonged.  Paul  III.  had  already  given  a  new  management  to  the  Inquisi- 
tion by  nominating  six  cardinals  to  form  a  permanent  "  congregatio  inquisitionis. " 
Pius  IV.  in  1562  gave  them  full  power  to  proceed  against  all  and  every  one,  without 
distinction,  who  clung  to  the  heresy  of  Luther,  Zwingli,  Calvin,  or  that  of  the 
Anabaptists.  St.  Pius  V.  augmented  the  authority  of  this  tribunal,  and  made  some 
alterations  in  the  manner  of  proceeding.  The  present  arrangement  comes  down  to 
us  from  Sixtus  V. 

*  See  §  199. ' 


ENMITY  TOWARDS    THE   HOLY  SEE.  243 

The  first  serious  struggle  with  Rome  was  given  by  the  republic 
of  Venice,  in  her  decrees  touching  the  rights  of  the  Church/  which 
were  so  full  of  enmity  that  Paul  V.  found  himself  at  last  compelled 
to  impose  ban  and  interdict  on  the  Signoria.  The  Government,  how- 
ever, remained  refractory,  and  banished  those  of  the  clergy  who 
obeyed  the  papal  commands.  They  also  ordered  Paul  Sarpi,-  a 
Servite  monk,  to  draw  up  a  special  defence  of  their  conduct  in 
writing ;  whilst  Baronius,  Bellarmine,  and  others  took  up  the  cause 
of  the  rights  of  the  Apostolic  See,  which  they  defended  with  great 
skill  and  depth  of  learning.  Finally,  by  the  mediation  of  Henry 
IV.  of  France,  a  reconciliation  took  place  between  the  Senate  of 
Venice  and  Rome.  The  exiled  members  of  the  clergy  were  allowed 
to  return,  excepting  only  the  Jesuits.  Nevertheless,  peace  was  not 
as  yet  fully  restored. 

Pope  Paul  V.  displayed  great  zeal  for  the  purity  of  faith  and  for 
the  efficient  education  of  the  clergy,  for  the  success  of  the  mis- 
sions, for  a  becoming  decoration  of  churches,  etc.  He  devoted 
special  care  and  attention  to  the  Catholics  of  England.  He  aided 
Ferdinand  II.  in  his  contest  with  the  rebellious  Bohemians. 

Gregory  XV.  (Ludovisi,  1621-1623)  succeeded  Paul  V.  He  issued 
a  new  decree  concerning  papal  elections.^ 

Urban  VIII.  (Barberini,  1623-1644)  founded  the  Collegium  Urba- 
num,  and  in  1626  united  the  Duchy  of  Urbino  with  the  States  of 
the  Church.  Out  of  fear  of  the  preponderance  of  an  Austrian- 
Spanish  power,  the  Pope  at  first  lent  himself  to  the  policy  of  the 
French,  and  refused  the  subsidies  asked  by  Ferdinand  II.  in  the 
Thirty  Years'  War.  It  was  not  till  after  the  successful  campaigns 
of  Gustavus  Adolphus  that  Urban  VIII.  recognized  the  danger  to 
the  Catholic  Church  from  his  warfare,  and  sent  to  the  emperor  the 
help  he  had  requested.     Urban  VIII.  was  well  versed  in  the  sciences. 

1  Daru,  Hist,  de  la  republi<[ue  de  Venise,  torn.  iv.  258  sq(|.  Paris,  1821.  The 
republic  forbade  in  1603  that  churches  should  be  built,  that  monasteries  or  hospitals 
or  new  orders  should  be  introduced  without  her  permission  ;  and  in  1605  she  for- 
bade that  real  estate  or  other  immovable  propertj^  should  be  bequeathed  to  the  Church, 
or  sold  to  it,  or  even  mortgaged  to  it  for  more  than  two  years ;  and  she  summoned  two 
clergj'men  before  the  civil  tribunal  in  violation  of  the  "  Privilegium  fori." 

2  See  §  185.  Sarpi,  "the  theologian  of  the  republic,"  was  greatly  inclined  to 
Protestantism,  and  was,  moreover,  a  furious  enemy  of  the  Jesuits. 

**  Constitution  "  Aeterni  Patris,"  published  with  the  bull  "  Decet  Romanum  " 
(BuUar.  Rom.  xii.  619  sqq.,  662  sqq.  He  ordered  that  the  cardinals  should  vote 
secretly.  Besides  the  form  of  scrutiny,  those  of  "access,"  "compromise,"  "acclama- 
tio;i,"'  and  "  i|u;i.si-insjHration  "  were  also  allowed. 


244  HISTORY  OF  THE   CATHOLIC  CHURCH. 

He  enriched  the  new  breviary,  edited  by  himself,  with  some  hymns 
of  his  own  composition ;  bnt  he  could  not  quell  the  disorders  in 
Kome.  It  was  during  the  pontificate  of  Urban  that  the  memorable 
and  often  falsely  described  trial  ^  of  Galileo  (+  1642)  occurred,  in 
the  courts  of  the  Inquisition,  concerning  the  system  of  the  world 
laid  down  by  the  renowned  Copernicus  (+  1543),  Prebendary  of  the 
Cathedral  of  Frauenburg. 

Innocent  X.  (Pamphili,  1644-1655)  protested  in  vain  against  the 
Peace  of  Westphalia,  waged  war  against  the  Duke  of  Parma,  and 
brought  to  account  the  Barberini,  who  had  enriched  themselves 
greatly  under  Urban  YIII.  The  relatives  of  this  Pope  were  not 
without  influence  over  him,  —  particularly  the  widow  of  his  brother, 
Olympia  Madalchini. 

Pope  Alexander  VII.  (Chigi,  1655-1667),  a  friend  of  learning 
and  an  efficient  prince  of  the  Church,  can  be  reproached  with 
nothing  save  perhaps  too  great  a  love  for  his  relations.  He  restored 
the  good  understanding  between  the  Holy  See  and  Venice,  but  was 
subjected  to  great  humiliations  by  Louis  XIV.  of  France.^ 

Clement  IX.  (Eospigliosi,  1667-1669)  negotiated  the  Peace  of 
Aix-la-Chapelle  in  1668,  restored  diplomatic  intercourse  between 
Portugal  and  the  Apostolic  See,  and  assisted  the  Venetians  against 
the  Turks.  The  taking  of  Candia  by  the  latter  hastened  the  deatli 
of  the  Pope.  He  was  succeeded  by  the  octogenarian  Clement  X. 
(Altieri,  1670-1676). 

Innocent  XL  (Odescalchi,  1676-1689),  an  enemy  of  nepotism, 
strenuously  exerted  himself  to  promote  discipline  and  simplicity 
alike  among  the  clergy  and  tlie  people,  and  he  issued  very  salutary 
decrees.  He  lived  to  see  the  glorious  victory  of  King  John  So- 
bieski  of  Poland  over  the  Turks  under  the  walls  of  Vienna  (1683). 
The  differences  between  the  Apostolic  See  and  Louis  XIV.  of 
France,  which  had  begun  under  his  predecessor,  were  still  further 
increased  during  this  pontificate. 

The  proximate  occasion  for  contention  was  given  b}-  Louis  XIV., 

1  Olivieri  di  Copernic.  e  di  Galil.  Bologna,  1872.  It  is  remarkable  that  Galileo's 
system,  when  previously  brought  forward  by  Copernicus,  was  not  censured  by  the 
ecclesiastical  authorities.  The  religious  agitation  caused  by  the  new  impertinent 
heresies,  togetlier  with  Galileo's  own  provoking  behavior,  led  to  the  declaration  of 
the  Congregation  against  his  theory,  which  was,  however,  by  no  •mca.XM^  a.  di  fin  it  ion 
ex  cathedra.     See  Rev.  J.  Gmeiners  Scientific  Views,  p.  15. 

-  During  his  reign  Christina  of  Sweden,  the  daughter  of  Gustavus  Adoljilius,  and 
Ernest,  Count  of  Hesse,  returned  to  the  Catholic  Chnich. 


THE  SO-CALLED   GALLIC  AN  LIBEiniES.  245 

who  insisted  on  extending  the  Right  of  Regalia,  by  which  he  claimed 
the  disposal  of  the  revenues  of  vacant  bishoprics  and  the  collation 
of  simple  benefices  until  the  incoming  bishop  had  registered  his 
oath.  This  right  had,  in  the  Second  Synod  of  Lyons  (1274),  been 
continued  in  those  bishoprics  in  which  it  had  before  existed.  It  had 
since  been  extended  to  all  the  churches  in  the  kingdom.  The  con- 
vocation of  the  bishops  acquiesced  in  this  oppression.  Only  two  of 
them,  Caulet  of  Pamiers  and  Pavilion  of  Aleth,  protested  against  it, 
and  appealed  to  the  Holy  See,  who  took  their  rights  under  its  pro- 
tection against  the  despotism  of  the  king.  After  lengthy  negotia- 
tions, the  affair  was  settled  by  a  treaty. 

To  this  difficulty  another  was  added  ;  namely,  the  dispute  concern- 
ing the  privilege  of  asylum  enjoj^ed  by  the  residences  of  foreign 
ambassadors.  The  other  European  courts  had  resigned  this  privi- 
lege ;  but  the  French  ambassador,  the  Marquis  of  Lavardin,  insisted 
on  retaining  it,  notwithstanding  the  threat  of  excommunication  ; 
and  he  abused  it  so  grossly  that  the  Pope  was  compelled  to  inter- 
fere. Louis  XIV.  took  the  part  of  his  excommunicated  ambassador, 
drove  the  papal  nuncio  out  of  France,  took  forcible  possession  of 
Avignon  and  Venaissin,  and  appealed  to  an  oecumenical  council. 
Under  Alexander  VIII.,  however,  he  relinquished  the  privilege  of 
asylum. 

§  190.    The  so-called  G-allican  Liberties. 

During  the  contentions  concerning  the  regalia,  and  the  right  of 
asylum  at  the  residences  of  foreign  ambassadors,  Louis  XIV.,  in 
order  to  avenge  himself  on  the  Pope,  assumed  the  part  of  Protector 
of  the  Liberties  of  the  Galilean  Church,  which  were  now  officially 
established.^ 

Highly  schismatic  and  one-sided  views  had  prevailed  in  France  as 
early  as  the  fifteenth  century,  and  had  found  expression  in  the 
Pragmatic  Sanction  of  P)0urges  in  1438.  The  Concordat  of  1516  did 
away,  it  is  true,  with  the  Pragmatic  Sanction ;  ^  yet  the  false  prin- 
ciples which  it  contained  were  still  defended  in  Parliament,  and  in 
the  first  instance  found  upholders  even  in  the  Sorbonne,  while  the 
court  neither  directly  favored  these  anti-ecclesiastical  tendencies  nor 
yet  positively  attacked  them. 

1  On  these  contentions,  see  Gerin,  Recherches  historiques  sur  I'assenible'e  de  1682. 
Paris,  1869.  Bouix,  De  Papa.  Paris,  1869.  Acta  et  decreta  sacr.  cone,  recent. 
(Collectio  Lacensis),  i.  793  sqq. 

2  See  §§  128,  129.     Eoskovdn/f,  Rom.  pontif.  ii.  898  sqq. 


246  HISTORY   OF   THE    CATHOLIC   CHURCH. 

Towards  the  end  of  the  sixteenth  century  (1594),  Pithou  ^  com- 
piled the  so-called  Galilean  Liberties,  and  Du  Puys  '^  in  1639  pub- 
lished a  treatise  in  defence  of  them.  Edmund  Kicher,  Syndic  of  the 
Sorbonne  (1611),  and  Peter  de  Marca(1641).  ;i't-M-\vards  Archbishop- 
elect  of  Paris,  also  wrote  in  favor  of  the  Liberties,  but  submitted 
their  works  to  the  decision  of  the  Apostolic  See. 

The  Assembly  of  the  States  at  Paris  in  1614,  and  the  Parliament 
both  took  part  in  this  contest ;  while  Louis  XIV.,  on  the  contrary, 
suppressed  the  anti-ecclesiastical  efforts,  to  which  even  some  of  the 
clergy  lent  their  influence. 

During  the  controversy  on  the  regalia,  the  king  altered  his  mind. 
At  an  assembly  which  he  had  summoned  to  Paris  in  1681,  at  which 
were  present  thirty-flve  prelates,  thirty-four  deputies  of  the  clergy, 
together  with  two  general  agents  of  the  French  clergy,  he  caused 
to  be  drawn  up  a  declaration  concerning  the  extent  of  the  papal 
power  in  France.  The  framing  of  this  document  had  been  com- 
mitted to  Choiseul,  Bishop  of  Tournay,  who  was  already  at  the  point 
of  proclaiming  a  schism,  when  in  good  time  Bossuet  undertook  to 
draw  up  the  act  recpiired  (March  13,  1682). 

A  royal  edict  commanded  the  clergy  to  sign  the  declaration, 
together  with  the  four  Galilean  articles  on  ecclesiastical  authority 
which  were  annexed  to  it.  The  first  of  these  articles  proclaimed 
that  the  king  and  temporal  princes  in  respect  to  temporal  concerns 
were  completely  independent  of  Church  authority  and  of  ecclesias- 
tical power  ;  also,  that  princes  could  not  be  deposed.  The  second 
declared  the  unlimited  force  of  the  decrees  of  Constance,  passed  in 
the  fourth  and  fifth  sessions,  regarding  the  superiority  of  the  coun- 
cils over  the  Pope.  The  third  affirmed  that  the  use  of  the  "apostolic 
power  is  to  be  restricted  by  the  canons ;  that  the  rules,  customs,  and 
institutions  of  the  Galilean  king,  kingdom,  and  church  are  yet  in 
force  ;  and  that  the  limits  set  by  the  Fathers  remain  inviolate.  The 
fourth  recognized  that  in  matters  of  faith  the  Supreme  Pontiff  has 
the  chief  part  to  perform ;  that  his  decrees  appertain  to  each  and 
every  church ;  but  it  added  that  his  judgment  is  not  irreversible 
("  irreformabile  ")  unless  the  Church  has  formally  ratified  it  by  her 
consent.  By  this  the  infallibility  of  the  Pope  was  denied.  These 
articles  far  surpass  the  six  articles  on  the  Pope  which  had  been 

1  Libertez  de  I'eglise  Gallicane.  In  this  writing,  which  is  dedicated  to  Henry  IV., 
Pithoii  revie.vs  the  Gallican  Liberties  in  eighty-three  articles. 

2  Traite's  des  libertez  de  I'eglise  Gall,  avec  les  preuves.  He  also  wrote  a  com- 
mentary on  Pithou's  work.     Paris,  1652. 


THE  POPES   OF   THE   EIGHTEENTH   CENTURY.      247 

adopted  in  1663  by  seventy  members  of  the  Sorbonne  when  under 
compulsion  by  the  Government.  Whoever  refused  to  subscribe  the 
declaration  was  compelled  thereto  by  main  force.  It  was  in  this 
way  that  the  registration  of  this  document  was  forced  into  the  acts 
of  the  Sorbonne. 

The  Apostolic  See  protested  against  these  schismatic  efforts,  which 
were  earnestly  reprehended  in  the  Catholic  countries  of  Europe. 
Innocent  XI.  refused  to  confirm  the  appointment  of  the  two  mem- 
bers of  this  assembly  whom  Louis  had  nominated  bishops.  His 
successor,  Alexander  VIII.  (Ottoboni,  1689-1691),  by  the  bull  "  In- 
ter multiplices,"  of  Aug.  4,  1690,  proclaimed  that  the  Declaration 
was  void  ;  and  Louis  began  to  see  that  he  had  gone  too  far ;  while 
Innocent  XII.  (Pignatelli,  1691-1700),  who  issued  a  bull  against 
nepotism,  induced  the  king  in  1693  to  withdraw  his  edict. 

After  the  death  of  Louis  XIV.  the  Parisian  Parliament  again 
commanded  the  royal  edict  to  be  put  in  force.  Pius  VI.,  in  the  bull 
''  Auctorem  fidei,"  condemned  the  four  articles,  which  in  after  times 
Napoleon  I.  again  enacted  as  law.  The  last  condemnation  of  Gal- 
licanism  occurred  at  the  Oecumenical  Council  of  the  Vatican. 

Bossuet  had  written  a  defence  in  explanation  of  the  Declaration, 
which,  however,  did  not  appear  in  print  until  twenty  years  after 
his  death  (+ 1704).  Whether  the  edition  as  it  now  stands  is  the 
composition  of  Bossuet  is  very  doubtful ;  be  that  as  it  may,  its 
publication  procured  for  the  celebrated  preacher  for  many  years 
the  credit  of  being  one  of  the  principal  supporters  of  Gallican- 
ism,  —  an  impression  which  many  minds  retain  even  to  the  present 
day. 

§  191.    The  Popes  of  the  Eighteenth  Century.  —  Fehronius. 

The  very  first  Pope  of  this  century,  Clement  XI.  (Albani,  1700- 
1721),  a  learned  man  and  an  able  prince  of  the  Church,  had  a  dif- 
ficult pontificate.  The  war  concerning  the  succession  in  Spain 
disturbed  the  good  understanding  between  the  Apostolic  See  and 
the  courts  of  Austria  and  France,  and  the  arrogance  of  the  pre- 
tensions to  ecclesiastical  prerogatives  of  the  "  Sicilian  Monarchy " 
made  by  Duke  Victor  Amadeus  of  Savoy,  who,  in  virtue  of  the 
Peace  of  Utrecht,  1713,  had  become  King  of  Sicily,  compelled  the 
Pope  to  place  that  kingdom  under  an  interdict.  The  protest 
(1701)  of  Clement  XI.  against  the  assumption  of  the  title  of  King 
of  Prussia  by  Frederic,  Elector  of  Brandenburg,  was  of  no  effect. 


248  HISTORY  OF   THE    CATHOLIC   CHURCH. 

On  the  other  hand,  he  succeeded,  with  the  Emperor  Joseph  I.,  in 
adjusting  amicably  the  conflicting  claims  regarding  the  right  of 
presentation  to  cathedral  churches  and  religious  foundations.  Clem- 
ent issued  the  bull  "  Unigenitus  "  against  Quesnel. 

Pope  Innocent  XIII.  (Conti,  1721-1724)  in  1722  invested  the 
Emperor  Charles  VI.  with  the  fief  of  Naples,  assisted  the  Maltese 
and  Venetians  in  their  struggle  against  the  Turks,  and  promoted  to 
the  best  of  his  power  the  welfare  of  the  Church.  It  was  with  tears 
in  his  eyes  that  he  subscribed  the  nomination  of  the  unworthy  abbe 
Dubois  to  the  cardinalate  which  was  forced  upon  him  by  France. 
Benedict  XIII.  (Orsini,  1724-1730)  settled  the  dispute  regarding  the 
Sicilian  Monarchy,  terminated  the  strife  between  the  Holy  See  and 
the  Dukes  of  Sardinia  and  Savoy,  and  in  1725  convoked  a  provincial 
synod  in  the  Lateran,^  for  the  improvement  of  ecclesiastical  disci- 
pline. The  extending  of  the  celebration  of  the  Feast  of  the  Hoi}- 
Pope  St.  Gregory  VIL  over  the  entire  Church  called  forth  vehement 
opposition  in  Venice,  Germany,  and  France  ;  and  the  refusal  of  the 
Pope  to  raise  the  nuncio  Bichi,  who  had  been  recalled  from  Lisbon, 
to  the  cardinalate,  led  to  discord  between  him  and  the  Portuguese 
court.  This  excellent  Pope  unfortunately  placed  too  great  con- 
fidence in  the  unworthy  cardinal  Coscia.  Clement  XII.  (Corsini, 
1730-1740)  ended  the  difficulty  by  creating  Bichi  a  cardinal,  which 
restored  the  good  understanding  with  Portugal.  Disturbances  in 
Italy  and  numerous  offences  from  the  side  of  Spain  disturbed  his 
pontificate.  He  was  the  founder  of  the  IMuseum  of  Roman  An- 
tiquities, and  he  sent  the  learned  Assemani  into  the  East  to  buy 
manuscripts.  This  Pope  founded  a  seminary  at  Bissignano,  in 
Calabria  (Seminarium  Corsini).  In  1738  he  pronounced  excommu- 
nication on  the  Order  of  Freemasons.^ 

The  disrespectful  conduct  of  some  Catholic  courts  towards  the 
Apostolic  See,  and  the  encroachments  they  made  upon  ecclesiastical 
rights  continued  throughout  the  pontificate  of  the  learned  Pope 
Benedict  XI V.^  (Lambertini,  1740-1758),'*  although  he  succeeded  in 
coming  to  an  understanding  with  Sardinia,  with  Portugal  (John  V., 
"rex  fidelissimus,"  1740),  with  Spain  in  1751,  and  with  others  by 
treaties  with  each  respectively,  conceding  some  points.     With  the 

^  Acta  et  decret.  sacror.  concil.  (Coll.  Lacensis),  i.  345  sqq. 

2  Bull  "In  eminenti"  of  April  28,  1738.     Bull.  Rom.  ed.  Taurin.  xxiv.  366,  67. 

3  Op.  omn.  Bened.  XIV.  ed.  Azevedo.  Rom.  1747  sqq.  12  vols.  Venet.  1767. 
15  vols.     His  bulls  are  in  Continuatio  Bull,  magni.  Luxemb.  torn,  xvi.-xix. 

*  Vie  du  Pape  Be'ne'd.  XIV.     Paris,  1783. 


FEBROXIIJS.  249 

republic  of  Venice  alone,  wliicli  in  1754  had  subjected  all  papal  bulls, 
briefs,  precepts,  and  the  like  to  the  supervision  of  Government 
before  publication,  no  agreement  was  established. 

At  the  instance  of  some  Catholic  governments,  the  Pope  in  1748 
reduced  the  number  of  the  festival  days  of  obligation ;  he  also  re 
newed,  on  March  18,  1751,  the  ordinances  of  his  predecessor  against 
Freemasonry,^  and  raised  Fulda  to  the  rank  of  a  bishopric.  After 
his  death  the  conflict  against  the  Holy  See  was  carried  on  with 
greater  acrimony  than  ever  by  the  Kegalists,  Freemasons,  and 
Jansenists. 

John  Nicholas  of  Houtheim,  Bishop-coadjntor  of  Treves,  a  pupil 
of  the  Jansenist  canonist  Van  Espen  (+  1728),  stood  prominently 
forward  as  the  leader  of  the  anti-papal  party.  In  1763  he  published 
a  book,  nnder  the  name  of  "  Justinus  Febronius,"  ^  which  was  the 
most  correct  expression  that  has  been  published  of  the  anti-eccle- 
siastical views  of  his  century.  The  pretended  object  of  this  work 
was  the  reuniting  of  the  Protestants  to  the  Catholic  Church  ;  in 
reality,  the  author  sought  to  degrade  papal  authority. 

According  to  Febronius,  the  Pope  is,  in  respect  to  the  other 
bishops,  only  primus  inter  pares,  who,  without  the  consent  of  the 
episcopate,  can  neither  give  decisions  of  faith  nor  condemn  heresies  ; 
neither  can  he  enact  laws  for  the  universal  Church,  nor  interfere  in 
the  jurisdiction  of  individual  dioceses.  But,  continues  Febronius,  as 
the  "  Roman  curia,"  chiefly  resting  on  the  Pseudo-Isidorean  Decre- 
tals,^ has  in  the  course  of  time  arrogated  to  itself  various  privileges, 
it  is  necessary,  in  the  interests  of  peace,  to  withdraw  from  the  Pope 
all  these  non-essential  rights,  and  by  limiting  him  to  those  rights 
which  are  essentially  his,  thus  re-establish  the  original  constitution 
of  the  Church.  It  is  incumbent  on  bishops  and  temporal  princes  to 
effect  this  end. 

Although  this  work,  which  is  styled,  even  by  Lessing,  a  "  miser- 
able flattery  of  princes,"  is  only  a  compilation  of  Protestant,  Jan- 
senist, and  Galilean  writings,  replete  with  contradictions,  and  put 
together  without  any  logical  connection,  yet  it  was  praised  by  all 
anti-ecclesiastical  writers,  was  translated  into  various  languages 
and  turned  to  practical  account  by  governments  hostile  to  the 
Church. 

1  Bull.  Magn.  ed.  Luxemb.  scTiii.  214  sqq. 

2  Justini  Febronii,  de  statu  ecclesi;e  et  legitima  potestate  Roman!  Pontificis  liber 
singularis  ad  reuuiendos  dissidentes  in  religione  Christianos.     Bulloni  (Francofurti). 

3  See  §  94. 


250  HISTORY  OF   THE   CATHOLIC   CHURCH. 

Pope  Clement  XIII.  (Rezzonico,  1758-1769)  iu  1764  censured  the 
dangerous  book,  the  author  of  which,  at  the  instance  of  his  arch- 
bishop, retracted  his  errors  in  1778.  But  his  recantation  was  not 
sincere,  as  was  shown  by  the  commentary  he  appended  to  it  in  1781. 
And  neither  the  dubious  recantation  nor  the  excellent  refutations 
written  by  the  learned  men  of  this  period  —  as,  for  example,  those  of 
the  Jesuit  Zaccaria  in  1767  and  of  Peter  Ballerini  in  1768  —  sufficed 
to  undo  the  mischief  and  scandal  caused  by  the  dissemination  of 
Hontheim's   work. 

The  severely  tried  Pope  had  to  suffer  still  greater  indignities. 
The  republic  of  Genoa  protested  against  a  papal  visitor  being  sent 
to  Corsica  to  settle  ecclesiastical  matters  there,  and  offered  a 
reward  of  6,000  scudi  for  the  arrest  of  tlie  papal  envoy.  In  1760 
the  King  of  Portugal  sent  the  papal  nuncio  across  the  frontier 
under  the  conduct  of  an  escort  of  soldiers ;  while  the  Bourbon  courts, 
chiefly  those  of  France  and  Naples,  iu  very  ignoble  ways  avenged 
themselves  on  the  Pope  for  the  action  he  had  taken  against  the 
Duke  of  Parma,  who  had  enacted  several  anti-ecclesiastical  laws 
in  1764. 

Agitation  against  the  Jesuits  reached  a  high  pitch  of  excitement 
under  the  pontificate  of  Clement  XIII.  Yet  the  Pope  firmly  refused 
to  accede  to  the  demands  of  Portugal  and  of  the  Bourbon  courts  for 
the  suppression  of  the  order.  Clement  XIII.  conferred  on  the 
Empress  Maria  Theresa  and  her  successors  the  title  of  "Apostolic 
Majesty  "  ("  Rex  apostolicus  ").^ 

His  successor,  Clement  XIV.  (Ganganelli,  1769-1774),  had  less 
firmness  of  character.  He  created  the  brother  of  Pombal,  Minister 
of  Portugal,  Cardinal ;  abolished  the  practice  of  annually  reading 
the  bull  "  In  Coena  Domini,"  and  suppressed  the  Order  of  the 
Jesuits. 

The  absolutism  of  the  courts  had  apparently  reached  its  aim. 
State  ecclesiasticism  flourished,  and  the  Church  seemed  to  have  no 
other  destiny  than  merely  to  serve  the  interests  of  the  State.  Yet 
in  reality  the  deluded  princes  had  become  representatives  of  prin- 
ciples the  carrying  out  of  which  entailed  ruin  on  themselves.  The 
political  absolutism  of  the  Bourbons  led,  as  a  necessary  conse- 
quence, to  the  Revolution  of  which  Louis  XVI.  of  France  was  the 
victim. 

1  Clement  XIV.  promoted  science  and  art,  aided  missionary  work,  was  solicitous 
for  the  Poles,  etc. 


I 


JOSEPH  ISM.  251 

§  192.   Josepliism. 

Under  Pius  VI.  (Angelo  Brasclii,  1775-1799),  the  enemies  of  the 
Church,  whom  his  predecessor  thought  he  had  satisfied  by  sacrificing 
to  them  the  Order  of  the  Jesuits,  began  anew  to  harass  the  Apostolic 
See.  The  acutest  sensibilities  of  the  Pope  were  wounded,  not  only 
by  temporal  princes,  but  by  deluded  spiritual  rulers. 

The  religious  condition  grew  particularly  sad  in  the  hereditary 
States  of  the  Empire.  Even  during  the  reign  of  the  Empress  IVIaria 
Theresa,  the  false  enlightenment  of  the  day  had  been  introduced 
into  Austria,  and  had  been  encouraged  by  some  prominent  men, 
such  as  the  Jansenist  Van  Swieten,  the  private  royal  physician 
and  director  of  studies ;  the  Abbot  Rautenstrauch,  a  man  lacking  in 
the  true  ecclesiastical  spirit ;  the  ill-famed  canonists  Eybel  and 
Pehem ;  and  the  vain  and  arrogant  minister  Von  Kauuitz.^  The 
destructive  tendencies  of  these  erroneous  principles  soon  manifested 
themselves. 

So  long  as  the  Empress  Maria  Theresa  lived,  the  advocates  of 
enlightenment  could  not  carry  out  all  of  their  anti-ecclesiastical 
innovations ;  but  their  prospects  became  more  favorable  under 
Joseph  II.  (1780),  a  prince  destitute  of  true  piety,  who  did  not  pos- 
sess the  real  talent  of  a  ruler,  but  only  sought  to  carry  out  what  the 
frivolous  craving  for  enlightenment  had  devised. 

The  encroachments  of  the  would-be  reformer  began  by  his  issuing 
in  rapid  succession  ordinances  regarding  the  celebration  of  divine 
service,  including  the  benedictions  and  usages  of  the  Church,  with 
regulations  concerning  processions,  pilgrimages,  burials,  etc. ;  each 
succeeding  regulation  being  meaner  and  more  despotic  than  the 
preceding. 

The  anti-ecclesiastical  sentiments  of  the  imperial  rubric-maker 
were  still  more  distinctly  manifested  in  his  enactments  respecting 
monasteries,  especially  in  his  suppression  of  those  orders  that  were 
not  occupied  in  taking  care  of  the  sick  or  in  the  education  of  youth ; 
it  was  also  shown  in  the  Austrian  monasteries  in  the  separation  of 
the  communities  from  their  "  foreign  "  superiors. 

The  monarch,  misled  by  his  impious  advisers,  arrogated  to  him- 
self the  legislation  on  matrimony ;  he  abolished  several  ecclesiastical 
impediments,  and  forbade  his  subjects  to  seek  matrimonial  dispensa- 
tions from  Rome. 

'  Consult,  on  the  affairs  of  Austria  at  that  time,  the  works  of  Brunner,  Eitter, 
Wolf,  and  Fessler. 


252  HISTORY  OF   THE   CATHOLIC   CHURCH. 

The  emperor  also  iutroduced  the  placet  for  episcopal  ordinances, 
for  pastoral  letters,  nay,  even  for  Church  almanacs  (directories)  ;  aud 
he  commanded  that  the  bulls  "  In  Coena  Domini "  and  "  Unigenitus  " 
should  be  cut  out  of  the  Church  books.  On  the  other  hand,  this 
same  emperor,  by  his  Edict  of  Tolerance  of  Oct.  13,  1781,  granted 
greater  rights  to  the  Protestants  and  to  the  schismatic  Greeks,  and 
by  his  granting  liberty  of  the  press  gave  facilities  for  the  basest  and 
most  impious  writings  to  be  disseminated  throughout  Austria. 

As  if  to  fill  up  the  measure  of  evil,  the  deluded  emperor  then 
suppressed  the  diocesan  seminaries,  and  replaced  them  by  four 
general  seminaries  at  Vienna,  Festh,  Pavia,  and  Louvain,  together 
with  five  inferior  affiliated  institutions  at  Olmiitz,  Gratz,  Prague, 
Innsbruck,  and  Freiburg,  which  the  students  of  theology  were  re- 
quired to  attend,  thus  to  receive  under  State  supervision  their  scien- 
tific and  moral  training  from  the  professors  of  enlightenment  whose 
lives  and  teachings  were,  according  to  the  testimony  of  trustworthy 
eye-witnesses,  equally  prejudicial  to  the  minds  and  hearts  of  the 
youthful  population  studying  under  their  influence. 

Few  were  the  bishops  of  Austria  who  possessed  courage  and  energy 
sufficient  to  stand  out  against  the  anti-ecclesiastical  measures  of  the 
emperor.  Among  them,  however,  were  Cardinal  Migazzi,  Archbishop 
of  Vienna,  Prince  Esterhazy,  Archbishop  of  Agram,  Archbishop 
Bathiany  of  Gran,  and  Count  Edling,  Archbishop  of  Gortz.  Most  of 
the  prelates  either  remained  inactive  in  servile  and  cowardly  com- 
pliance, or  even  undertook  to  defend  the  so-called  reforms.  But 
the  protestations  and  representations  of  individual  bishops  had  no 
effect  on  the  mind  of  Joseph  II.,  who  even  answered  the  remon- 
strances of  the  Elector  of  Treves,  Clement  Wenceslaus,  in  an  unbe- 
coming manner,  whereas  a  unanimous  protestation  from  the  bishops 
would  certainly  have  brought  about  a  salutary  crisis,  and  probably 
have  freed  the  Church  from  this  her  state  of  tutelage  under  the 
State. 

In  1782  Pope  Pius  VI.  went  in  person  to  Vienna  in  the  hope  of 
averting  the  threatening  calamity ;  but  he  was  received  at  the  im- 
perial court,  and  particularly  by  the  minister  Kaunitz,  in  a  very 
unworthy  manner.  He  found,  however,  some  compensation  for  this 
in  the  unfeigned  love  and  enthusiasm  with  which  he  was  greeted 
by  the  people.  While  the  Pope  was  yet  present  in  Vienna,  Valen- 
tine Eybel  published  his  insolent  pamphlet  "  What  is  the  Pope  ?  " 
which  was  condemned  by  Pius  in  the  bull  "  Super  soliditate." 

While  the  Austrian  bishops  thus  quietly  permitted  the  yoke  of 


CONTEST  CONCERNIXa    THE   NUNCIATURE.         253 

a  State  Church  to  be  laid  on  their  uecks,  the  bishops  of  Belgium, 
with  Cardinal  Frankenberg,  Archbishop  of  Malines,  at  their  head, 
the  States  of  Brabant,  and  the  Catholic  people  protested  against  the 
innovations  which  were  to  be  introduced  there ;  but  Joseph  paid 
no  heed  to  their  representations,  and  when  he  sought  by  violent 
measures  to  attain  his  end,  the  whole  country  rose  in  insurrection  ^ 
against  him.  At  the  prayer  of  the  emperor,  Pius  VI.  called  upon 
the  inhabitants  of  Belgium  to  lay  down  their  insubordinate  prepa- 
rations for  revolt.  But  Joseph  did  not  live  to  witness  its  suppres- 
sion. He  died  on  Feb.  20,  1790.  He  had  desired  to  render  his 
people  happy;  but  in  very  fact,  by  his  reforms,  he  brought  name- 
less miseries  upon  his  subjects,  and  drew  upon  himself  the  con- 
tempt and  mockery  of  his  infidel  contemporaries. 

§  193.  Contest  concerning  the  Nunciature.  —  The  Congress  of  Ems. 

The  example  of  Joseph  II.  found  imitators  in  several  ecclesiasti- 
cal princes  of  Germany,  who  not  only  permitted  the  Jansenistic  and 
Gallican  theories  to  be  taught  at  their  theological  institutions  of 
learning,  but  also  endeavored  to  reduce  these  false  principles  to 
practice.^ 

The  three  spiritual  electors  were  the  most  forward  in  the  matter, 
and  proceeded  to  the  greatest  lengths.  Influenced  by  anti-ecclesias- 
tical professors  and  spiritual  advisers,  they  desired  to  restore  the 
"  original "  (!)  archiepiscopal  rights,  and  therewith  opened  a  conflict 
with  the  "  Koman  Curia." 

As  early  as  the  year  1769  the  ill-advised  archbishops  Emmeric 
Joseph  of  Mentz,  Clement  Wenceslaus  of  Treves,  and  Maximilian 
Frederic  of  Cologne,  had,  through  their  deputies,  Deel,  Hontheim, 
and  Hillesheim,  formulated  and  presented  to  the  emperor,  in  Cob- 
lentz,  thirty-one  Desideria,  that  he  might  procure  the  fulfilment 
of  their  demands  by  the  Apostolic  See. 

This  letter  of  grievance  is  also  directed  against  the  jurisdiction 
of  the  nuncios,  who  were  a  stumbling-block  to  the  archbishops ; 
but  the  Apostolic  See  was  so  little  inclined  to  accede  to  their  wishes 
that  Pius  VI.,  at  the  petition  of  Charles  Theodore,  the  Elector  Pala- 
tine of  Bavaria,  in  1785,  appointed  for  his  dominions  a  nuncio  who 

1  Cf.  Gachard,  Documens  politi«iues  et  diplomatiques  sur  la  revolution  Beige  de 
1790.     Bruxelles,  1834. 

2  Cardinal  Pacca's  Historical  Memoirs  of  his  Residence  in  Germany  from  1786  to 
1794.     Briick,  Rationalistic  Strivings  in  Catholic  Germany.     Mentz,  1865. 


254  HISTORY  OF   THE    CATHOLIC   CHURCH. 

was  to  take  up  his  residence  at  Munich.  Astounded  at  this,  the 
above-named  archbishops  at  first  attempted  to  prevent  Zoglio, 
Archbishop  of  Athens.,  the  nuncio  designated,  from  being  sent  to 
Munich.  Not  succeeding  in  tliis  endeavor,  they  formed  a  union 
with  Jerome,  Archbishop  of  Salzburg,  and  by  their  plenipotenti- 
aries drew  up  a  protest  at  Ems  in  the  year  1786.  This  document 
consisted  of  twenty-three  articles,  and  is  known  as  the  notorious 
"Punctuation  of  Ems,"  in  which  the  pretensions  are  to  restore 
the  rights  of  the  bishops,  but  which  in  fact  make  little  popes  of 
the  archbishops. 

Although  the  Emperor  Joseph  had  promised  to  aid  the  authors 
of  the  Punctuation,  that  document  did  not  meet  the  approval  of  all 
the  bishops.  The  Bishop  of  Spire,  August,  Count  of  Limburg- 
Styrum,  and  the  Elector  Charles  Theodore  energetically  defended 
the  rights  of  the  Holy  See. 

The  archbishops  obstinately  adhered  to  their  anti-papal  efforts ; 
and  when  Bartholomew  Pacca,  the  papal  nuncio  of  Cologne,  pub- 
lished a  circular  letter,  in  which  he  declared  that  dispensations 
granted  by  the  archbishops  in  such  cases  as  were  reserved  to 
the  Holy  See  were  of  themselves  null  and  void,  they  vehemently 
opposed  the  acceptance  of  such  a  letter,  and  again  applied  to  Joseph 
for  assistance.  But  notwithstanding  the  aid  he  afforded,  the  haughty 
archbishops  were  finally  compelled  to  renounce  their  pretensions. 

During  these  contests  a  prodigious  number  of  writings  appeared 
against  the  pretended  arrogance  of  the  nuncios,  whose  supposed  en- 
croachments were  even  made  the  subject  of  pastoral  letters.  But 
the  Apostolic  See  had  also  able  defenders,  among  whom  were  some 
ex-Jesuits.  The  cathedral  chapters  likewise  energetically  resisted 
the  efforts  of  the  archbishops ;  and  Pius  VI.  in  1790  issued  a  letter,' 
addressed  explicitly  to  them,  in  which  he  demonstrated  that  their 
demands  had  no  foundation  in  justice. 

§  194.    Italy.  —  The  Synod  of  Pistoja. 

The  false  enlightenment  sought  to  propagate  itself  in  Italy  also. 
Its  conspicuous  promoter  was  the  Grand  Duke  Leopold  of  Tuscany, 
who  undertook  to  play  the  same  part  as  that  which  had  been  taken 
by  his  imperial  brother ;  he,  however,  proceeded  with  more  caution. 

1  Kesponsio  ad  Metropolitanos  Mog. ,  etc.,  super  Nuntiaturis  Apostolicis.     Eomae, 
1789. 


ITALY.  -  77/7^    SVXOD    OF   PISTOJA.  255 

After  introducing  several  so-called  reforms,  beginning  in  1780,  he 
in  1786  presented  to  his  bishops  a  more  copious  plan  of  reform,  con- 
taining lifty-seven  articles,^  framed  on  Jansenistic  and  Febronian 
principles,  for  their  examination  and  acceptance.  The  greater  part 
of  the  bishops  pronounced  a  decidedly  unfavorable  judgment  on 
these  reforms.  Only  three  of  them  declared  for  the  plan  of  the  Gov- 
ernment, so  that  for  this  time  the  grand  duke  could  do  nothing. 

He  did  not,  however,  lose  sight  of  his  plan,  which  he  still  hoped 
to  realize  by  the  help  of  Scipio  Kicci,  the  Bishop  of  Pistoja  and 
Prato.  This  prelate,  who  was  entirely  taken  up  with  the  Jansenist 
and  State-Church  fallac}',  summoned  a  diocesan  synod  in  the  year 
1786,  in  order  to  complete  the  work  of  an  improved  Church  organ- 
ization, by  which  he  meant  the  adoption  of  the  jjlan  of  the  grand 
duke.  As  promoter  of  the  synod,  he  appointed  the  Josephist  can- 
onist Tamburini  of  Pavia. 

The  Synod  of  Pistoja  held,  in  all,  six  sessions.  The  anti-ecclesi- 
astical spirit  which  animated  the  members  of  the  synod,  or  rather 
its  leaders,  many  of  whom  were  from  the  neighborizig  States,  chiefly 
manifested  itself  in  the  recommendation  of  Jansenist  works  ;  in  the 
adoption  of  the  four  Galilean  articles ;  in  the  false  reformatory  prop- 
ositions respecting  religious  orders,  the  impediments  to  marriage, 
the  relations  bishops  bear  to  the  Pope,  Church  ceremonies  and 
usages,  the  devotion  to  the  heart  of  Jesus ;  and  especially  in  sub- 
ordinating the  Church  to  the  power  of  the  State. 

Rejoicing  in  the  success  of  this  synod,  Leopold  summoned  his 
seventeen  bishops  to  Florence  in  the  year  1787 ;  here  a  national 
synod  was  to  be  held  for  the  purpose  of  introducing  and  adjusting 
the  particulars  of  these  reforms.  But  the  reformatory  project 
was  again  frustrated  by  the  ecclesiastical  spirit  of  the  bishops 
of  Tuscany.  The  grand  duke  dismissed  the  assembly  with  signs 
of  his  displeasure,  and  now  began  to  introduce  the  reforms  by 
his  own  authority.  This  led  to  a  rupture  between  him  and  the 
Holy  See. 

Meantime,  as  early  as  the  year  1787  an  insurrection  had  taken 
place  against  Bishop  Ricci  in  the  dioceses  of  Pistoja  and  Prato ; 
and  the  indignation  excited  at  his  anti-ecclesiastical  innovations 
eventually  reached  so  great  a  height  that  he  was  compelled  to 
resign. 

The   circulation   of  the   acts  of  the  Synod   of  Pistoja,  and  the 

^  The  acts  and  other  documents  regarding  the  Synod  of  Pistoja  are  printed  in 
Acta  et  decreta  Syn.  dioeces.  Pistoriensis,  torn.  ii.     Ticini,  1789. 


256  HISTORY  OF   THE   CATHOLIC   CHURCH. 

profit  which  the  enemies  of  the  Church  sought  to  derive  from  them, 
induced  Pope  Pius  VI.  to  condemn,  by  the  bull  "  Auctorem  fidei,"  ^ 
eighty-five  assertions  of  this  synod  as  heretical,  scandalous,  etc. 
Scipio  Eicci,  after  having  given  a  kind  of  retraction  in  1799,  sub- 
mitted to  the  papal  decision  on  May  9,  1805.  Yet,  in  his  letters  to 
his  friends  after  this,  he  still  showed  signs  of  adherence  in  some 
measure  to  Jansenism.     He  died  Jan.  27,  1810. 


IL    DEVELOPMENT   OF  DOCTKINE. 
1.   Ecclesiastical  Learning. 

§  195.    The  Theological  Studies  of  this  Period. 

The  invention  of  printing  and  the  reawakened  impulse  given  to 
humanistic  studies  exercised  a  powerful,  though  at  first  it  seemed 
rather  an  injurious,  infiuence  on  learning,  which,  however,  about  the 
middle  of  the  sixteenth  ceutury  was  again  guided  into  the  right 
path,  and  called  forth  many  learned  works  in  the  sphere  of  theology, 
the  authors  of  which  increased  the  spiritual  attainments  of  mediaeval 
scholasticism  by  comprehensive  exegetical  and  patristic  studies,  and 
knew  how  to  clothe  their  thoughts  in  a  truly  classical  form. 

Even  before  the  Council  of  Trent  theological  studies  had  reached 
an  elevation  which  was  far  from  insignificant ;  this  is  attested  by 
the  most  prominent  theologians  who  were  present  at  that  council. 
And  yet  the  flourishing  time  of  theology  begins  uftet'  this  synod, 
which  by  its  decrees  contributed  so  greatly  not  only  to  the  promo- 
tion of  true  learning,  but  to  the  religiously  moral  regeneration  of 
mankind. 

The  exegetical  studies  pursued  with  great  earnestness  in  the  six- 
teenth century  were  especially  those  called  forth  by  polemical  inter- 
est against  the  Protestants,  the  leaders  of  whom  sought  to  prove 
their  heresy  by  Holy  Scripture.  Besides  learned  dissertations,  com- 
mentaries on  separate  portions  and  on  the  whole  of  Scripture  were 
made,  the  literal  meaning  of  which  was  principally  taken  into  con- 
sideration. Critical  editions  of  the  Bible,  polyglots,  and  other 
means  of  assistance  lightened  these  studies,  and  essentially  pro- 
moted them.    They  flourished  in  a  special  manner  from  the  sixteenth 

1  Bullar.  Rom.  Contin.,  etc.,  ix.  395  sqq.  Ed.  stereotype  Cone.  Trid.  Leips.  1846, 
p.  292  sqq. 


THE    THEOLOGICAL    STUDIES    OF    THIS    PERIOD.     257 

to  the  eighteenth  century.     Numerous  translations  of  the  Scriptures 
in  the  mother-tongue  were  also  prepared. 

To  the  more  important  exegetical  authors  of  this  period  belong 
the  Jesuit  John  Maldonat  (+  1583),  Alphonsus  Salmeron  (+  1585), 
Francis  Toletus  (+  1596),  the  Neapolitan  Agellius,  Bishop  of  Acerno 
(+  1608),  William  Estius,  Chancellor  of  the  University  of  Douay 
(4- 1613),  Cornelius  a  Lapide  (+  1637),  Augustine  Calmet  C+  1757), 
and  others. 

^\'ithout  giving  up  the  scholastic  method,  the  great  theologians  of 
this  time  endeavored  to  found  their  articles  of  faith  more  on  Holy 
Scripture  and  Tradition.  The  work  of  the  Dominican  Melchior 
Canus  (§  187),  called  "  Loci  theologici,"  is  truly  classical  ;  yet  the 
celebrated  Jesuit  Dionysius  Petavius  (+ 1625)  surpasses  him  in 
acumen  and  erudition  :  the  most  meritorious  work  of  the  latter  was 
unfortunately  never  completed.  The  likewise  incomplete  work  on 
Dogma  of  the  Oratorian  Thomassin  (+  1695)  is  very  valuable,  and 
highly  prized  by  the  learned. 

Scholastic  theology,  like  positive  theology,  also  received  a  new 
impetus.  Its  chief  representatives  are  the  Dominican  Dominic 
Bannez  (+  1604),  the  Jesuit  Gabriel  Vasquez  (Hispanus  Augustinus, 
+  1604),  Francis  Suarez  (Dr.  eximius,  +  1617),  famed  alike  for 
learning  and  for  speculative  ability,  and  Didacus  Euiz  de  Montoya 
(+  1632),  the  theologians  of  Salamanca,  of  the  Order  of  Carmelite- 
Observants,  with  others.  Among  German  theologians,  the  Jesuit 
Adam  Tanner  (+  1632)  occupies  a  prominent  position. 

But  it  was  the  apologetico-polemic  theology  that  called  forth  the 
first  labors.  Beside  the  controversialists  mentioned  in  the  history  of 
Protestantism,  we  have  yet  to  name  the  bishops  Nausea,  of  Vienna 
(+  1552),  and  Berthold,  of  Chiemsee,  whose  ''  German  Theology  " 
("  Teutsche  Theologie  ")  belongs  to  the  most  remarkable  writings  of 
the  sixteenth  century.  The  Louvain  theologian,  William  Lindanus 
(+  1588)  ;  the  Englishman,  Thomas  Stapleton,  Professor  at  Douay 
and  Louvain  (+  1598) ;  the  Jesuit  Gregory  of  Valencia  (+  1603) ; 
and  the  Cardinals  Du  Perron  (§  174),  and  Hosius  (§  186),  are  re- 
nowned as  polemical  writers.  But  the  first  place  among  these 
writers  belongs  to  the  Jesuit  Robert  Bellarmine  (+  1621),  who  was 
as  well  acquainted  with  the  writings  of  the  heretics  as  he  was  with 
those  of  the  Fathers  of  the  Church,  from  which  he  proved  the  falsity 
of  the  new  teaching.  His  brothers  in  the  order,  James  Gretser,  in 
Ingolstadt  (+  1625),  Martin  Becanus  (+  1624  at  Vienna),  as  also 
the  two  brothers  Adrian  and  Peter  de  Walenburg  (+  1675),  Vicars- 

VOL.    II.  17 


258  HISTORY    OF  THE    CATHOLIC    CHURCH. 

General  of  Culm  and  Mentz,  and  Nicholas  Serrarius,  who  closed 
his  career  as  Professor  at  Mentz  (+  1609),  also  deserve  to  be  remem- 
bered for  their  defence  of  the  Catholic  religion.  Bossuet's  well- 
known  and  distinguished  work,  "Histoire  des  variations,"  shows 
up  the  inconsistencies  and  self-contradictions  of  the  so-called  re- 
formers. Separate  dogmas  were  also  made  the  object  of  historical 
research.  The  work  of  the  Jansenists  Arnauld  and  Nicole  on  the 
Blessed  Eucharist  is  of  high  value. 

Morals  were,  as  in  early  times,  systematically  treated  of,  and 
frequently  connected  with  dogma;  many  works  on  casuistry  also 
appeared,  in  which  the  principles  were  hrst  laid  down,  and  then 
individual  cases  decided  in  accordance  with  them.  But  among  the 
influences  of  the  time  for  the  promotion  of  piety  and  good  manners, 
the  ascetical  works  breathing  the  very  atmosphere  of  genuine  mys- 
ticism and  of  interior  devotion  were  of  inestimable  value. 

Among  these,  besides  the  works  by  the  men  and  women  we  have 
already  mentioned,  may  be  named  with  a  special  commendation  the 
spiritual  exercises  ("Exercitiaspiritualia")  of  St.  Ignatius.  Besides 
these,  there  are  works  of  celebrated  men,  theologians,  Avho,  like 
Louis  Bail  {-\- 1670),  Superior  of  Port  Royal  des  Champs,  with  the 
Dominican  Contenson  (+ 1674),  and  Nicholas  Hauteville,  Doctor  of 
the  Sorbonne,  worked  out  the  "  Summa  "  of  St.  Thomas  in  an  ascetic- 
mystic  manner,  and  either  in  sermons  or  edifying  writings  added  the 
results  to  the  value  of  mediaeval  mysticism. 

The  writings  of  the  great  preacher  and  "  Apostle  of  Andalusia," 
Juan  of  Avila  (+  1568),  are  of  great  value ;  and  mystical  literature 
was  greatly  enriched  by  the  Spanish  Jesuits  Balthassar  Alvarez 
(+  1580),  Francis  Arias  ( -|-  1605),  Louis  de  Ponte  ( +  1624),  Al- 
phonsus  Rodriguez  (+  1616),  and  the  associates  of  their  order, 
Eusebius  Nieremberg  (+  1638),  Jeremias  Drexelius  (+ 1638),  chap- 
lain to  the  Elector  Maximilian  I.  of  Bavaria,  and  James  Nouet 
(-f  1680).  Cardinal  de  Berulle,  and  Olier,  founder  of  St.  Sulpice, 
the  Capuchin  d'Argentom,  and  the  JVIinorite  John  de  Cartagena 
(-f  1617).  are  to  be  numbered  auiong  the  Mystics.  The  "  Spiritual 
Combat "  commonly  ascribed  to  the  Theatine  Laurence  Scupoli 
(+  1610  in  Naples),  the  writings  of  the  two  Jesuits  Rogacci  {-\- 1719) 
and  of  Scaramelli  (+  1752),  are  prized  as  ascetical  productions. 

The  system  of  probabilities  ("  Probabilismus  "),  propounded  in 
1572  by  Bartholomew  of  Medina,  occasioned  much  controversy  among 
the  moralists,  and  was  especially  combated  by  the  Jesuit  Comitolus 
(+  1626).     Many  casuists   meantime   adopted   this   system,  which, 


THE    THEOLOGICAL    STUDIES    UF    TIUS   PERIOD.      259 

when  the  uecessary  limitations  are  applied  .to  it,  is  quite  justifiable, 
but  which  may,  ou  the  other  hand,  lead  to  so  many  erroneous  con- 
clusions, and  has  in  fact  done  so,  that  the  Apostolic  See  has  been 
obliged  to  put  a  check  ou  such  degeneracy. 

In  the  sphere  of  ecclesiastical  history,  of  patristic  lore,  and  of 
archaeology,  the  French  Congregation  of  St.  Maur  have  earned  im- 
mortal honors  by  their  critical  editions  of  the  "■  Fathers  of  the 
Church,"  by  learned  treatises  and  historico-polemical  writings.  In 
these  honors  Dominicans,  Jesuits,  and  Oratorians  participate.  The 
Bollandists  have  furnished  us  with  a  full,  copious,  detailed  account 
of  the  lives  of  the  saints,  taking  as  a  model  for  their  work  that  of 
the  Carthusian  Laurence  Surius.  The  Cardinal  Cesar  Baronius  com- 
mences the  list  of  the  great  examiners  of  history  in  the  last  cen- 
turies. The  knowledge  of  Christian  antiquity  was  much  advanced 
by  ]\Iamachi,  Selvaggio,  Martene  (+  1739),  Muratori  (+  1750) 
Pellicia,  and  others.  The  re-discovery  of  the  Roman  Catacombs 
in  1578  —  the  first  close  examination  of  which  Bosio  attempted 
with  good  success  —  gave  a  considerable  impetus  to  archaeological 
studies. 

The  works  already  before  the  public  on  canon  law  were  at  this 
time  considerably  augmented  in  number  by  copious  treatises  by 
Aug.  Barbosa  (+  1649),  Gonzalez  Tellez,  Fagnani  (-1- 1678),  Pirhing, 
Keiffenstuel,  etc. ;  as  also  by  the  learned  works  on  the  constitution 
and  discipline  of  the  Church  by  Thomassin,  Ferraris,  etc. ;  but 
especially  by  the  solid  works  on  the  fundamental  position  and  rights 
of  the  Primacy  which  the  Cardinals  Aguirre  (+  1699),  Orsi  (+  1761), 
and  Gerdil  (+1802),  the  Dominican  Roccaberti  (+  1699),.  the  Bene- 
dictine Petitdidier,  the  ]\[inorite  Bianchi  (+  1758),  the  Capuchin 
Benettis,  Adrian  and  Peter  Ballerini,  the  Jesuit  J.  B.  Bolgeni,  and 
others,  composed  and  published. 

Pulpit  oratory  took  a  higher,  more  elevated  standing  when  the 
French  preachers,  Bossuet  (+  1704),  Bourdaloue  (+ 1704),  Fenelon 
(+1715),  Massillon  (+1742),  and  others  won  their  glorious  tri- 
umphs. A  more  earnest  preacher  of  morals  was  found  in  the  Ora- 
toriau  Lejeune  (+  1672).  Among  the  Italian  pulpit  orators,  the 
Jesuit  Father  Segneri  (  +  1694)  shone  with  brilliancy.  Among  the 
Portuguese,  Vieyra  ( +  1697)  made  his  mark.  Germany  also  pos- 
sessed no  small  number  of  able  preachers,  to  which  class  belong  the 
preachers  at  the  cathedrals  of  ^Nlentz,  Nausea,  and  Wild  (Ferus, 
+  1554^,  Eisengrein  (  +  1578),  Provost  of  the  Cathedral  at  Passau, 
John  Fabri  ( +  1558)  at  Augsburg,  and  others.     The  manner  and 


260  HISTORY  OF   THE   CATHOLIC   CHURCH. 

way  in  which  the  original  and  witty  Abraham  a  Sancta  Clara 
(+ 1709)  carried  on  his  office  of  preaching  in  Vienna  is,  even  if  well 
meant,  not  compatible  with  the  dignity  of  the  Divine  Word. 

For  the  instruction  and  edification  of  the  people,  the  Jesuit  Naka- 
tenus  ("  Coeleste  palmetum "),  the  learned  and  pious  Capuchin, 
Martin  von  Cochem  (4- 1712),  the  Praemonstratian  Goffine  (+  1719), 
the  Jesuits  Goldhagen  (+  1794)  and  Vogel,  wrote  works  which,  up 
to  the  present  date,  are  the  favorite  reading  among  the  faithful. 

In  conclusion,  we  would  remark  that  the  great  theologians  and 
canonists  mentioned  above  did  not  confine  themselves  to  one  branch 
of  learning  alone,  but  cultivated  skilfully  and  with  success  every 
department  of  theological  and  philosophical  science. 

2.  Heresies  and  Schisms. 
§  196.    The  Errors  of  the  so-called  Reformers. 

The  false  theory  ^  which  Luther,  Zwinglius,  and  Calvin  propounded 
with  regard  to  justification  is  intimately  connected  with  their  views 
of  the  original  state  of  man,  and  the  consequences  of  his  fall  into 
sin;^  that  is  to  sa}',  they  denied  the  difference  between  the  natural 
and  the  supernatural  sanctity  and  justice  of  man  in  his  original 
condition,  and  explained  the  perfection  which  is  attributed  to  the 
first  man  i\&  a  natural  good  and  an  essential  part  of  his  human 
nature,  whereas  this  perfection  is  in  reality  sometldng  super- 
natural. 

With  this  fundamental  error  they  combined  the  denial  of  free-will 
("liberum  arbitrium")  to  man,  by  asserting  that  all  human  action 
is  the  resvilt  of  an  absolute  necessity,  •'  a  deed  of  God."  According 
to  this  doctrine,  original  sin  is  not  the  loss  of  the  supernatural  gift 
of  grace,  but  a  horrid  corruption  of  man's  nature,  a  wicked  desire 
and  inclination  to  sin  ("concupiscence"),  as  the  "Solida  declaratio  " 
expresses  it.  In  some  places  Calvin  calls  original  sin  "  an  anniiii- 
lation  of  God's  image  in  man ;  "  in  other  places,  "  a  horrid  disfiguring 

1  Lib.  symbol.  Eccl.  Luth.  (Confessio  Augsb.,  Apologia  confess.  Augsb.,  Articuli 
Smaloaldi,  Catechismi  Lutheri  ;  Formula  Coiicordiae),  ed.  Hasc,  ed.  Kocthc  (German), 
Corpus  lib.  symb.  Eccl.  Reform,  (the  various  symbols  of  the  Reformed  Church,  the 
catechisms  of  Geneva  and  Heidelberg),  ed.  Aiigusti,  etc.  Dorner,  Hist,  of  Protest. 
Theology.     Munich,  1867. 

2  On  the  dogmatic  contradistinctions  between  Catholics  and  Protestants,  see 
J/o/'i?c;-'.9  Symbolism;  Dollinger's  Reformation  and  its  Interior  Development  (3  vols.). 


THE   ERRORS    OF   THE   SO-CALLED   REFORMERS.     261 

of  it."  Zwiuglius  considers  it  as  a  natural  disposition  to  sin,  as  an 
evil  from  which  other  sins  spring  up  as  branches  from  a  tree. 

This  condition  of  interior  corruption,  according  to  Protestant 
views,  continues  to  exist  even  after  justification  ;  for  this  is  only  a 
declaration  of  justice  ("  favor  externus  "),  an  exterior  imputation  of 
the  merits  of  Christ,  whose  justice  is  in  virtue  of  special  faith, 
the  so-called  "  fides  specialis,"  imputed  instrumentally  to  the  sinner 
("  justitia  imputata")  without  any  interior  change  or  sanctification 
of  man  taking  place.  The  "  fides  specialis  "  is  nothing  more  than 
the  firm  confidence  possessed  by  the  sinner  that  God  will  not,  for 
the  sake  of  the  merits  of  Christ,  impute  his  sins  to  him.  When, 
therefore,  Protestants  say  that  faith  alone  justifies  ("sola  fides 
justificat "),  they  understand  by  "  fides  "  neither  the  dead  faith  nor 
the  faith  working  by  love  {"■  fides  formata  ").  The  " fides  specialis  " 
has  nothing  to  do  with  faith  in  its  proper  sense. 

A  consequence  of  this  doctrine  is  the  supposition  that  man  can 
have  the  absolute  certainty  of  the  acquired  justification,  which 
justification  he  can  never  lose ;  another  consequence  is,  the  asser- 
tion that  justice  is  equal  in  all  men,  being  capable  neither  of  increase 
nor  of  decrease. 

According  to  Luther,  the  loss  of  justification  can  only  result 
from  unbelief,  —  that  is,  from  the  want  of  ''  fides  specialis."  Cal- 
vin, however,  asserts  that  a  man  who  is  once  justified  is  absolutely 
certain  of  his  salvation,  and  can  never  again  lose  the  special 
justifying  faith. 

This  view  of  the  Genevan  reformer  is  but  a  corollary  of  his 
doctrine  of  absolute  predestination,  according  to  which  those  pre- 
destined to  life  eternal  receive  faith  and  justification,  whereas  the 
reprobate  never  participate  in  the  grace  of  justilication. 

Another  consequence  of  this  erroneous  theory  of  justification  is 
the  rejection  of  the  veneration  of  the  saints,  since,  according  to 
this  system,  no  interior  and  true  sanctification  takes  jilace,  whence 
it  follows  that  the  sinner  cannot  acquire  a  disposition  for  justi- 
fication. 

Connected  with  the  denial  of  free-will  and  the  doctrine  of  im- 
puted justice  is  the  teaching  of  these  so-called  reformers  on  good 
works.  At  first  they  denied  the  possibility  of  good  works  ;  but 
gradually  they  softened  down  the  harshness  of  a  doctrine  so  repug- 
nant to  every  Christian  feeling,  and  admitted  the  possibility  of  a 
certain  fulfilment  of  the  law.  On  the  other  hand,  they  strenuously 
denied  that  good  works  are  necessary  to  salvation,  or  that  it  is  the 


262  HISTORY   OF   THE   CATHOLIC   CHURCH. 

duty  of  the  justified  to  fultil  tlie  law ;  thus  setting  forth  a  formal 
contradistinction  between  law  and  gospel. 

When,  at  a  later  period,  Melanchthon  and  the  Protestant  theolo- 
gians, in  reply  to  various  controversies  that  had  arisen  (see  §  197), 
si^eak  of  the  use  of  good  works  to  the  justified,  they  still  regard 
them  as  matters  of  indifference  in  respect  to  the  justification  and 
sanctihcation  of  men. 

The  rejection  of  the  dogma  of  purgatory,  of  prayer  and  of  other 
good  works  for  the  dead,  of  indulgences,  and  the  denial  of  the  dis- 
tinction between  mortal  and  venial  sin,  were  but  necessary  conclu- 
sions arising  from  the  Protestant  doctrine  of  justification. 

According  to  this  doctrine,  also,  the  sacraments  could  not  be  in- 
struments of  imparting  grace  and  justice  ("  causa  instrumentalis  "). 
Luther  considers  them  only  signs  of  the  divine  promise  of  grace,  a 
means  of  confirming  the  faith  of  the  recipient  in  the  remission  of 
his  sins. 

Zwinglius  and  Socinus  considered  them  as  "  a  sign  by  which  the 
members  of  the  Christian  creed  can  be  recognized."  Calvin  teaches 
that  the  sacraments  are  outward  signs  with  which  an  interior  efficacy 
of  the  Holy  Ghost  is  connected. 

Luther  and  Zwinglius  make  the  efficacy  of  the  sacraments  depend 
on  the  belief  of  the  recipient  in  the  divine  promises.  Calvin,  on 
the  other  hand,  considers  this  efficacy  dependent  on  predestination, 
so  that  the  non-believer  —  that  is,  the  reprobate  —  receives  only  the 
outward  sign,  and  for  such  the  administration  of  the  sacraments  is 
but  an  empty  ceremony. 

Of  the  seven  sacraments,  Luther  adopted,  at  least  in  the  beginning^ 
three  ;  Zwinglius  and  Calvin,  only  two. 

Baptism,  according  to  the  so-called  reformers,  had  no  sin-destroy- 
ing power,  which  the  "  fides  specialis "  alone  possesses,  but  is 
either  a  sealing  of  faith,  or  a  sign  by  which,  as  Zwinglius  thinks, 
"  one  is  enlisted  into  a  Christian  life."  The  baptism  of  children 
presented  great  difficulties  to  the  innovators.  The  Anabaptists 
placed  them  in  a  most  painful  position,  out  of  which  they  tried  to 
get  by  adducing  various  though  insufficient  reasons  for  the  practice. 

With  regard  to  the  Holy  Eucharist,  the  opinion  of  one  differs 
from  that  of  the  other.  They  one  and  all  reject  the  sacrificial 
charactei'  of  the  sacrament,  transubstantiation,  the  permanent  pres- 
ence of  Christ  in  the  Holy  Eucharist,  and  the  adoration  of  the 
same ;  but  Luther  teaches  that  the  body  of  Christ  is  receivpd  hi, 
under  and  with  the  bread  ("in,  sub  et  cum  pane  =  consubstantiation 


FHE   ERRORS    UF    THE   SO-CALLED   REFORMERS.     263 

or  impanation).  Zwinglius  holds  that  the  Lord's  Supper  is  only  a 
memorial  of  the  suffering  and  death  of  Christ ;  while  Calvin  adopts 
a  virtual  presence  of  Christ  and  an  interior  efficacy  of  grace  as 
connected  with  the  reception  of  the  bread  and  wine,  but  only  for  the 
predestined. 

Penance  has  no  real  signification  in  the  Protestant  systems  ;  and 
although  Luther  and  Calvin  do  not  altogether  reject  it,  —  although, 
in  fact,  they  desired  to  retain  the  special  confession  of  sins,  —  they 
have  another  reason  for  it  than  that  of  a  belief  in  the  necessity  of 
confession  for  the  remission  of  such  sins  as  have  been  committed. 

All  these  opinions  were  contradictory  to  the  universal  doctrine 
that  had  been  taught  by  the  Church  in  all  ages.  To  give  them  a 
plausible  foundation,  on  which  the  so-called  reformers  proposed  to 
establish  the  truth  of  their  system,  and  to  be  able  to  demonstrate  it, 
they  propounded  a  new  rule,  asserting  that  the  Holy  Scripture  is 
the  sole  source  and  judge  of  faith, ^  by  means  of  which  man  attains 
to  faith  by  an  interior  instruction  received  from  God. 

From  what  has  been  said,  it  is  obvious  that  Luther,  Zwinglius,  and 
Calvin  had  conceived  very  erroneous  notions  of  what  constitutes  the 
Church.  The  doctrine  of  justification  by  faith  alone  ("sola  fides  "), 
and  the  immediate  interior  instruction  given  by  God  to  man  by 
means  of  Holy  Writ,  necessarily  led  to  the  rejection  of  the  exterior 
ministry  of  preaching  and  of  a  dogmatical  tradition,  as  well  as  of 
a  special  priesthood,  and  especially  of  the  necessity  of  an  exterior, 
a  visible  church. 

They  professed,  indeed,  that  the  Church  was  "  a  community  of 
hearts  in  one  faith,"  ^  —  something,  therefore,  invisible,  interior,  — 
but.  constrained  by  circumstances,  they  were  soon  obliged  to  admit  a 
visible  Church ;  for,  in  order  to  render  possible  the  establishment  of 
particular  congregations,  the  appointment  of  preachers  and  the 
administration  of  the  sacraments  according  to  the  new  rite,  and  at  the 
same  time  to  oppose  the  consequences  of  their  own  views,  —  which 
first  manifested  themselves  among  the  Anabaptists,  in  the  contempt 

'  Cf.  Formula  Concord.  Epitome  1,  De  compend.  regul. :  "  Credimus,  eonfitemur  et 
docemus,  iinicam  regulam  et  iiormam,  ex  (i[ua  omnia  dogmata,  omnesr[ue  doctores 
judieare  oporteat,  nullam  omnino  aliam  esse,  quam  prophetica  et  apostolica  scripta, 
turn  veteris,  turn  novi  testamenti."     {Ease,  1.  c.  p.  570.) 

2  Conf.  Augsb.  art.  7  :  "Item  docent,  quod  una  sancta  ecclesia  perpetuo  mansura 
sit.  Est  autem  ecclesia  congregatio  Sanctorum,  in  qua  Evangelium  recte  docetur  et 
recte  administrantur  sacramenta.  Et  ad  veram  unitatem  ecclesiae  satis  est,  consentire 
de  doctrina  evangelii  et  adnunistratione  sacramentorum."  (Hasc,  1.  c.  p.  17.)  The 
Reformed  symbols  teach  the  same  thing. 


264  HISTORY  OF   THE   CATHOLIC   CHURCH. 

they  had  for  their  preachers,  and  in  the  refractory  conduct  of  the 
people,  — these  so-called  reformers  found  themselves  compelled  to 
acknowledge  the  existence  of  a  Church  invisible  in  itself  and  of 
itself,  but  at  the  same  time  recognizable  by  the  senses,  therefore 
visible.  According  to  their  representations,  this  visible  Church  pro- 
ceeded from  the  invisible  Church  when  the  dispersed  and  hidden 
disciples  of  the  Savior  assembled  everywhere,  formed  congregations, 
and  made  preparations  for  preaching  the  pure  gospel  and  for  the 
right  administration  of  the  sacraments  ;  by  which  they  meant,  chiefly, 
the  abolition  of  the  Mass,  and  Communion  under  both  kinds.  The 
marks  by  which  this  Church  is  to  be  recognized  are,  thus,  the  right 
preaching  of  the  gospel  and  the  right  administration  of  the  sacra- 
ments ;  whereby  no  criterion  is  given  by  which  the  true  Church  is 
to  be  distinguished  from  the  false. 

It  requires  but  a  hasty  glance  at  the  history  of  Protestantism, 
especially  at  the  manner  in  which  it  was  introduced,  to  see  clearly 
that  this  confused,  intricate  mingling  of  truth  with  falsehood,  pre- 
sented by  this  view  of  the  Church,  is  contrary  alike  to  the  nature 
of  things  and  to  history. 

Although  in  theory  Luther  rejected  all  ecclesiastical  authority, 
he  did  not  hesitate  to  impose  his  own  subjective  opinions  as  objec- 
tive ones  on  others,  and  to  let  preachers  be  inducted  into  their 
office  ("  Lutheran  ordination  ")  by  temporal  princes  as  sovereign 
bishops ;  neither  did  he,  in  his  controversy  with  the  Sacramenta- 
rians,  neglect  to  appeal  to  the  traditions  of  the  Church,  to  the  com- 
mon teachings  of  the  Fathers. 

Calvin,  profiting  by  the  experience  of  Luther,  and  alarmed  at  the 
unbridled  licentiousness  which  had  spread  throughout  Geneva,  laid 
more  stress  on  the  necessity  of  a  visible  Church,  on  the  duty  of 
obedience  to  the  preacher,  and  the  like,  and  introduced  a  kind  of 
ordination  to  be  performed  by  the  presbytery  ;  but  it  is  nevertheless 
true,  that  in  doing  so,  his  views  could  neither  be  brought  into 
harmony  with  his  teaching,  nor  could  he  in  this  way  justify  his  own 
conduct  in  having  left  the  Catholic  Church. 

§  197.   Contentions  among  the  Protestants. 

The  false  principle  of  "  free  inquirj- "  which  was  propounded  by 
the  so-called  reformers  naturally  elicited  a  mass  of  dissensions 
among  those  who  adopted  that  principle ;  and  the  dissensions 
which  shortly  afterwards   broke  out  were  carried  on  with    great 


CONTENTIONS  AMONG    THE  PROTESTANTS.         265 

bitterness,  and  were  finally  decided,  not  by  the  authoritative  teach- 
ing of  the  infallible  Church,  but  by  the  caprice  of  individual 
princes. 

Besides  the  contentions  concerning  the  sacraments  and  the  adia- 
phora,^  there  was  an  Antinomian  contest  going  on,  while  Luther 
was  yet  living,  between  Melanchthon,  Luther,  and  John  Agricola 
(+ 1566),  a  professor  at  Wittenberg,  and  subsequently  chaplain  at 
the  court  ol  Berlin.  The  object  of  this  contention  was  the  sig- 
nification of  the  Law,  which  Agricola  rejected,  but  which  Luther 
wished  to  be  employed  as  a  means  of  producing  a  wholesome  fear 
of  God.  To  this  contest  may  be  added,  as  one  of  the  same  category, 
the  Majorian  conflict,  between  George  Major,  professor  in  Witten- 
berg (+ 1574),  who  maintained  the  necessity  of  good  works  to  sal- 
vation, and  the  Lutheran  zealot  Nicholas  of  Amsdorf,  who  sought 
to  prove  that  they  were  actually  prejudicial  thereto.  The  religious 
conference  at  Altenburg,  1568,  served  but  to  add  fuel  to  flame. 

About  the  same  time  the  assertion  of  Andrew  Osiander,  professor 
of  Kbnigsberg,  that  the  justification  of  man  was  interior,  an  actual 
indwelling  of  Christ  in  the  soul,  and  not  proceeding  from  a  judicial 
sentence  of  God  declaring  him  righteous,  led  to  vehement  discus- 
sions between  the  followers  of  Osiander  and  the  strict  Lutherans, 
at  the  head  of  whom  stood  Joachim  Morlin,  in  the  first  place  as 
a  mediator,  afterwards  as  the  chief  of  a  party.  The  quarrel  lasted 
after  the  death  of  Osiander,  in  1552,  whose  place  was  filled  by  the 
court  chaplain  Funk ;  and  the  followers  of  Osiander  were  victorious 
as  long  as  Duke  Albert  of  Prussia  lived.  After  his  death,  however, 
fortune  changed.  Morlin,  who  had  been  sent  into  exile,  was  recalled 
and  installed  as  Bishop  of  Samland ;  his  adversary  Funk  expiated 
his  advocacy  of  the  ''  Osiandrist  heresy  "  on  the  scaffold  in  1566, 
and  the  victory  of  Lutheran  Orthodoxy  over  Osianderism  was  cele- 
brated in  the  ''  Corpus  doctrinae  Prutenicum  "  composed  by  Martin 
Chemnitz. 

Among  the  opponents  of  Osiander  was  Francis  Stancari,  a  pro- 
fessor in  Konigsberg.  He  maintained  that  Christ  was  our  redeemer 
through  his  human  nature  alone,  that  his  divine  nature  was  not 
taken  into  consideration  in  the  work  of  redemption ;  but  by  this  he 
displeased  the  Lutherans,  and  had  to  wander  hither  and  thither 
until  he  died,  in  1574,  at  Stobnicz  in  Poland. 

^  "Adiaphora"  was  the  word  used  to  designate  questions  of  ritual  and  ceremony, 
and  others  of  minor  importance  to  those  of  doctrine. 


266  HISTORY  OF   THE   CATHOLIC   CHURCH. 

But  the  Synergistic  Controversy,  which  treated  of  the  co-opera- 
tion of  the  will  in  the  work  of  justihcation,  assumed  a  far  greater 
importance  than  the  above-named  conflict.  Melanchthon  gave 
occasion  to  it.  The  contest  began  between  John  Pfeffinger,  pro- 
fessor in  Leipsic,  and  Nicholas  of  Amsdorf,  and  was  continued  by 
the  theologians  of  Wittenberg  and  Jena;  at  length,  however,  it 
was  confined  more  especially  to  the  latter  place.  The  chief  oppo- 
nent of  synergism  was  Flacius  Illiricus,  whose  persuasions  induced 
the  Duke  John  Frederic  to  imprison  Yictorinus  Strigel,  its  ablest 
defender,  and  the  preacher  Hugel.  After  the  religious  conference 
at  Weimar,  however,  where  he  declared  original  sin  to  be  a  "sub- 
stance," he  lost  the  favor  of  the  court,  and  with  his  followers  was 
compelled  to  leave  the  country.  Under  Duke  John  William  the 
latter  were  permitted  to  return,  and  again  acquired  the  upper  hand ; 
but  the  dukedom  remained  closed  to  Flacius,  who  died  in  1575. 
The  colloquy  between  John  Wigand,  professor  at  Jena,  and  the 
Synergist  Paul  Eber,  of  Wittenberg,  in  1568,  led  to  no  result. 

The  most  formidable  enemies  of  Lutheranism  were  the  Crypto- 
Calvinists  in  the  Electorate  of  Saxony.  Melanchthon  (-{- 1560)  stood 
at  their  head,  and  after  him  his  son-in-law  Peucer,  physician  to  the 
elector  and  one  of  his  privy  council.  Most  of  the  theologians  of 
Wittenberg  were  won  over  to  their  side ;  those  of  Jena,  on  the 
other  hand,  held  firmly  to  Luther's  doctrine  concerning  the  Lord's 
Supper,  and  to  the  doctrine  propounded  by  Brenz  of  Wiirtemberg 
in  1559  concerning  the  ubiquity  of  Christ's  presence  even  in  his 
human  nature,^  and  accused  the  Philippists  of  heresy.  The  latter, 
however,  drew  to  their  side  the  Elector  Augustus,  who,  although  a 
strict  Lutheran,  declared  the  "  Corpus  doctrinae  Philippicum  "  to  be 
a  symbolical  book,  which,  at  the  religious  conference  at  Altenburg 
in  1569,  he  insisted  on  all  preachers  accepting  on  pain  of  losing 
their  places.  The  distrust  which  the  Wittenberg  Catechism  awak- 
ened in  his  mind  in  1571,  the  secret  Calvinists  knew  how  to  allay 
by  the  "Consensus  Dresdensis."  The  deluded  elector  even  drove 
the  zealous  Lutherans  Hesshusius  and  Wigand  out  of  the  Duchy  of 
Saxony,  in  which,  after  the  death  of  John  William,  he  exercised  the 
office  of  regency  for  the  lieir,  who  was  yet  a  minor.  But  his  anger 
was  all  the  more  excited  by  the  publication  of  the  "  Exegesis  per- 

1  With  this  doctrine  the  view  concerniug  the  "  Comraunicatio  Idiomatum  "  is 
connected.  This  was  likewise  an  object  of  contention  between  the  Liitherans  and 
the  Reformed.  The  latter  accused  the  Liitheraus  of  Monophysitism,  on  which  the 
others  cast  the  reproach  of  Nestorianism  on  the  Reformers. 


CONTENTIONS  AMONG    THE   PROTESTANTS.  267 

spicua  controversiae  de  coena  Domini,"  which  laid  open  Calvin's 
doctrine  of  the  Lord's  Supper  witliout  disguise;  his  wrath  then 
broke  out  violently  against  the  Crypto-Calvinists,  and  they  had  to 
expiate  their  offences  severely.  The  Chancellor  Cracov  and  the 
court  chaplain  Stoessel  died  in  prison ;  Peucer  languislied  in  con- 
hneiuent  from  the  year  1574  till  1586.  Those  who  were  of  Calvin- 
istic  sentiments  were  driven  from  their  places,  and  the  strict 
Lutherans  installed  in  their  stead.  A  medal  was  struck  commemo- 
rating the  triumph  of  orthodoxy  over  reason  and  the  devil. 

In  order  to  put  an  end  to  the  disputes  among  the  Lutherans, 
a  Form  of  Concord  was  drawn  up  on  the  28th  of  May,  1577,  in  the 
monastery  of  Bergen,  near  Magdeburg,  by  James  Andrea,  Chancellor 
of  Tubingen,  Martin  Chemnitz,  a  Saxon  theologian,  and  iS'icholas 
Selnecker ;  this  was  to  serve  as  a  model  for  doctrine.  It  was  with 
reluctance  that  the  preachers  of  the  Electorate  of  Saxony  signed 
this  document.  In  many  Lutheran  courts  the  opposition  was  still 
greater ;  they  rejected  the  Form  of  Concord  in  so  decided  a  manner 
that  this  Formula  of  Concord  became  a  Form  of  Discord.^ 

It  was  not  even  found  possible  to  force  the  acceptance  of  this 
formula  on  the  Crypto-Calvinists  in  the  Electorate  of  Saxony ;  on 
the  contrary,  under  Christian  I.  the  attempt  was  renewed  by  them 
to  regain  the  upper  hand  for  themselves.  The  prospects  were  favor- 
able. The  Chancellor  Nicholas  Crell,  a  concealed  Calvinist,  used  his 
influence  with  the  elector  in  favor  of  Calvinism,  the  introduction 
of  which  went  rapidly  forward.  Most  of  the  Lutheran  preachers 
concluded  that  it  was  best  to  teach  according  to  the  sentiments  of 
the  court ;  those  who  did  not  do  this  were  deposed  and  exiled. 
Good  Calvinists  were  put  in  their  places.  The  work  thus  begun 
had  even  better  success  when  in  1590  the  Calvinistic  Bible  appeared, 
with  its  interpolations  and  interpretations.  In  the  year  following 
the  Crypto-Calvinists  abolished  the  exorcisms.  Then  the  Electoral 
Prince  died,  and  the  predominance  of  Calvinists  came  to  an  end  in 
Saxony.  Crell,  after  undergoing  a  horrible  imprisonment  of  ten 
long  years,  was  beheaded ;  his  followers  had  the  choice  given  them 
either  to  leave  the  Electorate  of  Saxony  or  adopt  Lutheranism.^ 

1  It  was  not  till  the  25th  of  June,  1580,  that  fifty-one  Lutheran  Princes  and 
States,  at  the  diet  held  at  Dresden,  accepted  the  Lutheran  Symbol  in  the  modified 
Codex  of  the  Elector  Augustus,  which  also  contained  the  Formula  of  Concord. 

2  The  principal  defenders  of  orthodox  Lutheranism  were  Martin  Chemnitz  ( "  si 
Martinus,  scl.  Chemnitius  non  fuisset,  Maitinus,  sol.  Lutherus,  non  stetisset  ").  John 
Gerhard,  Professor  at  Jena  (1637),  and  Leonard  Hutter  in  Wittenberg  (+  1616).     The 


268  HISTORY   OF   THE   CATHOLIC   CHURCH. 

A  few  years  after  this  strife  with  the  Crypto-Calvinists  was 
ended,  the  Syncretistic  Controversy  began,  through  the  medium  of 
the  learned  and  conciliatory  George  Calixtus,  who  from  the  year 
1619  had  been  professor  at  the  University  of  Helmstadt.  His  very 
first  writings  aroused  the  suspicions  of  the  more  strict  Lutherans, 
and  these  were  increased  in  the  year  1629,  until  the  contest  broke 
forth  after  the  religious  conference  at  Thorn,  1645.  ]\Iost  of  the  pro- 
fessors of  Helmstadt,  who,  together  with  the  Form  of  Concord,  had 
rejected  the  narrow  views  of  Lutheranism,  and  the  slandering  of 
philosophy  by  Daniel  Hofmann  in  1602,  with  somewhat  of  vehe- 
mence, now  took  part  with  Calixtus ;  while  the  theologians  of  the 
Electorate  of  Saxony,  Weller,  Hiilseman,  Scherpf,  with  the  hot  and 
excitable  Abraham  Calovius,  professor  in  Wittenberg  (from  the  year 
1650),  were  violently  opposed  to  him.  Calixtus  was  accused  of 
syncretism  and  cryptopapism,  because  he,  although  continually 
opposing  the  Catholics  in  his  polemics,  neither  denied  salvation 
to  them  nor  to  the  members  of  the  reformed  communion.  It  was 
in  order  to  combat  more  effectually  the  secret  papists,  whose  friends 
Latermann,  Behm,  and  Dreier  were  harshly  persecuted  and  calum- 
niated in  Konigsberg,  that  Calovius  drew  up  the  "  Consensus  fidei 
repetitus  Ecclesiae  Lutheranae,"  in  eighty-eight  articles,  without, 
however,  being  able  to  give  it  the  authority  of  a  creed  or  symbol. 
The  attempts  at  mediation  made  by  the  theologians  of  Jena  proved 
fruitless ;  the  strife  continued  even  after  the  death  of  Calixtus 
(+ 1656),  some  of  whose  disciples  became  Catholics. 

Of  the  conflicts  among  the  Calvinists,  the  Arminian  disputes  in 
Holland  deserve  attention.  Dissatisfied  with  the  strict  doctrine 
of  predestination  taught  by  Calvin,  James  Arminius,  professor  at 
Leyden,  moderated  this  in  some  points,  but  found  a  violent  oppo- 
nent in  his  colleague,  Frank  Gomarus.  The  preachers  espoused 
the  cause  of  the  latter ;  the  people,  that  of  the  former.  After  the 
death  of  Arminius,  in  1609,  Episcopius,  one  of  his  adherents,  pre- 
sented in  1610  a  remonstrance^  to  the  States,  and  desired  religious 
freedom.      Two    political   parties   at   that   time   divided   Holland. 

theological  compendium  of  the  last-named  was  lately  edited  by  Hose  ( "  Hutterus  redi- 
vivus"),  with  remarks  upon  it. 

1  It  contains  the  Arminian  system  in  five  articles.  Predestination  is  by  divine 
foresight  rendered  conditional  on  the  human  use  or  application  of  grace  ;  only  those 
who  believe  in  Christ  and  persevere  in  obedience  are  saved  ;  Christ  died  for  all  men  ; 
man  cannot  of  his  own  strength  be  saved  without  grace,  but  grace  does  not  act  irre- 
sistibly ;  the  believer  can  persevere  in  grace,  but  also  he  can  lose  both  grace  and 
faith  through  negligence. 


THE  SMALLER   J'llUTESTAMT  SECTS.  269 

Maurice,  Prince  of  Orange,  took  sides  with  the  Gomarists ;  his 
opponent  Olclenbarneveld,  with  the  Armiuians.  Maurice  conquered  ; 
and  that  decided  the  fate  of  the  Arminians.  Oklenbarnevekl  was 
beheaded,  Hugo  Grotius  thrown  into  prison;  and  at  the  Synod  of 
Dordrecht,  1018,  which  was  attended  by  Calvinists  from  many 
countries,  the  strictest  doctrine  of  predestination  was  insisted  on 
as  dogma.  The  Armiuians  were  excommunicated,  and  forbidden 
to  hold  divine  service. 

The  party  of  Collegiants  was  now  formed.  At  their  head  stood 
the  three  brothers  Van  der  Codde.  They  hekl  their  religious  assem- 
blies in  private  houses,  and  separated  themselves  from  the  Gomarists 
(who  were  divided  into  Supralapsarans  and  Infralapsarans),  not 
only  by  their  Arminiau  predestination  doctrine,  but  also  by  their 
rejection  of  baptism,  etc. 

In  England  some  Latitudiuarians,  —  among  whom  John  Hales 
(+  1656)  played  a  conspicuous  part,  —  and  in  France  some  of  the 
reformed  theologians,  combated  Calvin's  doctrine  concerning  pre- 
destination. 

§  198.    TJie  Smaller  Protestant  Sects. 

Several  persons,  dissatisfied  with  the  half-measures  of  the  orthodox 
Protestant  sects,  separated  themselves  at  a  very  early  period  from 
the  Lutheran  State  churches,  and  became  founders  of  smaller  sects, 
Avhich  took  principally  a  fanatical  or  rationalistic  direction,  according 
as  the  sectaries  developed  the  principles  of  the  reformer  on  the  one 
side  or  the  other,  and  gave  them  thus  a  wider  scope. 

While  Luther  yet  lived,  the  enthusiastico-fanatical  Anabaptists  in 
Wittenberg,  who  founded  the  new  Jerusalem  in  Munster,  made  their 
appearance ;  and  later  emerged  under  another  form,  that  of  Men- 
nonites,  called  so  from  their  founder,  Menno  Simonis  (+  1561).  The 
members  of  this  sect,  who  agreed  with  one  another  in  rejecting 
the  baptism  of  children,  in  the  doctrine  concerning  the  Lord's  Sup- 
per, in  that  of  justification,  in  their  views  as  to  what  constitutes  the 
Church,  as  well  as  in  their  unwillingness  to  undertake  military 
service  or  any  official  duty,  in  their  refusal  to  take  an  oath,  and  the 
like,  at  length  split  into  two  sects  (in  1554),  —  "  Fine "  (chiefly 
Flemings)  and  "  Coarse "  (Waterlanders)  Mennonites ;  further,  in 
consequence  of  a  dispute  as  to  the  conditions  under  which  a  mem- 
ber should  be  received  into  their  union,  in  1664  they  received  the 
names  of  Galenists  on  one  side,  and  of  Apostoolists  on  the  other, 
from  their  heads  Galenus  and  Apostool. 


270  HISTORY  OF   THE   CATHOLIC   CHURCH. 

The  spiritual  sect  of  tlie  Schwenkfeldians  may  also  be  traced 
back  to  the  times  of  the  Wittenberg  reformer.  Caspar  von  Schwenk- 
feld,  from  Ossig  in  Silesia,  was  at  first  a  warm  follower  of  Luther, 
but  afterwards  rejected  his  doctrine  of  justification,  together  with 
the  authority  of  the  mere  exterior  word  and  of  the  dead  letter ;  he 
denied  the  efficacy  of  the  sacraments,  propounded  new  views  of  the 
Lord's  Supper,  and  in  his  doctrine  of  the  two  natures  in  Christ  fell 
into  Eutychianism ;  he  was  the  special  advocate  of  interior  puritj^ 
of  life  as  necessary  for  man,  in  opposition  to  the  doctrine  of  imputed 
righteousness.  Being  for  a  long  time  persecuted  by  Luther  and  his 
friends  as  a  heretic,  Schweukfeld  wandered  about  lestlessly,  and 
died  at  Ulm  in  1561.  His  adherents  have  settled  in  Silesia  and 
Pennsylvania. 

As  time  went  on,  and  Lutheranism  developed  itself  more  and 
more  into  a  dr}^  dogmatism  and  an  unfruitful  pulpit  polemic,  such 
men  as  sought  for  an  interior  Christianity  felt  themselves  more  and 
more  repelled  from  it.  A  reaction  on  the  side  of  such  as  these 
against  orthodox  Lutheranism  was  inevitable,  though  it  many  times 
manifested  itself  in  a  false  fantastic  mysticism.  But  the  works  of 
J.  Arndt  (+ 1621),  the  general  superintendent,  were  free  from  such 
errors,  as  he  had  made  diligent  use  of  Catholic  mysticism ;  while,  on 
the  other  hand,  false  mysticism  is  so  much  the  more  apparent  in 
the  writings  of  Valentine  Weigel  (+  1558),  preacher  at  Zschoi^au  in 
Saxony. 

The  secret  society  of  Rosicrucians,  the  origin  of  which  is  accredited 
to  the  satyrical  writings  of  John  Valentine  Andrea  (+  1654),  Protes- 
tant Abbot  of  Adelberg,  plunged  and  floundered  deeper  yet  in  the 
labyrinth  of  false  mysticism,  of  magic,  alchemy,  and  the  like  pursuits, 
from  the  errors  of  which  the  views  of  the  original  Theosophist, 
James  Bohme  (1624),  a  cobbler  of  Gorlitz,  were  not  free.  The  study 
of  the  works  of  the  physician  Theophrastus  Bombast  of  Hohenheim, 
commonly  called  Paracelsus  (+  1541),  exercised  no  small  influence  in 
directing  the  spirit  of  this  ''  German  philosopher."  J.  B.  Gichtel 
(+  1710),  the  founder  of  the  Gichtelians,  or  Brothers  of  the  Angels, 
was  an  extraordinary  admirer  of  Bohme. 

The  main  assault  on  Lutheran  orthodoxy  was  made  by  the  Pietists, 
who  formed  a  church  within  a  church  ("  ecclesiola  in  ecclesia"). 
Their  spiritual  father  is  Philip  James  Spener,  who  in  1666  was  at 
first  dean  in  Frankfort,  then  chaplain  to  the  court  in  Dresden,  and 
from  the  year  1691  provost  in  Berlin.  He  died  in  1705.  In  his 
"Pia  desideria,"  which  appeared  in  1675,  he  deeply  laments  the 


THE   SMALLER   PROTESTANT  SECTS.  271 

alienation  and  decline  of  Lutheranism,  and  sought  by  his  pious 
reunions  ("  Collegia  pietatis  "j  to  inculcate  and  found  a  system  of 
interior  piety.  The  undertaking  of  Spener,  who  rejected  the  author- 
ity of  the  symbolic  books,  declared  dogma  useless  in  regard  to  lead- 
ing a  Christian  life,  and  held  the  theology  of  "those  not  born  again  " 
for  no  true  theology  at  all,  called  forth  both  approbation  and  oppo. 
sition.  The  orthodox  Lutherans,  Carpzov  and  Loscher  in  Leipsic, 
were  violent  to  an  extraordinary  degree  against  August  Herman 
Franke,  Paul  Anton,  and  Caspar  Schade,  the  founders  of  the 
"  Collegium  philobiblicum,"  and  in  1690  succeeded  in  driving  them 
away. 

About  this  time  the  University  of  Halle  was  established,  to  which 
Franke,  Anton,  IJreithaupt,  and  similar-minded  men  were  called. 
Thomasius  also  joined  them,  although  belonging  to  another  direc- 
tion, so  that  the  university  became  the  head  bulwark  of  pietism. 
Here  it  was  that  Franke  founded  the  celebrated  Orphan  House. 
The  violent  contentions  which  broke  out  between  Sj)ener's  adherents 
and  the  orthodox  theologians  laid  open  the  nakedness  and  inconsis- 
tency of  Lutheranism,  in  the  stead  of  which  the  Pietists  introduced 
a  false  emotional  system  of  religion. 

Like  the  Pietists,  the  Herrnhuters  (watchers  of  the  Lord),  or  the 
New  United  Brethren,  joined  the  pride  of  Separatists,  which  in  them 
was  keenly  prominent,  to  a  one-sided  emotional  enthusiasm.  The 
sect  arose  from  an  association  of  some  "Awakened  "  Protestant  with 
some  wandering  Moravian  brothers  (1722),  and  for  spiritual  superior 
had  the  Count  Nicholas  Louis  von  Zinzendorf,  who,  assisted  by  his 
friends  Von  Wattewille  and  Spangenberg,  in  1727  organized  the 
community  of  brothers.  In  1737  he  was  ordained  bishop  by  the 
court  chaplain  Jablonski  in  Berlin ;  but  in  1741  he  laid  aside  this 
office,  and  called  himself  only  the  ordinary  of  the  brothers  ("  Ordi- 
narius  fratrum").  Being  driven  out  of  the  Electorate  of  Saxony  as 
a  heretic  on  account  of  his  confused  views  of  religion,  he  settled  for 
a  while  in  Wetterau,  besides  which  lie  made  several  voyages  to 
America  and  other  places  in  order  to  convert  the  heathen.  He  died 
in  1760. 

The  whole  community,  which  laid  no  stress  on  the  difference  of 
creeds,  was  divided  in  1744  into  three  tropes  (rpoTroi  TratSeias),  —  the 
Lutheran,  the  Moravian,  and  the  Reformed.  Their  central  point 
of  union  is  the  doctrine  of  redemption  through  the  bloody  sacri- 
ficial death  of  Christ  (the  Cross  and  Blood  Theology)  and  that  of 
union  with  Christ,  which  Zinzendorf  often  represented  under  absurd 


272  HISTORY  OF   THE   CATHOLIC   CHURCH. 

and  sometimes  even  under  obscene  figures  of  speech,  in  his  sermons 
and  his  hymns.  Divine  worship  was  performed  in  halls;  and  Agapae, 
or  love-feasts,  preceded  the  celebration  of  the  Lord's  Supper.  Many- 
members  of  this  sect  took  upon  themselves  the  obligation  of  the  hour 
of  prayer ;  this  prayer  lasted  from  midnight  to  midnight,  and  the 
watchers  were  relieved  every  hour.  On  some  days  relaxation  was 
granted,  when  private  prayer  was  to  supply  the  duty.  The  general 
synod  was  the  appointed  guide  of  the  whole  community  of  brethren  ; 
by  this  the  united  conference  of  elders  was  chosen.  Individual  com- 
munities became  united  in  distinct  choirs  ;  disputes  were  decided 
by  the  judicial  authority  of  the  community.  Appointment  to  places 
and  reception  of  members  and  the  like  were  determined  by  lot, 
which  in  the  earlier  days  was  also  the  case  with  marriages.  Among 
the  Lutheran  theologians  Carpzov,  Baumgarten,  and  Bengel  were 
foremost  in  the  polemical  contest  with  the  Herrnhuters  ;  besides 
Zinzendorf,  their  defence  was  undertaken  by  August  Theophilus 
Spangenberg  (+ 1792),  the  most  learned  theologian ,  belonging  to 
the  union.  The  sect  spread  beyond  Germany :  it  found  its  way 
to  England  in  1749,  and  to  Russia ;  moreover,  it  had  its  mission 
stations. 

The  Methodists  ("  Methodus  vitae")  in  England  are  akin  to  the 
Herrnhuters.  At  first  (1729)  they  formed  an  association  of  students 
in  Oxford,  under  the  leadership  of  John  Wesley.  In  doctrine  they 
did  not  differ  from  that  of  the  High  Church ;  but  they  were  intent  on 
cultivating  the  religious  life  in  their  own  persons,  and  at  the  same 
time  making  headway  against  the  increasing  infidelity  and  moral 
depravity  of  their  age.  In  the  year  1732  the  small  association 
received  an  important  coadjutor  in  George  Whitefield,  a  man  of 
forcible  eloquence,  who  founded  schools  for  the  children  of  the 
poor,  and  soon  gained  great  numbers  of  adherents. 

Charles  Wesley,  brother  to  John,  when  on  a  voyage  to  North 
America  in  1735,  made  the  acquaintance  of  some  Herrnhuters,  and 
was  favorably  impressed  by  their  teaching  and  their  practices.  In 
the  company  of  Spangenberg,  he  in  1738  visited  several  of  their 
communities  in  Germany  and  Holland.  He  was  powerfully  im- 
pressed by  the  doctrine  that  after  experiencing  strong  feelings  on 
the  subject,  the  conscious  presence  of  divine  grace,  accompanied  by 
a  heavenly  peace,  would  suddenly  make  itself  felt  in  the  soul.  But 
it  was  not  till  May,  1739  (1738  ?),  that  he  enjoyed  this  happy  state 
himself;  and  since  then  this  doctrine  has  been  zealously  preached. 
Numerous  conversions,  frequently  accompanied  by  convulsions  of 


THE    SMALLER    PROTESTANT  SECTS.  273 

the  body,  took  place.  Auglican  clergymen  soon  denounced  the 
Methodists  as  eccentric  enthusiasts  and  fanatics,  for  which  cause 
the  latter  gradually  separated  themselves  and  formed  a  sect  apart ; 
John  Wesley  assuming  the  office  of  a  bishop,  ordaining  ministers 
and  appointing  bishops. 

For  a  time  an  intimate  association  existed  between  the  Methodists 
and  Herrnhuters,  and  they  held  meetings  in  common  at  London. 
But  this  union  did  not  last  long:  apart  from  the  personal  rivalry 
of  Wesley  and  Zinzendorf,  there  was  a  great  discrepancy  between 
the  two  sects  in  the  teachings  respecting  the  workings  of  grace  and 
of  regeneration. 

Shortly  after  the  Methodists  themselves  broke  into  a  schism.^ 
Wesley  and  Whitefield  became  divided  in  opinion ;  the  latter  adopted 
Calvin's  views  on  predestination,  the  former  those  of  Arminius.  In 
this  way  arose  Wesleyan  Methodists  and  those  following  Whitefield, 
who  carried  on  a  bitter  controversy  with  each  other.  Notwithstand- 
ing their  aspirations  after  perfection,  many  Wesleyans  fell  into 
Antiuomian  principles  and  led  frightfully  immoral  lives.  Fletcher,^ 
an  ardent  and  active  disciple  of  Wesley,  drew  special  attention  to 
the  difference  of  principle  between  Wesley  and  Whitefield,  thus 
widening  the  chasm.  In  1771  a  conference  was  held,  at  which  John 
Wesley,  who  had  been  appalled  at  the  advancement  of  immorality, 
took  the  lead  as  president.  It  was  found  that  the  cause  of  the  dis- 
order proceeded  from  the  view  that  Christ  had  abolished  the  moral 
law. 

As  a  general  rule,  the  Methodists,  especially  the  Wesleyans,  con- 
tinued to  insist  on  the  necessity  of  interior  sanctification  and  per- 
fection. They  claimed  to  be  iii  extraordinary  communion  with  God, 
maintained  that  they  had  a  divine  mission  and  the  gift  of  grace, 
rejected  reasoning  in  matters  of  revelation,  held  their  religious 
services  mainly  if  not  entirely  in  accordance  with  the  liturgy  of  the 
English  Establishment,  and  introduced  immersion  at  baptism.  The 
whole  community  received  the  Lord's  Supper  every  Sunday ;  every 
Wednesday  night  a  meeting  of  all  the  members  took  place  ;  Saturday 
night  was  spent  in  teaching,  singing,  and  praying.  Every  community 
was  divided  into  classes,  and  these  into  bands  ;  several  communities 
formed  a  circuit,   presided  over  by  a  superintendent;  several  cir- 

1  R.  Sauihcy's  Life  of  John  Wesley,  etc.  2  vols.  T.  Jackson,  Historj'  of  the 
Commencement,  Progress,  and  Present  State  of  Methodism.  London,  1838.  S.  War- 
ren.  Chronicles  and  Digest  of  Laws,  etc.,  of  Methodism.     2  vols.     London,  1827. 

2  See  Fletcher  s  Checks  to  Antinomianism,  vol.  ii.  pp.  22,  200,  215. 

VOL.  II.  18 


274  HISTORY  OF   THE    CATHOLIC   CHURCH. 

cuits  made  a  district.     The  annual  conference  formed  the  supreme 
governing  body. 

England,  and  still  more  America  were  the  chief  countries  visited  by 
the  Methodists.  Whitefield  died  at  Newburyport  in  1770.  At  the 
death  of  John  Wesley  in  1791,  his  system  had  in  England  three 
hundred  and  thirteen,  and  in  North  America  one  hundred  and 
ninety-eight  ecclesiastics,  with  on  the  whole  about  one  hundred  and 
thirty  thousand  adherents.  He  left  numerous  writings.  The  num- 
bers of  the  Methodists  continually  increased,  but  so  also  did  the 
schisms  in  the  sect. 

False  spiritualism  is  developed  in  the  most  consecutive  manner 
by  the  Quakers,  or  Friends.^  George  Fox,  a  cobbler,  born  at  Drayton, 
a  village  of  Leicestershire,  in  1624  (-f  1791),  a  man  of  melancholy 
temperament,  is  generally  recognized  as  the  founder  of  the  sect. 
Filled  with  interior  light,  he  came  forth  in  1649  as  a  preacher,  and 
gained  adherents,  who,  however,  on  account  of  their  wild  fanaticism 
and  senseless  visionary  ravings,  were  very  hardly  dealt  with  by  the 
English  Government.  It  was  under  James  II.  that  they  first  received 
toleration,  and  under  William  III.  that  they  attained  religious  free- 
dom. In  1681  the  Quakers  came  to  America  (Pennsylvania)  under 
William  Penn  (-f  1718).  The  fundamental  principle  of  their  system 
is  the  doctrine  of  the  inner  light,  or  enlightenment  from  heaven, 
which  is  the  cause  of  religious  knowledge  and  the  source  of  a  pious 
life.  It  is  from  this  light  that  the  Holy  Scriptures  derive  their 
authority  and  sense.  Exterior  worship,  ecclesiastical  ceremonies, 
the  holy  sacraments,  are  useless  and  superfluous.  On  this  account 
the  sect  has  no  special  order  or  class  of  preachers  as  administrators 
of  the  divine  office  of  teaching,  neither  have  they  any  defined  liturgy. 
To  the  peculiarities  of  the  Quakers,  in  which  convulsions  play  no 
insignificant  part,  belong  the  omission  of  the  usual  signs  of  polite- 
ness, refusal  to  take  an  oath,  to  pay  tithes,  and  to  perform  military 
service.  A  degree  of  moral  earnestness  is  shown  in  the  prohibition 
of  certain  games,  of  theatrical  amusements,  and  of  dancing.  Music 
is  also  forbidden.  The  members  of  the  Society  who  do  not  strin- 
gently live  up  to  these  rules  are  called  "  wet "  Quakers  ;  those  who 
observe  them  strictly  are  termed  "  dry."  Their  chief  theologian  is 
Kobert  Barclay  (+  1690). 

1  Robert  Barclay,  Theologiae  vere  Christianae  apologiae  (2d  ed. ).  London,  1729. 
W.  R.  JFagstaf,  History  of  the  Society  of  Friends.  New  York,  1836.  Mohler, 
Symbolism,  p.  568. 


THE   SMALLER   PROTESTANr   SECTS.  275 

The  doctrinal  system  of  Eniauuel  Swedenborg  ^  (1()88-1772)  is  a 
singular  mixture  of  rationalism  and  false  mysticism.  Emanuel 
was  the  son  of  Jesper  Swedberg,  the  Lutheran  titular  bishop  of 
Skara,  in  West  Gothland.  He  professed  to  have  received  a  call  from 
God  to  restore  original  Christianity  and  to  found  the  Church  of  the 
New  Jerusalem.  The  doctrine  of  Swedenborg  has  an  eminently 
practical  bearing.  He  combated  alike  the  Protestant  doctrine  of 
justification  and  Calvin's  predestination.  The  Trinity  is  to  him 
only  a  triple  manifestation  of  the  Godhead ;  he  rejects  the  doctrine 
of  the  fall  of  man,  and  of  original  sin,  together  with  the  Christian 
idea  of  the  resurrection.  He  treats  the  doctrine  of  redemption 
according  to  the  interpretation  of  the  Gnostics,  and  in  particular 
denies  the  vicarious  atonement  of  Christ.  Of  the  sacraments  he 
retains  only  baptism  and  the  Lord's  Supper.  Like  the  ancient 
heretics,  Swedenborg  treats  and  interprets  Holy  Writ  in  an  arbi- 
trary fashion.  Of  the  Xew  Testament  he  accepts  only  the  four 
Gospels  and  the  Apocalypse.  His  followers  were  quite  numerous ; 
in  Sweden  they  numbered  about  two  thousand,  and  they  spread  to 
England,  North  America,  France,  and  Wurtemberg.  Tafel  of  Tu- 
bingen is  in  the  last-named  country  a  special  defender  of  his  views ; 
he  is  also  the  publisher  of  his  fantastic  writings. 

The  Baptists  in  England  originated  in  1608.  They  were  inde- 
pendent of  the  Mennonites  in  Germany  and  Holland,  but  did  not 
rise  into  importance  before  1688.  They  administered  baptism  to 
adults  only  and  by  complete  immersion,  strictly  adhered  to  the  Cal- 
vinistic  doctrine  of  predestination,  kept  holy  the  Sabbath  day  (Satur- 
day )  instead  of  Sunday,  and  frequently  held  Antinomian  views.  A 
community  of  Baptists  was  formed  at  New  York  in  1762,  and  their 
opinions  spread  rapidly  in  America,  where  their  numbers  increased, 
especially  of  that  part  of  the  sect  which  acknowledged  free-will 
(1780). 

Among  the  non-episcopal  religious  associations  of  England  that 
of  the  Presbyterians  had  been  the  strongest ;  but  in  the  eighteenth 
century  it  disappeared  almost  wholly,  owing  to  change  of  doctrine 
among  them.  The  most  prominent  theologians  of  this  sect,  Richard 
Baxter  and  Daniel  Williams,  had  so  clearly  and  convincingly  proved 
the  contradictions  involved  in  the  Calvinistic  theory  on  justification 
and  the  detrimental  effect  it  had  on  morals,  that  most  congregations 

^  Mohlcrs  Symbolism,  p.  568.  Gorres,  Swedenborg  and  his  Relation  to  the  Church. 
Strasburg,  1827. 


276  HISTORY  OF  THE   CATHOLIC   CHURCH. 

gave  up  the  doctrine  and  took  to  Arminianism,  by  which  the  spir- 
itual bond  was  dissolved  and  the  dismembering  process  begun. 
Others  turned  to  Ariauism,  and  thence  naturally  slid  into  the  so-called 
Unitarianism,  which  holds  Christ  to  be  a  man.  The  rationalistic 
tendency  of  this  sect  was  more  closely  developed  and  defended  by 
Lselius  Socinus  (+  1562),  a  friend  of  Melanchthon.^  It  denies  the 
fundamental  articles  of  Christianity  ;  namely,  the  Trinity,  original 
sin,  the  redemption,  the  efficacy  of  the  sacraments,  etc  The  Uni- 
tarians found  admittance  chiefly  in  Poland,  where  they  received  the 
name  of  Socinians  from  their  chief  leader,  Faustus  Socinus  (+  1604), 
the  nephew  of  Laelius.  Driven  out  of  Poland,  they  found  a  refuge 
in  Prussia  and  Transylvania.  In  the  latter  country  Socinian  com- 
munities still  exist.^ 

§  199.    Controversies  on  the  Relation  tvliich  Grace  hears  to 
Free-  Will. 

The  question  as  to  how  the  efficacy  of  grace  harmonizes  with  the 
freedom  of  the  human  will  caused  great  disputations  among  Catholic 
theologians.  Some  laid  so  great  a  stress  on  grace  that  they  seemed 
even  to  deny  the  freedom  of  the  will,  while  others  defended  that 
free-will  so  strongly  that  they  appeared  to  exclude  the  necessity  of 
divine  grace. 

Michael  Baius,^  professor  of  theology  at  Louvain,  belonged  to  the 
first  class.  He,  like  his  colleague  John  Hessel,  was  an  oi)ponent 
of  the  scholastic  method,  for  which  they  wanted  to  substitute  the 
positive.  The  false  assertions  of  Baius  respecting  the  original  state 
of  man,  the  nature  of  original  sin,  the  state  of  fallen  man,  and 
especially  his  opinions  on  free-will,  good  works,  and  their  merits, 
were  condemned  by  Pius  V.  in  the  bull  "  Ex  omnibus  afflictionibus  " 
(Oct.  1,  1567),  in  seventy-nine  articles.* 

The  adherents  of  Baius  opposed  the  papal  decision,  which  they 
sought  to  interpret  in  a  way  more  favorable  to  themselves  by  chang- 

1  See  Trechsel,  Protestant  Anti-Trinitarians  before  Faustus  Socinus.  2  vols.  Heidel- 
berg, 1844. 

2  The  Catechism  of  Rakau  is  a  main  source  for  this  sect  (1609).  Catech.  Racovi- 
ensis,  ed.  Oeder.     Frankfort,  1739. 

3  Baii,  Op.  Colon.  1696.  Petavius,  De  theolog.  dogma,  tom.  iii.  Conference 
d' Angers  sur  la  grace.     Paris,  1789.     Du  Che.tne,  Hist,  du  Bajanisme.    Donay,  1731. 

*  BuUar.  Rom.  (ed.  Taurin.)  viii.  314  s([i\.  Edit,  stereotyp.  Cone.  Trid.  Lips. 
p.  273  sqq.     Cf.  Denzinger,  Enchir.  p.  302  sqq. 


RELATION   WHICH  GRACE  BEARS  TO  FREE-WILL.   277 

ingthe  punctuation;^  and  this  caused  Gregory  XIII.  (Jan.  29, 1579) 
to  renew  the  sentence  of  his  predecessor.  Baius  submitted,  and 
died  in  peace  with  the  Church,  1589. 

The  opponents  of  Baius  were  two  Jesuits,  Leonard  Lessius  and 
John  Hamel  (1587),  whose  views  on  the  relation  of  grace  to  free-will 
went  to  the  opposite  extreme,  and  seemed  to  the  Louvain  professors 
to  savor  of  Semi-Pelagianism.  The  theological  faculty  disclaimed 
thirty-four  of  the  propositions  drawn  from  the  writings  of  the  two 
al)ove-named,  and  the  University  of  Douay  confirmed  this  decision. 
The  Belgian  bishops  were  divided  in  their  opinions ;  and  the  Apos- 
tolic See,  to  whom  the  controversy  was  referred  for  decision,  com- 
manded both  parties  to  await  that  decision,  and  meanwhile  not  to 
censure  each  other. 

But  before  the  Holy  See  had  passed  judgment  on  the  matter,  the 
controversy  broke  out  anew  in  Spain.  The  doctrine  of  the  Domini- 
cans, of  the  "  praedeterminatio  "  or  "praemotia  physica,"  whose  chief 
defender  was  Bannez,  gave  offence  to  the  Jesuits.  It  was  assailed 
by  Louis  Molina,  who,  while  fully  recognizing  the  principle  of  the 
necessity  of  grace,  placed  the  cause  of  its  efficacy,  not  in  the  "  prae- 
motio,"  but  in  the  free  assent  of  the  human  will.  He  traced  the 
infallible  efficacy  of  grace  back  to  the  so-called  mediate  knowledge 
of  God  ("  scientia  Dei  media  "),  as  had  been  taught  by  Pedro  Fonseca 
(1566),  his  master. 

Molina's  book  was  attacked  by  the  Dominicans  Alvarez  and 
Thomas  de  Lemos,  who  accused  him  of  Pelagianism.  This  induced 
the  Jesuits  to  refer  the  said  work  to  the  Inquisition,  which,  at 
the  command  of  Clement  VIIL,  asked  of  the  Dominicans  and  Jesuits 
theological  explanations  of  the  teaching  of  their  schools,  and  also 
requested  of  the  Spanish  episcopate  and  of  several  universities 
and  academies  well-considered  opinions  on  the  contested  points 
of  teaching. 

But  in  order  to  sift  the  whole  controversy  still  more  thoroughly, 
Pope  Clement  VIIL,  in  1597,  established  the  celebrated  congrega- 
tion "  De  Auxiliis."^     The  majority  of  the  "consulted,"  after  mature 

'  At  the  end  the  Po|)e  says  :  "  Quas  riiiidem  sententias  stricto  coram  nobis  examine 
ponderatas,  qiianquam  nonniillae  aliquo  pacto  sustineri  possent,  in  rigore  et  proprio 
verborum  sensu  ab  assertoiibns  intento  haereticas,  erroneas,  suspectas,  tenierarias, 
scandalosas,  et  in  pias  aures  offensionem  immittentes  respective,  ac  quaecunque  super 
iis  verbo  scriptoque  emissa  praesentium  auctoritate  damnamus."  The  adherents  of 
Baius  effaced  the  comma  after  "  possent,"  and  inserted  one  after  "  intento  "  (Comma 
Planum). 

-  On  its  establishment  and  Labors,  see  Historia  emifrfi^fr-  de  auxiliis,  ctr. 


278  HISTORY  OF   THE   CATHOLIC   CHURCH. 

examination,  decided  against  Molina's  book.  The  Pope,  however, 
ordered  a  new  investigation,  which  was  not  brought  to  a  close  till 
the  pontificate  of  his  successor,  Paul  V.  (1606) ;  even  then  no  defi- 
nite decision  ensued.  The  Apostolic  See  tolerated  both  systems, 
and  forbade  the  adherents  on  both  sides  of  the  question  to  accuse 
each  other  of  heresy. 

In  the  mean  time  the  system  of  Molina  was  modified  by  the  Jesuits 
into  so-called  Congruism.  This  was  afterwards  expanded  and  devel- 
oped by  Suarez  and  Vasquez.  According  to  them  the  efficacy  of 
grace  depends  on  its  congruity  ("  gratia  congrua  et  gratia  incou- 
grua  ").  This  system,  which  is  quite  different  from  that  of  Molina, 
was  in  1613  ordered  to  be  taught  in  all  the  schools  of  the  Jesuits  by 
the  general  of  the  order,  Claudius  Aquaviva.^ 

§  200.   Jansenism. 

Two  pupils  of  the  University  of  Lou  vain,  Cornelius  Jansenius, 
a  professor  of  Louvain,  afterwards  Bishop  of  Ypern  (+ 1638),  and 
his  somewhat  visionary  friend  Du  Verger  de  Hauranne,  Abbot  of 
St.  Cyran  (+  1643),  conceived  the  plan  of  framing  an  apology  of  the 
doctrines  of  Baius  and  of  attacking  the  Jesuits.  For  this  purpose 
Jansenius  was  to  work  out  the  dogmas,  St.  Cyran  to  write  concerning 
the  hierarchy. ■■* 

For  twenty  long  years  Jansenius  labored  at  his  work,  that  made 
its  first  appearance  after  his  death  in  1640,  under  the  title  of 
"  Augustinus ;  "  ^  but  it  reproduced,  not  the  doctrine  of  the  Bishop  of 
Hi])po,  as  the  author  announced  it  was  to  do,  but  rather  the  errors 
of  Calvin,  inasmuch  as  Jansenius,  with  a  glaring  misapprehension 

^  By  him  the  Order  of  Studies,  "Ratio  studiorum  "  (Institut.  Societat.  Jesu  : 
Prague,  1757),  was  drawn  up  and  introduced,  1584. 

2  Lcydcclccr,  Hist.  Jans.  Traj.  ad  Rh.  1695.  Luchesini,  Hist,  polem.  Jans.  3  vols 
Rom.  1711.  The  various  writings  for  and  against  Jansenists  are  to  be  found  in  Ros- 
kovdnij,  1.  c.  ii.  757  sqq.  Memoires  du  P.  Rene  Rapin  sur  I'eglise,  etc.  1644-1669, 
puhlies  ]iour  la  premifere  fois  par  L.  Aubineau.  3  vols.  Paris,  1865.  Hapin,  Hist, 
du  Jansenisnie,  ouvrage  completenient  inedit ;  revu  et  publie  par  I'abbe  Donienech. 
Paris,  1865. 

3  Augustinus,  seu  doetrina  S.  Aug.  de  hunumae  naturae  sanitate,  aegritudine, 
niedicina  adv.  Pelagianos  et  Massilieuses,  tribus  toniis  coniprehensa.  Lovan,  1640, 
St.  Cyran  wrote  under  the  name  Aurelius  :  op.  ed.  Paris,  1646.  Respecting  the 
so-called  learned  assembly  at  Bourg-Fontaine  (1622),  at  which  St.  Cyran,  Jansenius, 
and  others  projected  a  formal  conspiracy  against  Christianitj',  and  are  said  to  have 
taken  counsel  together  as  to  how  to  accomplish  its  overthrow,  see  La  realite  du 
project  de  Bourg-Foiitaiue.     2  vols.     Paris,  17.')6  fijq. 


JANSENISM.  279 

of  what  constitutes  the  natural  and  the  supernatural,  as  also  of  the 
state  of  man  before  and  after  the  fall  into  sin,  denies  to  man 
in  his  fallen  nature  free-will  (''liberum  arbitrium"),  and  maintains 
that  fallen  man  must  follow  of  necessity  the  "  delectatio  carnalis  " 
(concupiscence)  or  the  "  delectatio  coelestis  "  (the  holy  love  of  God), 
according  as  this  or  that  relatively  obtains  the  victory  ("relative 
victrix  "). 

As  the  chief  opponents  of  these  errors,  the  Jesuits  of  Louvain 
came  forward;  they  extracted  several  false  propositions  from  the 
'' Augustinus,"  and  laid  them  before  the  Apostolic  See  for  examina- 
tion. (3n  this.  Pope  Urban  VIII.,  in  the  bull  "  In  eminenti,"  forbade 
the  book  (March  6,  1642). 

But  the  contest  was  not  therefore  at  an  end ;  on  the  contrary,  it 
was  now  first  carried  on  with  great  vehemence  in  France,  where  the 
'^Augustinus"  was  widely  diffused,  and  found  opponents  as  well 
as  eager  defenders.  To  this  last  class  belong  Anthony  Arnauld, 
Doctor  of  the  Sorbonne  (+  1694),  Pascal  i  (+  1663),  Nicole  (+  1695), 
and  others. 

These  controversies  caused  eighty-eight  French  bishops,  in  the 
year  1650,  to  lay  five  propositions  drawn  from  the  "  Augustinus  " 
before  the  Apostolic  See,  by  the  hand  of  the  Syndic  Cornet,  that 
the  Pope  might  pronounce  judgment  upon  them.  After  mature  ex- 
amination, Pope  Innocent  X.  rejected  as  false  and  heretical  five 
propositions,  taken  from  the  work  of  Jansenius,  in  the  bull  "  Cum 
occasione,"  which  he  issued  May  31,  1653.^ 

As  these  five  propositions,  which  Bossuet  rightly  characterizes  as 
the  soul  of  the  Jansenistic  system,  did  not  all  stand  in  "Augustinus  " 
word  for  word  as  they  were  expressed  in  the  document  laid  before 
the  Pope,  the  Jansenists  thought  to  evade  the  papal  censures  by 

1  (Euvres  de  Pascal,  iiouvelle  ed.  5  vols.  Paris,  1819.  The  most  valuable  work 
of  Pascal  is  his  "  Pensees  sur  la  religion,"  which  is  a  splendid  apology  for  the  Church. 

2  BuUar.  Rom.  xv.  720  sqq.  Ed.  stereotyp.  Cone.  Trid.  p.  278  sqq.  The  five 
propositions  are  worded  thus:  "(1)  Aliqua  Dei  praecepta  hominibus  justis  volenti- 
bus  et  conantibus,  secundum  praesentes  quas  habent  vires,  sunt  impossibilia  ;  deest 
(pioipie  illis  gratia,  qua  possibilia  fiant.  (2)  Interiori  gratiae  in  statu  naturae  lapsae 
nunijuam  resistitur.  (3)  Ad  merendum  et  demerendum  in  statu  naturae  lapsae  non 
recjuiritur  in  homine  libertas  a  necessitate,  sed  sufficit  libertas  a  coactione.  (4)  Semi- 
peiagiani  adraittebant  praeveuientis  gratiae  interioris  necessitatem  ad  singulos  actus, 
t'tiam  ad  initium  fidei,  et  in  hoc  erant  haeretici,  (juod  vellent  eani  gratiam  talem  esse, 
cui  posset  huuiana  voluntas  resistere  vel  obteniperare.  (5)  Semijielagianum  est  dicere 
("hristum  pro  omnibus  omniuo  hominibus  mortuuiii  esse  aut  sanguinem  fudisse." 
Dumas,  His.  de  cinq,  propos.  de  Jans.  Trevoux,  1702. 


280  HISTORY  OF   THE   CATHOLIC   CHURCH. 

asserting  that  the  five  rejected  propositions  are  certainly  heretical, 
but  they  are  not  in  Jansenius,  or  at  least  he  did  not  teach  them  in 
the  sense  in  which  they  were  condemned.  On  this  an  assembly  of 
thirty-eight  French  bishops  declared  (March  28,  1654)  that  the  five 
propositions  under  censure  were  really  contained  in  the  work  of 
Janseniiis;  and  the  Pope  confirmed  this  judgment  in  a  special  brief 
(Sept.  29,  1654). 

Even  this  did  not  adjust  the  strife ;  for  the  Jansenists,  who  had 
been  joined  by  the  nuns  of  Port-Eoyal-des-Champs  (in-the-fields), 
under  their  abbess  Angelica  Arnauld,  now  started  a  distinction 
between  the  question  of  the  right  and  that  of  the  fact  ("  quaestio 
juris  et  facti ") ;  and  they  maintained  that  the  Church  is  certainly 
infallible  when  she  rejects  an  opinion  as  heretical,  but  she  cannot 
with  infallible  certainty  determine  that  the  propositions  she  rejects 
as  erroneous  are  to  be  found  in  the  book  of  a  certain  author.  There- 
fore to  her  expression  concerning  facts  only  a  reverential  silence  is 
required  ("  silentium  obsequiosum  "). 

This  false  distinction,  which  Pascal  specially  defends  in  his  pro- 
vincial letters,  Alexander  VII.  rejected  (Oct.  16,  1656)  in  the  bull 
"  Ad  sanctam,"  and  (Feb.  15, 1665)  caused  a  formulary  to  be  laid  be- 
fore the  French  clergy,  in  which  each  one  was  required  to  reject  the 
five  propositions  contained  in  the  "  Augustinus,"  as  they  had  been 
condemned  by  the  Apostolic  See. 

The  pernicious  contest  was  now  laid  to  rest  for  a  long  time,  till 
in  the  year  1702  the  Case  of  Conscience  invented  by  the  Jansenists 
Avas  brought  forward ;  this  recalled  it  into  existence,  and  indeed  in 
such  a  manner  that  the  Constitution  of  Clement  XI.,  ''Vineam  Dom- 
ini" (July  10,  1705),  could  not  again  restore  tranquillity. 

The  most  zealous  defenders  of  Jansenistic  errors  in  France  were 
the  hyper-rigoristic  *' Hermits"  in  the  neighborhood  of  Port-Eoyal- 
des-Champs.  They,  by  their  severe  practices  of  penance,^  and  above 
all  by  discouraging  the  frequent  reception  of  Holy  Communion, 
worked  unspeakable  mischief  among  the  people.  Encouraged  by 
these  Hermits,  alike  through  word  and  example,  even  the  nuns  of 
Port-Royal,  whose  reputation  for  piety  was  of  the  highest  character, 
refused  to  submit  themselves  in  an  unqualified  manner  to  the 
decision  of  the  Church,  which  refusal  after  a  long  contest  finally 
resulted  in  the  suppression  and  destruction  of  their  abbey  in  1710. 

*  Petavius  wrote  against  Arnauld.  "  De  la  penitence  publique,"  etc.     Paris,  1644. 


JANSENISM.  —  QUESNEL.  281 

§  201.  Jansenism  (^continued).  —  Quesnel. 

A  new  act  of  the  Janseuistic  drama  began  with  the  censure  of 
the  "  Moral  Reflections  "  of  the  Oratorian  ^  Paschasius  Quesnel,  who 
under  a  very  artful  disguise  sought  to  disseminate  the  Gallican  errors 
and  those  of  Jansenius.  The  first  edition  of  this  spiritual  book,  so 
full  of  unction,  appeared  in  1(571  at  Paris,"^  and  found  a  very  favor- 
able reception.  Several  bishops  recommended  the  book  to  their 
diocesans. 

On  account  of  his  predilection  for  Jansenism,  Quesnel  in  the 
year  1684  was  expelled  from  the  Ora.torian  Community,  and  took 
up  his  residence  in  Brussels,  to  which  place  Anthony  Arnauld 
had  withdrawn  in  1679.  Encouraged  by  him,  Quesnel  in  the  sub- 
sequent editions  of  his  works  (1687-1692)  gave  freer  utterance  to 
his  views,  and  without  disguise  expressed  his  Jansenistic  errors. 
This  occasioned  many  learned  men  of  note  to  express  disapproval 
of  the  "  Moral  Reflections,"  although  Louis  Anthony  of  Noailles, 
in  1680  Bishop  of  Chrdons,  and  from  Aug.  19,  1695,  Archbishop 
of  Paris,  who  in  1700  was  created  cardinal,  had  renewed  his 
approval  of  the  book  on  July  20,  1695. 

The  strife  had  spread  over  a  large  territory  when  in  the  year  1703 
some  French  bishops  forbade  the  book.  The  question  in  dispute 
was  brought  before  the  Holy  See,  and  Pope  Clement  XI.  in  a  brief 
of  1708  rejected  the  errors  of  the  "Moral  Reflections."  As  this 
papal  decision,  however,  did  not  bring  the  contest  to  an  end, 
Clement  XL,  after  a  renewed  and  close  examination  of  the  "  Moral 
Reflections,"  issued  (Sept.  8, 1713)  the  celebrated  bull  "Unigenitus,"^ 

1  On  the  iiiHuence  of  Jansenistic  views  on  the  members  of  the  communities  of 
St.  Maur  and  of  the  Orator}',  see  Fenclon,  Memoriale  Sanctissimo  Dom.  n.  clam 
legendum  (Q^luvres,  ed.  Paris,  1850),  torn.  iv.  p.  452  sqq. 

2  It  appeared  under  the  title  "Abrege  de  la  morale  de  I'Evangile  ou  pensees 
chretienues  sur  le  texte  des  quatres  Evangiles,"  Paris,  1671,  in  duodecimo,  and  had 
the  approbation  of  Bishop  Vialard  of  Chalons. 

3  Bullar.  Rom.  xxi.  568  sqq.  (ed.  Taurin.).  Lafiteau,  Histoire  de  la  constit. 
Unigenit.,  3  vols.,  Paris,  1737  (ital.  by  Nucci  Rom.  1794),  and  La  vie  de  Clem.  XI. 
2  vols.  Fontaine,  Constitutio  Unigenitus  theologice  propugnata.  Dillingae,  1720. 
Schill.  The  Constit.  Unigenitus  ;  the  Occasion  of  it,  and  its  Consequences.  Freib. 
1876.  A  mass  of  writings,  great  and  small,  appeared  against  the  bull.  Bauer  (p.  32) 
considers  the  writing  Frickius,  Inclementia  dementia  examinata,  h.  e.  Bulla  Clem.  XL 
papae,  etc.,  Ulmae,  1719,  to  be  the  work  of  a  Jansenist  rather  than  that  of  a  Protes- 
tant. Respecting  the  fate  of  the  bull  and  the  reception  of  it  by  the  Catholics  of  the 
whole  world,  see  Temoignage  de  I'eglise  universelle  en  faveur  de  la  buUe  Unigenitus 
a  Bruxelles,  1718.     Schill.  p.  317  sqq. 


282  HISTORY  OF   THE   CATHOLIC   CHURCH. 

which  condemned  one  hundred  and  one  propositions  extracted  from 
the  work  of  Quesnel,  as  heretical,  scandalous,  etc. 

Most  of  the  French  bishops,  and  the  Sorbonne  in  1714,  accepted 
the  bull  unconditionally ;  but  a  few  prelates  refused  to  receive  it, 
although  with  one  exception  they  forbade  the  censured  book.  To 
the  last-named  belonged  Cardinal  Noailles,  whose  resistance  was 
not  tc  be  overcome  either  by  the  Pope  or  by  King  Louis  XIV. 

Under  the  regency  of  the  dissolute  Philip,  Duke  of  Orleans,  the 
strife  still  continued,  and  took  quite  a  formidable  character.  The 
French  clergy  were  divided  into  two  classes  or  parties,  —  some 
calling  themselves  Acceptants,  the  others  Appellants ;  the  Accept- 
ants  were  such  clergymen  as  accepted  the  bull  "  Unigenitus,"  and 
the  Appellants  were  those  who  appealed  from  the  decision  of  the 
Apostolic  See  to  an  oecumenical  council.  The  confusion  which 
this  caused  was  increased  to  a  still  higher  degree  when  Cardinal 
Noailles,  at  first  secretly  and  then  publicly,  joined  the  Appellants, 
and  with  him  the  Sorbonne,  although  by  so  doing  the  members 
were  in  contradiction  with  their  earlier  decision.  Attempts  made 
to  reconcile  the  parties  failed.  Clement  XL,  at  length,  in  his  bull 
"  Pastoralis  officii "  (1718),  threatened  the  disobedient  with  the  cen- 
sures of  the  Church.  It  was  not  till  Oct.  11,  1727,  that  Cardinal 
Noailles  (+  May  4,  1729)  accepted  the  bull  "  Unigenitus."  In  1729 
the  Sorbonne  followed  his  example,  and  other  Jansenist-minded 
clergymen  soon  after  did  the  same.^ 

The  Jansenists  proper,  however,  who  poured  forth  the  most 
outrageous  insults  against  the  papal  bull  and  the  Apostolic  See, 
continued  their  opposition,  and  when  they  had  lost  their  chief 
defenders,  took  refuge  in  the  simulated  miracles  of  the  Deacon 
Francis  of  Paris,  an  Appellant  (+  1727),  whose  bones  repose  in  the 
cemetery  of  St.  Mcdard.  The  Archbishop  de  Vintimille  of  Paris 
and  other  bishops  asserted  that  the  alleged  cures  were  fictitious, 
and  in  1732  the  Government  closed  the  cemetery.  But  the  same 
scenes  were  now  enacted  in  private  houses,  which  gave  rise  to  so 

1  The  bishops  of  Montpellier,  Auxerre,  Troyes,  and  Bishop  Soanen  (+  1740)  of 
Senez,  remained  obstinate.  On  Aug.  28,  1728,  Bishop  Soanen  issued  another  pastoral 
letter  against  tlie  bull  "  Unigenitus,"  which  he  asserted  destroyed  dogma,  morality, 
discipline,  and  the  hierarchy.  On  June  15,  1727,  his  Metropolitan  Archbishop 
Tencin  of  Embrun  summoned  a  provincial  synod,  by  whom  Bishop  Soanen  was  sus- 
pended on  account  of  his  pastoral  letter.  Cf.  Collectio  Lacensis,  i.  615  sqq.  Twelve 
French  bishops  protested  against  this  decision,  among  whom  was  Cardinal  Noailles. 
Louis  XV.  refused  to  hear  them ;  on  which  nine  of  them  appealed  to  Parliament  on 
May  7,  1728. 


THE   SCHISM   OF   UTRECHT.  283 

many  scandalous  enormities  that  many  Appellants  publicly  dis- 
claimed this  mode  of  proceeding ;  their  doing  so  caused  another  split 
among  the  Jansenists,  —  the  Convulsionaries  and  anti-Convulsion- 
aries.  The  revolutionary  parliaments,  which  took  the  Convulsion- 
aries under  their  protection,  and  sought  to  compel  the  Catholic 
clergy  to  administer  the  sacraments  to  dying  Appellants,  hindered 
the  complete  dissolution  of  the  schismatic  party  ;  while  the  conduct 
of  the  court,  which  was  a  singular  mixture  of  despotism  and  un- 
dignified weakness,  only  strengthened  the  disobedient  still  more 
in  their  obduracy. 

It  was  in  vain  that  Pope  Benedict  XIV.  endeavored,  through 
the  brief  "  Ex  omnibus,"  in  1756,  to  give  peace  to  the  much-afflicted 
Church  of  France,  which  had  been  fearfully  distracted  and  laid 
waste  by  Jansenism.  It  was  not  till  the  French  Revolution  that 
this  sadly  pernicious  heresy  came  to  an  end,  and  even  then  all  its 
erroneous  principles  were  not  destroyed. 

§  202.    The  Schisin  of  Utrecht. 

Outside  of  France,  the  Jansenists  principally  found  adherents 
in  the  Netherlands,  where  they  found  themselves  able  even  to 
organize  a  society  for  their  schism,  the  history  of  which  is  as 
follows  :  ^  — 

The  Vicar  Apostolic  Peter  Codde,*  a  Jansenist,  refused  to  sub- 
scribe the  formulary  of  Alexander  VII.,  and  this  drew  upon  him 
suspension  in  the  time  of  Clement  XI.  (1702),  and  Theodore  von 
Kock  was  named  pro-vicar  in  his  stead.  Put  he,  as  well  as  his  suc- 
cessor, met  with  violent  opposition  from  the  States  General,  as  also 
from  the  vicariate  of  Utrecht,  acting  under  the  influence  of  Ques- 
uel,  which  vicariate  also  refused  to  subscribe  the  formulary,  and  at 
a  later  date  would  not  receive  the  bull  "  Unigenitus,"  and  appealed 
to  an  oecumenical  council.  The  schism  was  completed  by  the 
vicariate  of  Utrecht  declaring  itself  to  be  the  cathedral  chapter, 
and  in  the  year  1723  electing  Cornelius  Stenhoven  as  archbishop ; 
he  was  consecrated  on  Oct.  15,  1724,  by  the  suspended  titular  bishop 

1  Hoynk  van  Papendrechf,  Hist,  de  rebus  eccl.  Ultraject.  Colon.  1725.  Mozzi, 
Storia  delle  levoluzioni  Jella  Chiesa  d'  Utrecht.  3  vols.  Yenez.  1787.  See  Bnuer  in 
"  Voices  from  Maria  Laach,"  i.  376  sqq. 

2  The  separation  of  the  Netherlands  from  Spain  was  followed  by  the  dissolution 
of  the  bishoprics  and  of  the  cathedral  chapter,  with  the  exception  of  the  chapter  of 
Haarlem  and  rtn-cht.    The  Catholics  of  Holland  were  placed  under  a  vicar  apostolic. 


284  HISTORY  OF   THE    CATHOLIC   CHURCH. 

of  Babylon,  Domiuic  Varlet,  a  partisan  of  Jansenism.  The  schis- 
matic party  then  applied  for  the  confirmation  by  the  Holy  See  of 
Stenhoven's  election,  but  in  1725  Benedict  XIII.  refused  to  ratify 
the  uncanonical  proceeding.  In  spite  of  this,  after  the  death  of 
Stenhoven  (April  3,  1725),  the  schismatics  proceeded  to  the  election 
of  a  new  archbishop,  who  was  recognized  by  the  Apostolic  See  as 
little  as  the  former  one  had  been.  In  order  to  maintain  the  schism, 
Archbishop  Meindarts  nominated  two  suffragan  bishops,  —  one  for 
Haarlem  in  1742,  to  whom  the  cathedral  chapter  of  that  place  refused 
obedience  ;  and  one  for  Deveuter  in  1757,  whom  the  chapter  also 
rejected.  On  Sept.  13,  1763,  the  schismatic  bishops  held  a  pseudo- 
synod  in  Utrecht,  at  which  three  bishops,  six  canonists,  and  nine 
parish  priests  were  present ;  here  the  parish  priests  had  also  deciding 
votes.  Clement  XIII.,  on  April  30,  1765,  rejected  the  resolutions. 
The  schism  now  numbers  about  six  thousand  adherents.  Lately 
these  schismatics  have  fraternized  Avith  the  so-called  Old  Catholics. 

§  203.   Quietism. 

The  errors  of  the  false  mysticism  of  the  Alombrados  (the  "  over- 
shadowed" of  the  seventeenth  century)  in  Spain  had  been  suppressed 
by  the  Inquisition ;  yet  they  soon  reappeared  in  Eome,  and  there 
found  a  defender  in  the  person  of  the  Spanish  priest  Michael  de 
Molinos,  who  in  his  "  Spiritual  Guide,"  in  1675,  and  in  other  writings 
gave  utterance  to  views  as  intricate  and  confused  as  they  were 
injurious  to  morals. 

According  to  Molinos,  the  highest  degree  of  perfection  which  the 
soul  can  attain  consists  in  the  annihilation  of  the  various  powers 
with  which  it  is  endowed,  and  in  a  total  absorption  in  God,  during 
which  it  abstains  from  all  activity,  neither  desires  heaven  nor  fears 
hell,  neither  awakens  any  act  of  faith  nor  offers  any  particular 
prayer,  renounces  hope  alike  with  fear,  affords  no  resistance  to 
temptation,  but,  abandoning  itself  to  its  nothingness,  keeps  itself 
absolutely  passive,  that  God  may  alone  work  out  his  will  in  it,  etc. 

As  the  result  of  such  teaching  in  Rome  was  the  formation  of 
conventicles  of  false  mysticism,  the  Apostolic  See  had  Molinos's 
writings  examined  more  closely,  and  in  1687  Pope  Innocent  XI. 
rejected  sixty-eight  propositions  extracted  from  them.^     The  author 

^  Denzinger,  Enchir.  p.  333  sqq.  The  Jesuit  Segneri  was  the  first  to  oppose 
Molinos,  which  he  did  in  his  "  Concordantia  laboris  cum  quiete  in  oratione." 


RELKJIOUS   CONDITION   OF  GERMANY.  285 

submitted,^  and  remained  imprisoned  in  a  monastery  until  his 
death  in  1696. 

The  spiritualism  of  the  pious  widow  Joanna  de  la  Mothe  Guyon 
differs  frour  these  errors,  although  it  is  also  erroneous.  Madame 
Guyon  was  a  disciple  of  the  Barnabite  La  Combe,  whose  mystical 
writings  contain  erring  views  on  what  constitutes  ''  pure  love,"  on 
contemplative  prayer,  etc.  The  Archbishop  of  Paris,  Francis  de 
Harlay,  and  the  Bishop  of  Chartres,  condemned  these  writings ;  and 
the  Conference  at  Issy,  summoned  by  Louis  XIV.  (1694  and  1695), 
explained  in  thirty-four  articles  the  principles  of  genuine  mysticism 
in  opposition  to  those  of  a  false  spiritualism  and  quietism.  Madame 
Guyon  subscribed  these  articles  without  demur,  and  from  that  time 
forth  took  up  her  residence  in  St.  Cyr  (+  1717). 

But  this  did  not  end  the  matter  in  dispute.  Bossuefs  treatise 
"  On  the  States  of  Prayer,"  ^  caused  Fenelon  to  publish  a  work  on 
"The  Maxims  of  the  Saints  concerning  the  Interior  Life."  On  this 
a  vehement  controversy  began  between  the  two  illustrious  prelates. 
The  question  in  dispute  was  at  length  referred  for  decision  to  the 
Apostolic  See ;  and  on  March  12,  1699,  Innocent  XII.  rejected 
twenty-three  propositions  '^  taken  from  Fenelon's  writing.  The  pious 
archbishop  submitted  unconditionally  to  the  papal  decision. 

§  204.    Tlie  Religious  Co7idition  of  Germany  after  the  Peace  of 
Westphalia.  —  Several  Attempts  at  Union. 

In  spite  of  the  Peace  of  Westphalia  contentions  between  Catho- 
lics and  Protestants  still  continued,  especially  in  the  territories 
inhabited  by  a  mixed  population,  and  often  formed  the  theme  of 
discussion  in  the  diet. 

The  spirit  which  the  Protestants  cherished  towards  the  Catholics 
may  be  judged  by  the  continued  opposition  made  by  them  to  the 
introduction  of  the  Gregorian  Calendar.    It  was  still  more  strikingly 

1  See  Breve  relatione  dell'  Abjura  del  Dottor  Molinos  e  suoi  seguaci  seguita  li  3 
e  4  Settembre,  1687,  in  Laemmcr,  Melemetematum  Rom.  mantissa,  p.  407  s<iq. 

2  Sur  les  etats  d'oraison.  Bossiiet  sent  the  manuscript  to  Archbishop  Fenelon 
for  his  approval,  which  the  latter  refused  to  give.  The  treatise  first  appeared  in 
print  after  Fenelon's  "  Explication  des  maximes  des  Saints  sur  la  vie  interieure." 
Cf.  Bossuet,  Hist,  de  Fenelon,  lib.  ii.  1  s([(|.     Hist,  de  Bossuet,  lib.  x.  5  sqq. 

3  Denzingcr,  Enchir.  p.  348  sqq.  The  doctrine  of  perfect  and  imperfect  love  is 
treated  in  a  very  lucid  manner  in  Dcharhe,  The  Perfect  Love  of  God,  etc.  Ratisbon, 
1856. 


286  HISTORY  OF   THE   CATHOLIC   CHURCH. 

manifested  at  the  second  centenary  celebration  of  the  so-called 
Eeforniation  in  1717,  in  which  the  most  hateful  attacks  were  made 
on  the  Catholic  Church.  John  Nicholas  Weislinger  (+ 1755)  and 
others,  in  undertaking  the  defence  of  it,  also  used  very  sharp  and 
acrimonious  expressions. 

The  emigration  from  Salzburg  in  1731  was  also  used  by  Protes- 
tant writers  to  cast  obloquy  on  the  character  of  the  Archbishop 
Leopold  Anthony  of  Firmian,  while  it  was  in  fact  King  Frederic 
William  I.  of  Prussia,  together  with  the  other  Protestant  States, 
who  deserves  the  severe  reproach  of  having,  under  the  cloak  of 
religion,  fanned  the  flames  of  revolt,  in  order  to  people  his  own 
province  of  Lithuania,  which  had  been  depopulated  by  the  plague, 
with  the  peasants  who  thus  emigrated  from  their  own  homes. ^ 

Mixed  marriages  between  Catholics  and  those  who  belonged  to 
the  Lutheran  or  Reformed  confession  became  in  the  eighteenth 
century  another  source  of  discord.^ 

The  efforts  made  by  Protestant  theologians  and  princes  to  estab- 
lish harmony  between  Lutherans  and  Calvinists  met  with  no  success. 
The  "Irenicum"  of  the  Heidelberg  Professor  Paraus  was  rejected 
by  the  Lutherans.  The  conference  between  Lutheran  and  Calvin- 
istic  theologians  called  together  by  Gustavus  Adolphus  at  Leipsic 
in  1631,  and  the  colloquy  which  took  place  at  Cassel  ("  Unio  cou- 
servativa")  in  1661,  passed  away  without  result.  The  proposal  of 
Professor  Pfaff  of  Tubingen,  in  1720,  that  each  should  bear  patiently 
with  the  other's  opinions  met  with  no  practical  response. 

Notwithstanding  the  fruitlessness  of  the  efforts  hitherto  made 
to  reconcile  Protestant  parties  with  the  Catholic  Church,  this  project 
was  again  renewed  in  the  seventeenth  century.  John  Philip  von 
Schonborn,  Archbishop  of  Mentz,  interested  himself  more  particu- 
larly in  this  project  of  union,  in  forwarding  which  his  minister, 
Count  Boineburg,  and  others,  displayed  a  great  amount  of  zeal  and 
energy,  without,  however,  attaining  the  object  in  view. 

Christopher  Eoyas  (Roxas)  de  Spinola,  Bishop  of  Tina  in  Croatia, 
and  later  of  Vienna  Neustadt,  who,  commissioned  by  the  Emperor 
Leopold  I.  in  1675,  visited  several  Protestant  courts  to  win  them 
over  to  the  union,  met  with  no  better  success.  He  was  only  listened 
to  in  Hanover.  The  conference  appointed  by  the  Duke  Ernest 
Augustus,  in  which   the  Protestant    Abbot  Gerhard    Molanus  von 

1  The  number  of  the  emigrants  amounted  to  twenty  thousand.  One  part  of  these 
settled  iu  England  and  America  (Georgia). 

2  See  the  papal  decisions  in  these  cases  in  Roskovdmj,  De  matr.  mixtis,  tom.  ii. 


SEVERAL   ATTEMPTS   AT    UNION.  287 

Loccuiu,  the  court  chapliiin  Barkhauseii,  and  some  professors  from 
Helmstjidt  took  part,  expressed  in  a  memorial  ^  tiaeir  opinion  that 
the  Protestants  shoukl  submit  to  the  Pope,  but  first  desired  that 
the  differences  in  the  articles  of  faith  should  remain  unadjusted 
until  an  oecumenical  council  be  convoked  in  which  the  Protestant 
superintendents  should  have  places  and  votes,  and  in  which  these 
differences  should  then  be  decided. 

Spinola  agreed  to  this,  and  betook  himself  to  Rome  to  obtain 
the  assent  of  the  Holy  See.  Pope  Innocent  XI.  praised  the  zeal 
of  the  bishop,  and  commissioned  him  henceforward  to  work  in  his 
(the  Pope's)  name  for  the  union,  but  without  committing  himself 
to  a  specific  declaration  on  the  proposals  of  the  bishop. 

Manifestly  the  apologetic  means  of  union  used  by  Spinola  was 
very  inappropriate  to  its  object,  since  a  true  and  sincere  reunion  of 
Protestants  with  the  Catholic  Church  can  only  be  founded  on  unity 
of  belief. 

The  celebrated  Leibnitz  gave  utterance  to  this  conviction  plainly 
and  distinctly  in  the  presence  of  Duke  Ernest  Augustus  and  Mola- 
nus ;  he  even  wrote  a  special  treatise,  "  Systema  theologicum,"  ^  in 
which  he  laid  down  the  grounds  on  which  a  treaty  of  union  could 
be  carried  out.  Bossuet  also,  to  whom  the  memorial  had  been  com- 
municated by  the  Duchess  Sophia  in  1683,  explained,  in  a  letter  to 
Madame  de  Brinon  in  1699,  that  the  Catholic  Church  might  indeed 
yield  in  matters  of  indifference  and  in  things  appertaining  to  disci- 
pline alone,  but  never  could  she  waver  in  a  single  item  of  her  firmly 
rooted  doctrine,  and  especially  in  those  decreed  by  the  Council  of 
Trent.  The  learned  abbot  of  Loccum  followed  Bossuet's  plan, 
and  wrote  his  "  Private  Thoughts  "  on  the  points  of  faith  in  dispute. 
Bossuet  answered  through  his  "  Beflections."  On  this,  Molanus 
composed  a  treatise  embracing  a  wider  range,  in  which  he  made  still 
greater  concessions ;  but  at  the  same  time,  in  obedience  to  a  hint 
he  had  received  from  the  court,  he  demanded  that  the  Council  of 
Trent  should  be  set  aside. 


1  "  Methoilus  red  \r  n  'ai-  iniionis  ecclesiasticae  inter  Ronianenses  et  Protestantes," 
coniinitteil  to  writing  by  ]\Io]anus  and  Baikhanseii  ;  according  to  wliich  the  "  Regula 
circa  Cliristianorum  omnium  ecelesiasticam  iinionem"  was  agreed  upon  between 
Spinola  and  Molanus.  It  is  printed  in  Bossuet,  Qiuvres  compl.  (Paris,  1846),  viii. 
509  sqq. 

2  This  treatise  lay  hidden  for  a  whole  centur}- :  and  it  was  not  till  1819  that  it  was 
published  in  Latin  and  French  at  Paris,  in  Latin  and  in  German  by  Iliisz  and  JVeis, 
Mentz,  1820,  and  edited  by  Haas,  Tiibingen,  1860. 


288  HISTORY  OF   THE   CATHOLIC   CHURCH. 

Guided  by  a  sincere  desire  for  peace,  Bossuet  and  Molanus  had 
already  come  to  an  understanding  on  several  weighty  points,  when 
suddenly  affairs  took  a  different  turn.  The  negotiations  were  not 
indeed  altogether  broken  off,  out  of  respect  for  the  emperor,  who 
in  1692  had  conferred  on  Duke  Ernest  Augustus  the  ninth  elec- 
toral dignity ;  but  the  duke  desired  a  mere  exterior  union,  and  his 
zeal  grew  cold  in  the  same  proportion  as  the  prospects  of  his  wife 
to  ascend  the  throne  of  England  grew  more  favorable.  The  elec- 
toral princess  Sophia,  who  was  his  wife,  was  a  granddaughter  of 
James  I.,  and  presumptive  heiress  to  the  English  throne  after  the 
death  of  Queen  Anne,  since  Parliament  had  excluded  all  Catholics 
from  the  succession. 

This  change  of  sentiment  made  itself  felt  in  all  the  further 
transactions.  Molanus  was  kept  at  a  distance ;  Leibnitz  stepped 
into  his  place.  As  the  interpreter  of  his  court,  the  great  philoso- 
pher took  a  stand  in  his  conferences  with  the  successor  of  Spinola 
(-f  1695),  the  Count  of  Buchheim,  as  well  as  in  his  correspondence 
with  Bossuet,  which  was  quite  foreign  to  his  real  convictions. 

But  apart  from  the  consideration  of  these  important  circumstances, 
Leibnitz  and  Bossuet  started  from  principles  diametrically  opposed 
to  each  other.  The  device  of  the  Bishop  of  Meaux  was,  "  Credo,  ut 
intelligam"  ("I  believe,  in  order  to  understand");  that  of  the  phi- 
losopher found  expression  in  the  proposition  "  Intelligo,  ut  credam  " 
("I  know,  in  order  to  believe").  Under  these  circumstances,  the 
correspondence  between  Leibnitz  and  Bossuet  after  the  death  of 
the  historian  Pellison  was  to  remain  fruitless. 

Compelled  thereto  by  the  false  standpoint  he  had  taken,  Leibnitz 
played  the  part  of  a  controversialist,  and  brought  forward,  at  times 
not  without  personal  excitement,  the  most  varying  objections  to  the 
Council  of  Trent ;  while  Bossuet,  standing  firmly  on  the  principles 
of  peace,  repelled  the  attacks  of  the  acute  philosopher,  and  to  his 
subjectivity  held  up  before  him  the  objectivity  of  faith  of  the  in- 
fallible Church.  In  1694  Bossuet,  convinced  of  the  fruitlessness  of 
his  labors,  broke  off  the  correspondence  with  Leibnitz. 

But  the  latter  again  seized  the  pen ;  and  again  it  was  the  author- 
ity of  the  council,  and  especially  the  decree  concerning  the  so-called 
deutero-canonical  books,  that  was  the  object  of  the  controversy. 
Bossuet  very  shrewdly  refuted  all  the  objections  brought  forward 
against  this  decree.  This  ended  the  controversy;  Leibnitz  replied 
no  more. 

Such  was  the  course  taken  in  the  correspondence,  so  interesting 


THE   GRJECO-RUSSIAN  CHURCH.  289 

in  many  resj^ects,  between  the  two  great  thinkers,  —  a  course  which 
leaves  an  incontestable  proof  that  only  in  the  recognition  of  the 
teaching  office  of  the  Church  is  it  possible  to  attain  a  true  and 
lasting  union  with  her. 

It  was  with  this  conviction  that  many  princely  persons,  statesmen, 
and  learned  doctors  were  filled,  who  in  the  course  of  time  made 
their  way  back  to  the  Church ;  while  those  men  who  set  up  their 
subjective  measures  in  the  place  of  the  divine  teaching  authority 
of  the  Church,  with  all  their  Catholicizing  views  and  expressions, 
advanced  but  to  the  threshold  of  the  Church,  without  crossing 
the  boundary  and  entering  within  the  structure. 

§  205.   The  Grceco-Russian  Church.  —  Attempts  at  Union,  —  Tlie 
Older  Sects  of  the  East. 

After  the  conquest  of  Constantinople  by  the  Turks,  the  schismatic 
Greek  Church  became  utterly  subject  to  the  Sultans,  who  permitted 
indeed  the  ancient  hierarchical  constitution  to  remain,  and  the 
exercise  of  their  worship  to  take  place,  but  under  very  oppressive 
conditions,  as  they  allowed  themselves  to  interfere  in  the  most 
encroaching  manner  with  the  interior  regulations  of  the  Church,  and 
made  the  election  of  tlie  Patriarch  of  Constantinople  a  rich  source 
of  gain  to  themselves,  deposing  or  replacing  him-  according  to  their 
own  caprice.^ 

No  long  time  had  elapsed,  after  the  Church  split  in  Germany, 
before  the  followers  of  Luther  sought  to  win  the  Greek  schismatics 
to  the  cause  of  their  heresy.  As  early  as  1559  Melanchthon  sent  to 
the  Patriarch  Joasaph  of  Constantinople,  a  Greek  translation  of  the 
Augsburg  Confession,  with  a  very  artful  letter  to  accompany  it.  The 
patriarch,  however,  saw  through  the  hypocrite,  and  returned  him  no 
answer.  The  professors  of  Tubingen,  James  Andrea,  Crusius,  and 
others,  Avho  had  entered  into  correspondence  with  the  Patriarch 
Jeremias,  fared  no  better  ;  for  he  refuted  their  Augsburg  Confession, 
and  admonished  them  to  forsake  their  errors  and  to  give  him  no 
further  annoyance  {a-m^kd^aT^  twv  c^povrtSwi/  17/Aas). 

The  Calvinists,  however,  thought  that  they  might  promise  them- 
selves better  results  when  Cyril  Lukaris,  who  had  been  Patriarch  of 
Alexandria  from  the  year  1602,  succeeded  in  becoming  Patriarch  of 
Constantinople  in  1621.     Through  his  connection  with  the  reformed 

1  Le  Quien,  Oriens  Christ.     3  vols.  fol.     Paris,  1740. 

VOL.    II.  19 


290  HISTORY  OF   THE    CATHOLIC   CHURCH. 

theologians  of  Geneva,  Cyril  had  become  acquainted  with  Calvinism, 
which  he  now  sought  to  spread  by  the  help  of  English  and  Dutch 
ambassadors  ;  but  this  attempt  also  failed. 

The  patriarch  ( + 1638),  who  fiercely  persecuted  the  Latins,  espe- 
cially the  Jesuits,  excited  the  deepest  indignation  among  the  Greeks 
by  his  Calvinistic  profession  of  faith.  Several  synods  ^  were  held 
expressly  to  proclaim  the  doctrine  of  transubstantiation  (/Aerouo-toiJ- 
a-dai)  in  a  decisive  manner,  and  to  reject  with  contempt  Calvinistic 
predestination  as  a  blasphemous  heresy  {(SiftrjXov  koI  avouiov). 

Count  Zinzendorf,  who  in  1737  wanted  to  make  a  Herrnhuter  of 
the  patriarch  of  Constantinople,  met  with  no  better  success  than 
his  predecessors. 

Unhappily,  the  schismatic  Greeks  obstinately  rejected  all  the 
admonitions  of  the  Pope  that  they  should  return  to  unity  with 
the  Church.  The  negotiations  of  the  papal  legate  Possevin  with 
the  Czar  Iwan  IV.  (1533-1584)  led  to  no  result;  yet  in  1595  a 
union  of  those  Russian  provinces  which  had  been  taken  by  the 
Poles  was  effected  at  the  Synod  of  Brest  under  the  Metropolitan 
Rahosa. 

Ever  since  the  sixteenth  century  the  Russian  rulers  have  been 
striving  to  establish  a  national  Church  independent  of  Constanti- 
nople ;  in  this  they  were  aided  by  the  weakness  and  poverty  of  the 
patriarch  of  Constantinople.  In  1448  the  ]\Ietropolitan  of  Moscow 
was  already  acknowledged  by  the  Russian  bishops  as  the  Metro- 
politan of  all  Russia,  and  in  1588  Patriarch  Jeremias  of  Constan- 
tinople raised  the  metropolitan  of  the  above-named  city  to  the 
Patriarchate  of  Russia,  reserving  to  himself  only  the  ratification 
of  the  patriarch  appointed ;  and  even  this  reservation  was,  after 
the  year  1660,  not  insisted  on.  The  patriarchs  of  Constantinople 
made  no  further  opposition,  and  approved  or  at  least  accepted  the 
changes  which  Peter  the  Great  made  in  the  government  of  the 
Church ;  ^  chiefly,  the  abolition  of  the  patriarchate,  and  the  estab- 
lishment of  the  "  Holy  Synod  "  (1721),  whose  decisions  have  to  be 
ratified  by  the  emperor. 

1  Two  synods  in  Constantinople,  in  1638  and  1642,  and  a  synod  in  Jerusalem,  1672, 
under  Patriarch  Dositheus.  The  acts  are  in  Hardidn,  Acta  cone.  xi.  179  sqq.  Scliel- 
stratc,  1.  c.  p.  466  sqq.  Kimmcl,  1.  c.  p.  325.  The  Confession  of  the  schismatic 
metropolitan  of  Kiew  attained  great  authority  {Kimmcl,  1.  c.  p.  56  sqq.),  which  the 
Synod  of  Jerusalem  approved  in  1672. 

2  Cf.  Reglement  cerlesiastique  de  Pierre  le  grand,  traduit  en  fran9ais  sur  le  russe, 
avec  introduction  et  note  par  ToncUni,  Barnabite.     Paris,  1874. 


ATTACKS   UPON   CHRISTIANITY.  291 

Any  special  desire  for  union  with  Kome,  Peter  the  Great  could 
scarcely  have  had,  although  many  acts  of  his  government  look  that 
way. 

Among  the  various  sects  of  the  Russian  State  Church  the  most 
numerous  are  the  so-called  Raskolniks  (Separatists),  or,  as  they  style 
themselves,  Starowierzi  (that  is,  men  of  the  old  faith).  The  origin 
of  this  sect,  the  members  of  which  are  again  subdivided  into  various 
parties,  falls  in  the  year  1660.  The  occasion  of  it  was  the  revision 
of  the  translations  of  the  Bible  and  liturgical  books  undertaken  by 
the  Patriarch  Nikon. 

Of  the  other  Oriental  sects,  some  have  become  reconciled  to  Rome. 
The  Xestorians  were  under  the  two  patriarchs  of  Mosul  (Mesopo- 
tamia) and  of  Ormia  (Persia).  Since  1780  they  have  only  one 
patriarch.  A  part  of  them  returned  to  the  Church.  In  the  second 
half  of  the  sixteenth  century  the  Monothelite  Maronites  of  Lebanon 
also  united  themselves  to  the  Apostolic  See.  A  number  of  the 
Monophysite  Armenians  did  the  same.  But  the  union  of  the 
Abyssinian  Copts  with  the  Church  was  not  a  lasting  one. 

§  206.    Attacks    upon  Christianity.  —  Eyiglish   Deists.  —  Free- 
masons. —  PhilosojjJiers  in  France. 

The  mutiny  of  the  so-called  reformers  against  the  divine  au- 
thority of  the  Church  included  the  natural  inference,  on  their 
part,  that  they  had  a  right  to  make  their  own  doctrinal  opin- 
ions an  object  of  critical  investigation ;  and  this  at  an  early  date 
called  forth  opposition,  which  was  increased  by  the  arbitrary  pro- 
ceedings of  princes,  who,  having  received  the  protectorate  of  the 
New  Gospel,  sought  to  render  the  religious  movement  subservient 
to  their  own  wishes  and  interests  by  the  employment  of  physical 
force. 

The  opposition  of  the  human  intellect,  thus  injured  and  debased  in 
its  rights,  did  not  stop  at  making  head  against  the  new  churches  set 
up  by  the  Government,  but  broke  through  the  prescribed  limits  and 
went  on  its  way,  combating  the  Protestant  Proteus  until  it  came  to 
take  up  a  position  hostile  to  every  positive  religion.^ 

The  combat  against  Christianity  first  broke  out  in  England,  where 
grossly  irreligious  tendencies  had  prevailed  since  the  time  of  Crom- 

1  Binder,  History  of  the  Philosophieul  and  Revolutionary  Age  in  regard  to  the 
Condition  of  Catholicity.     2  vols.     Schaffhausen,  1844. 


292  HISTORY  OF   THE   CATHOLIC  CHURCH. 

well.  The  natural  sciences  were  used  to  defy  and  destroy  the  doc- 
trines of  the  Christian  religion.  Bacon,  Baron  of  Verulam.  (+  1626), 
had  already  by  his  inductive  method  ("  Interpretatio  naturae  ")  laid 
the  seed  of  empiricism.  Lord  Edward  Herbert  of  Cherbury  (+  1648) 
went  further  yet.  He  comprised  the  whole  contents  of  true  religion 
in  five  points,  questioned  the  supernatural  character  of  Christianity, 
and  set  up  natural  religion  instead  of  the  revealed.  To  believe  in 
God,  to  serve  him  by  living  a  virtuous  life,  to  be  penitent  for  sins, 
to  be  persuaded  of  a  future  recompense  for  good  and  evil  deeds,  — 
such,  according  to  his  doctrine,  are  the  conditions  quite  sufficient 
for  salvation.  Thomas  Hobbes  of  Malmesbur}-  (+ 1679),  tutor  of 
Charles  II.,  an  advocate  of  absolute  monarchy,  edited  (1646)  at 
Paris  his  "  Elementa  philosophica  de  cive."  He  classed  the  ideas  of 
Church  and  State  under  one  identity,  as  meaning  one  and  the  same 
thing;  ascribed  to  the  ruler  of  the  country  the  right  to  prescribe 
the  faith  and  to  change  it  at  his  pleasure ;  and  asserted  that  the 
Holy  Scriptures  and  the  dogmas  of  Christianity  have  authority 
only  in  the  degree  in  which  they  are  recognized  by  the  supreme 
ruler  of  the  State.  According  to  his  view,  religion  is  but  a  human 
invention,  —  a  useful  tool  in  the  hands  of  the  king,  by  which  to 
rule  the  masses. 

John  Locke  (+  1704)  built  his  philosophical  system  of  sensation 
and  empiricism  on  the  basis  of  the  deism  and  rationalism  inaugu- 
rated by  Rene  Descartes  (Cartesius,  -f- 1650).  Locke  had  lived  for 
a  time  in  the  Netherlands,  and  had  returned  to  England  after  the 
fall  of  the  Stuarts.  He  asserts  that  nothing  is  in  the  intellect 
which  was  not  previously  recognized  by  the  senses  ;  of  the  New 
Testament  he  asserted  that  only  the  faith  in  Jesus  as  the  Messias 
is  absolutely  necessary ;  that  the  power  of  the  State  is  the  mere 
work  of  man,  founded  on  a  free  agreement  of  civil  society.  Though 
not  personally  an  enemy  to  Christianity,  he  contributed  not  a  little 
to  undermine  it  by  means  of  his  disciples,  who  carried  out  the 
principles  of  their  master  to  their  logical  results.  It  was  chiefly 
Anthony  Ashley  Cooper,  Earl  of  Shaftesbury  (+  1713),  who  by  his 
frivolous  and  sarcastic  writings  eifeeted  great  damage  to  religion 
among  the  higher  circles.  Separating  morality  from  religion,  he 
declared  that  faith  in  God  is  powerless  in  the  jjromotion  of  good 
morals,  and  made  the  motives  for  the  beautiful  and  good  entirely 
dependent  on  the  interior  voice  of  mankind.  With  sharp,  satirical 
irony  he  sought  to  divest  Holy  Scripture  of  its  divine  character. 
He  cast  ridicule  on  the  dogmas  of  faith,  and  proclaimed   positive 


ENGLISH  DEISTS.  293 

religion  to  be  a  fraud,  to  which  we  shoukl  outwardly  adhere  in  order 
to  hold  the  great  body  of  the  superstitious  people  in  check.  William 
Lyons  (+  ITlo)  contested  the  existence  of  supernatural  revelation, 
and  proclaimed  true  religion  to  be  that  of  the  infallible  human 
reason.  The  Irish  apostate  Toland  (+ 1721  or  1722),  the  head  of 
the  "Free-thinkers,"  who  on  behalf  of  enlightenment  visited  several 
courts,  declared  reason  to  be  the  only  source  of  certainty  and  convic- 
tion, and  was  especially  intent  on  supplanting  Christianity  by  his 
own  pantheistic  system.  The  same  principles  were  urged  by  An- 
thony Collins  (+  1729),  a  friend  and  pupil  of  Locke.  He  introduced 
the  name  "  free-thinker,"  From  being  at  first  only  an  adversary 
of  the  Established  Church,  he  finally  directed  his  attacks  against 
Christianity  itself.  At  the  suggestion  of  the  Encyclopaedists,  his 
writings  were  translated  into  French. 

Like  Collins,  Thomas  Woolston  (-f- 1731)^  declared  the  miracles  of 
Christ  to  be  mere  allegories,  and  maintained  that  Christ  and  the 
Apostles  had  taught  only  the  law  and  the  religion  of  >rature.  Mat- 
thew Tindal,  a  doctor  of  laws  (+  1733),^  accepted  but  one  religion  as 
true,  —  that  is,  the  natural  religion,  —  and  ascribed  truth  to  Chris- 
tianity only  in  the  measure  in  which  it  agreed  with  this  natural 
religion.  Madeville  (-j-  1753),  Morgan  (-H  1743),  and  others  wrote  in 
a  similar  way.  The  philosopher  Berkeley,  Bishop  of  Cloyne,  born 
in  Ireland  (+  1753),  who  united  with  Locke,  developed  scepticism 
in  his  "Treatise  on  the  Principles  of  Human  Knowledge."  His 
theorj'-  denied  the  existence  of  the  material  world,  and  reduced  all 
matter  to  an  absolute  idealism. 

The  naturalistic,  pantheistic  errors  of  Chubb  (+  1747)  were  worked 
out  for  the  lower  classes.  This  man  had  risen  from  the  trade  of 
soap-boiler  to  the  rank  of  a  philosopher.  Meanwhile  Harry,  Baron 
St.  John  Lidyard,  Viscount  Bolingbroke  (4- 1751),  wrote  for  the 
higher  ranks.  This  profligate,  who  held  the  office  of  a  cabinet 
minister  in  the  reign  of  Queen  Anne,  undermined  religion  and 
morality,  as  much  by  the  shamelessness  of  his  course  of  life  as  by 
his  witty,  satirical,  and  not  over-decent  writings.     He  set  up  selfish- 

1  He  wrote  "The  Old  Apology  of  the  Truth  of  tlie  Cliristian  Religion  against  the 
Jews  and  Gentiles  Revived,  London,  1696  ;  "  and  "  Discourses  [six]  on  the  IMiracles  of 
Christ."  To  the  latter  writing  no  less  than  sixty  answers  were  given.  (See  Cham- 
bers's Encyclopaedia.) 

^  Rights  of  the  Christian  Cluirch  asserted  against  the  Romish  and  all  other  Priests 
who  claim  an  Indejiendent  Power  over  it,  etc.  Christianity  as  Old  as  the  Creation  ; 
or,  The  Gospel  a  Repuldication  of  the  Religion  of  Nature. 


294  HISTQRY  OF   THE   CATHOLIC   CHURCH. 

ness  as  the  highest  motive  of  action  ;  and  in  his  letters  on  the 
study  of  history  he  distorts  the  objective  character  of  this  branch 
of  learning,  and  brings  it  down  to  the  level  of  a  romance.  On  the 
same  principle  he  handles  the  Holy  Scriptures,  seeking  to  place 
their  narratives  in  the  light  of  fraudulent  fables,  etc.  The  his- 
torian David  Hume  (+  1776),  an  iudifferentist  and  sceptic,  derives 
monotheism  from  polytheism,  and  maintains  that  "  doubt "  is  the 
result  of  all  investigation  of  religion ;  he  contests  the  miracles 
of  Christ,  and  defends  suicide.  Yet  about  this  time  the  Free- 
thinkers began  to  meet  with  less  favor  in  England ;  a  considerable 
reaction  had  taken  place,  in  consequence  of  which  the  open  attacks 
on  Christianity  were  fewer  in  number. 

The  English  Free-thinkers  gradually  withdrew  from  open  mani- 
festation into  secret  societies,^  principally  into  the  lodges  of  the 
Freemasons,  to  which  most  of  the  infidel  writers,  such  as  Toland, 
belonged.  The  Great  Lodge  (the  first)  was  opened  in  London,  1717. 
As  early  as  1721  they  numbered  three  hundred  Freemasons.  As 
early  as  1728  there  was  in  Bengal  a  provincial  grand-master.  la 
1729  lodges  were  formed  in  Ireland  and  Scotland  ;  in  1731,  in  North 
America ;  in  1733,  in  Hamburg ;  then  in  other  cities.  In  Paris  a 
lodge  was  established  in  1725. 

In  1731  the  Grand  Duke  Francis  Stephen  of  Tuscany  was  re- 
ceived into  the  society  ;  then  followed,  in  1733,  the  CroAvn  Prince 
Frederic  of  Prussia ;  and  in  1737  the  Prince  of  Wales  also  became  a 
member.  The  society  spread  to  the  most  distant  lands.  To  the 
mother-lodges  numerous  others  were  affiliated.  Although  the  dis- 
covery that  over  the  lower  symbolic  degrees  (apprentice,  fellow, 
master)  many  higher  grades  existed,  and  that  the  supreme  direc- 
tion and  the  action  of  the  league  were  shrouded  in  impenetrable 
mystery  and  guarded  by  terrible  oaths,  cast  a  slight  check  upon  it, 
nevertheless  the  dangerous  secret  association  spread,  receiving  into 
its  bosom  adherents  of  every  creed,  while  giving  prominence  in  its 
own  circle  to  the  worship  of  the  "  Great  Architect  of  the  Universe  " 
alone.  Nor  did  the  prohibitions  of  the  Holy  See  (§  192)  and  of  the 
courts  of  Vienna  (1743,  1764),  of  Heidelberg  (1737),  of  Madrid  and 
Naples  (1751),  stop  its  course. 

If  the  princes  themselves  were  against  it,  still  the  most  powerful 
ministers  were  protectors  and  favorers  of  the  association,  which, 
starting  from  England,  proposed  to  itself  the  spiritual  conquest  of 
the  world. 

1  Dcchamps,  Les  societes  secretes  et  la  societe. 


PHILOSOPHERS   IN  FRANCE.  295 

Frivolity  and  moral  corruption  had  become  prevalent  at  the  court 
of  France  from  the  time  of  Louis  XIV.,  and  had  laid  hold  of  the 
higher  circles.  The  profligacy  and  irreligion  in  the  most  distinguished 
of  these  found  expression  in  the  literature  of  the  day,  which  repro- 
duced the  blasphemous  and  immoral  witticisms  of  the  salons.  They 
gave  considerable  impetus  to  the  circulation  of  the  Free-thinking  writ- 
ings of  the  day  in  France.  Then,  too,  the  scientific  material  which 
unchristian  English  writers  had  gathered  together  was  sj^ecially  wel- 
comed by  such  Frenchmen  as  were  equally  frivolous-minded,  and 
was  used  by  them  for  similar  purposes.  Besides  this,  notwithstand- 
ing the  national  division  between  England  and  France,  many  Eng- 
lishmen, such  as  Bolingbroke,  worked  with  deleterious  influence  in 
Paris,  while  in  return  many  free-thinking  Frenchmen  lived  in  Eng- 
land. Among  the  latter  was  Charles  de  8t.  Denys  Evremonde  (-(-  at 
London,  1703,  at  the  age  of  ninety).  He  was  a  bitter  enemy  of  re- 
ligion, and  an  Epicurean.  After  his  death  his  works,  written  in 
French,  were  eagerly  read. 

Yet  in  France  the  representatives  of  infidelity  were  obliged  to 
proceed  with  some  caution.  The  English  deists,  in  combating  Chris- 
tianity, had  taken  their  standpoint  on  the  knowledge  of  the  natu- 
ral world,  the  science  of  Nature ;  but  their  French  imitators  occupied 
themselves  rather  with  descriptions  of  travels,  monographs,  and  his- 
torical transactions,  in  order  to  give  a  value  to  their  endeavors  to 
(jverturn  faith  and  morals.  Bayle  the  sceptic  proclaimed  religion 
to  be  of  no  value,  and  was  very  zealous  in  his  denunciation  of  com- 
pulsory religion.  Montesquieu  (-f  1755),  in  his  "  Persian  Letters," 
ridiculed  the  doctrines  and  practices  of  the  Christian  religion,  which 
Count  Henry  of  Bouillon  Villars,  in  his  "  Life  of  Mahomet,"  ranked 
below  Islamism. 

About  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century,  the  philosophers  in 
France  entered  on  a  systematic  warfare  against  Christianity.  At 
the  head  of  these  stood  the  talented  and  versatile  but  coarse  and 
immoral  Francis  Arouet  de  Voltaire,  Avhose  watchword  was,  "  Ecrasez 
rinfume  !  "  ("  Crush  the  infamous  thing  !  ")  thereby  meaning  Chris- 
tianity. His  glowing  and  fervid  hate  speaks  out  in  his  witty  and 
obscene  pages.  He  calls  the  narratives  of  Holy  Writ  imitations  of 
the  mythological  fables,  and  revives  the  calumnies  of  Celsus  against 
the  apostles  and  the  first  Christians.  He  overwhelms  the  ceremo- 
nies of  the  Church,  the  bishops  and  priests,  with  a  stream  of  insults 
and  vile  suspicions.  With  him  were  associated  D'Alembert  (+  1783), 
who  was  more  reticent  and   scientific,  and   Diderot  (-h  1784),  who 


296  HISTORY  OF   THE   CATHOLIC   CHURCH. 

openly  and  in  the  coarsest  manner  attacked  both  faith  and  morals. 
To  these  may  be  added  the  astronomers  Lalande,  Volney,  and  Dupuis, 
who  all  wrote  against  Holy  Scripture  and  religion. 

Damilaville,  nicknamed  the  "Hater  of  God,"  also  belonged  to  this 
clique.  Their  principal  organ  was  the  so-called  "Encyclopaedia," 
which  was  commenced  in  1751,  and  inculcated  atheism  and  materi- 
alism in  a  manner  more  or  less  veiled.  The  Count  Palatine  of 
Holbach  was  a  member  of  this  godless  group.  His  house  became 
the  place  of  assembly  for  all  the  enemies  of  Church  and  State. 
J.  J.  Rousseau,  whose  whole  life  is  a  frightful  picture  of  religious 
and  moral  depravity,  praises  the  state  of  Nature  as  that  of  true 
happiness,  and  the  savages  as  the  ideal  of  a  happv  people.  These 
principles  he  carries  out  in  his  romance  of  '-Eniile."  In  his 
"Contrat  Social"  Rousseau  traces  political  life  back  to  a  treaty  of 
association,  by  which  the  individual  surrenders  his  person  and  his 
powers  to  the  guidance  of  the  universal  will  for  the  common  good. 
He  desires  the  restoration  of  the  religion  of  Nature,  and  the  over- 
throw of  Revelation.  Rousseau  ended  his  criminal  life  by  poison,  in 
1778.  Helvetius  and  the  infamous  Offroy  de  la  Mettrie  (+  1751), 
with  Condillac  (+  1780),  preached  the  most  disgusting  materialism, 
which  the  society  of  Economists,  or  Physiocrats,  founded  by  Francis 
Quesnay,  physician  in  ordinary  of  Madame  de  Pompadour,  bror.-ht 
into  practical  use.^ 

Assuredly  these  so-called  philosophers  and  other  enemies  of  the 
faith  found  learned  opponents  in  France,^  and  sometimes  even  the 
Government  summoned  courage  to  oppose  them ;  but  the  principles 
they  upheld  were  not  destroyed  by  the  burning  of  a  few  godless 
writings  at  the  hand  of  the  public  executioner.  The  resistance  of 
the  Jesuits  was  put  an  end  to  by  the  suppression  of  their  order. 
The  dissolute  lives  led  at  court  and  by  the  higher  nobility  encour- 
aged these  so-called  philosophers,  who  found  high  favor  with  the 
ministers  Choiseul,  Malesherbes,  and  others,  and  who,  being  sup- 
ported by  the  intrigues  of  the  Jansenists,^  continued  their  assaults, 

1  The  most  appalling  writings  of  this  kind  are  "Systems  de  la  nature"  (London 
and  Amsterdam,  1770)  and  "  De  I'esprit  "  (1758). 

2  Besides  the  A]iologists  mentioned  in  §  19.5,  Huetius,  Bishop  of  Avranches 
(-1-1721),  Abbot  Hauteville  (-|- 1742),  and  especially  Bergier  (-f  1790),  professor 
in  Besan^on,  and  later  canon  in  Paris,  came  forward  as  defenders  of  the  Christian 
religion. 

^  Although  no  formal  alliance  existed  between  them  and  the  Encylopsedists  for  the 
overthrow  of  Christianity,   yet  they  played  extensively  into  their  hands.     Cf.  the 


PROTESTANT  RATIONALISM.  297 

and  contributed  ever  more  and  more  to  the  religious  and  moral  ruin 
of  the  lower  classes.  In  this  way  daily  the  fuel  was  hoarded  up, 
which,  being  kindled  into  a  blaze  by  the  French  Revolution,  was 
destined  to  spread  destruction  far  and  wide. 

§  207.    Protestant  nationalism. 

Rationalism,  although  essentially  the  offspring  of  Protestantism, 
was  a  dangerous  enemy  to  Protestant  Orthodoxy ;  and  in  the  eigh- 
teenth century,  when  it  became  predominant  in  the  high  schools,  it 
dealt  a  death-blow  to  Orthodox  Lutheranism  and  Calvinism. 

In  order  not  to  excite  the  mistrust  of  the  defenders  of  Ortho- 
doxy, particularly  of  the  Government,  the  representatives  of  ration- 
alistic aims,  upon  whom  the  English  deists  exercised  great  influence, 
proceeded  at  first  with  much  caution.  It  was  not  till  Frederic  II. 
ascended  the  throne  of  Prussia,  in  1740,  that  he,  being  himself  des- 
titute of  all  religion,  afforded  them  the  possibility  of  expressing 
their  deistic  naturalistic  views  without  restraint. 

Wonderful  to  relate,  it  was  the  pietistic  University  of  Halle  in 
which  the  celebrated  if  not  especially  prominent  Sigisniund  Baum- 
garten  {+ 1755)  paved  the  way  to  rationalism  by  applying  the 
method  of  his  master.  Christian  Wolf  (+  1754),  to  theology.  Pro- 
fessor John  Frederic  Gruner,  who  deduced  Christian  doctrines 
from  Platonism  ("  Platonizantes  "),  and  the  vain,  hypercritical 
Salomon  Semler,  who  from  the  year  1752  explained  that  these 
doctrines  were  but  localized  Jewish  ideas  ( "  Judaizantes "),  and 
who  made  a  difference  between  public  religion  and  one  held  in 
private,  — ■  these  went  further  than  tlieir  predecessor,  whose  pupils 
they  had  been. 

From  Halle,  where  frivolity  and  immorality  made  such  inroads 
among  the  students,  and  reached  so  high  a  degree  that  Semler  him- 
self at  a  later  period  retraced  his  steps  towards  a  positive  Chris- 
tianity, the  enlightenment  spread  to  other  universities.  During  the 
time  in  which  Christian  Augustus  Crusius  (+ 1775)  represented 
Orthodoxy  in  Leipsic,  John  Augustus  Ernesti  (+  1781),  more  a 
philologian  than  a  theologian,  introduced  rationalism  there.  In 
Gottingen  the  learned  Orientalist  John  David  Michaelis  (-t- 1791) 
taught  from  the  year  1750.     He  imitated  the  example  of  Ernesti  in 

interesting  paper,  "  La  lega  della  teologia  nioderna  colla  filosofia  ai  danni  della  chiesa 
di  Gesii  Cristo"  (1787),  translated  into  German  under  the  title  "Another  Mystery 
Unveiled,"  by  K.  Martin,  Bishop  of  Paderborn.     Mentz,  1871. 


298  HISTORY  OF  THE   CATHOLIC   CHURCH. 

regard  to  the  Old  Testament,  and  went  further  yet.  John  Godfrey 
Eichhorn  (+  1827),  from  the  year  1788  professor,  publicly  lamented 
that  it  was  still  the  practice  to  preach  from  a  text  of  the  Bible. 
The  historian  Henry  Philip  Conrad  Henke,  in  Helmstadt  from  the 
year  1788  (+  1807),  complains  perpetually  of  Christolatry,  Bibli- 
olatry,  Onomolatry,  and  accuses  the  Fathers  of  the  Church  of  dis- 
figuring Christianity,  and  talks  continually  of  religious  despotism, 
compulsory  teaching,  etc.  Rationalistic  views  also  attained  pre- 
dominance in  the  other  high  schools. 

But  it  was  not  alone  in  the  domain  of  theologj'  that  the  new 
direction  given  to  Orthodox  Lutheranism  forced  its  way.  It  made 
itself  felt  in  philosophy  and  literature.  Even  the  song-books  and 
publications  written  for  mere  children  are  not  free  from  the  false 
enlightenment  of  the  times.  The  rationalists  paid  particular  atten- 
tion to  the  instruction  of  youth,  which  instruction  they  sought 
to  wrench  loose  from  positive  Christianity.  "  Humanity "  was  to 
replace  Christianity. 

With  this  view  Abraham  Teller,  provost  at  Berlin  (+  1804), 
labored.  On  these  principles  he  wanted  to  prove  that  even  the 
Jews  were  good  Christians ;  and  Godfrey  Sam.  Steinbart,  professor 
in  Frankfort  (+  1809),  in  his  system  of  pure  philosophy,  or  Chris- 
tian doctrine  of  happiness,  desired  to  attain  the  same  end  by 
rationalism  (1778).  John  Augustus  Eberhard,  professor  of  philos- 
ophy in  Halle  (+  1809),  rejected  the  doctrine  of  the  atonement 
through  the  death  of  Christ,  and  the  eternity  of  hell-torments. 
Ernest  Frederic  Charles  Rosenmiiller,  professor  of  the  Oriental  lan- 
guages in  Leipsic,  maintained  that  the  doctrine  of  the  IMost  Holy 
Trinity  had  been  introduced  by  ignorant  bishops.  A  prominent  rep- 
resentative of  rationalism  was  Gotthold  Ephraim  Lessing  (-}- 1781), 
who  defended  indifferentism  in  his  classically  written  works.  In 
his  "  Nathan  the  Wise  "  he  places  Christianity,  Judaism,  and  Islam- 
ism  on  the  same  footing.  Herder  (-f  1803),  the  general  superinten- 
dent in  Weimar,  placed  himself,  the  older  he  grew,  at  a  greater 
distance  from  positive  Christianity,  which  he  sought  to  replace  by 
his  religion  of  humanity.  Wieland  (-^  1813)  is  enthusiastic  for  a 
religion  of  happiness,  yet  in  his  "  Agathon  "  he  leaves  it  undecided 
whether  the  divine  or  animal  nature  in  man  is  the  better.  Schiller 
and  Goethe  reproduce  in  attractive  forms  the  natural  rationalistic 
ideas,  the  representative  of  which  in  the  domain  of  philosophy 
was  Immanuel  Kant  (-f  1804),  professor  in  Konigsberg.  The  phi- 
losophy of  Fichte  (-f  1814)  on  identity,  and  that  propounded    by 


I'liOTESTANT  RATIONALISM.  299 

F.  J.  Jacobi  (+ 1819)  on  the  intuitive  conception  of  faith  as  opposed 
to  reason,  are  alike  subversive  of  the  Christian  doctrine. 

Yet  more  vehemently  than  those  named  above  did  Edelmann 
(+  1767)  try  to  controvert  Christianity.  He  demanded  the  aboli- 
tion of  the  Christian  Koran.  John  Bernard  Basedow,  the  founder 
of  the  Philanthropians  in  Dessau,  who  in  meanness  and  profligacy 
was  only  surpassed  by  the  immoral  and  licentious  Charles  Frederic 
Bahrdt  (+  1792),  was  also  opposed  to  Christianity. 

In  order  to  disseminate  enlightenment  more  successfully,  the 
rationalistic  leaders  founded  several  unions,  and  endeavored  to 
become  the  rulers  of  the  combined  literature  of  Germany.  Their 
main  organ  was  the  "  Universal  German  Library "  (one  hundred 
and  six  volumes),  founded  in  1765  b}'  the  bookseller  Nicolai  in 
Berlin,  —  a  literary  periodical  which  systematically  decried  all  Avrit- 
ings  of  a  positive  faith  as  stupid  and  ignorant,  and  thus  brought 
them  into  discredit,  while  it  lauded  and  recommended  all  heterodox 
and  naturalistic  writings.  "  The  Society  for  the  Diffusion  of  Light 
and  Truth,"  founded  by  Blester,  the  publisher  of  the  ''Berlin 
Monthly,"  and  the  "  German  Union  "  were  equally  enthusiastic  for 
the  dissemination  of  rationalism. 

It  is  assuredly  true  that  Protestant  Orthodoxy  also  found  its 
defenders  ;  but  neither  the  writings  of  such  Lutheran  theologians 
as  Pastor  Gotze  in  Hamburg  (+ 1786),  nor  the  ordinances  issued  by 
the  Government  for  the  protection  of  Orthodoxy,  availed  to  stem  the 
flood  of  rationalism.  This  is  proved  by  the  edict  of  Woellner,  the 
Prussian  minister,^  issued  on  the  9th  of  June,  1788.  The  representa- 
tives of  rationalism  rejected  the  Orthodox  teaching  of  the  symbolic 
books,  and  appealed  to  the  Bible  as  the  only  source  of  faith. 

But  in  order  to  refute  all  the  objections  brought  against  the  en- 
lightened, they  brought  forward  new  views  respecting  the  canon 
and  inspiration  of  the  Holy  Scriptures,  composed  rationalistic  trans- 

1  The  following  passage  of  this  edict  is  interesting  :  "Meanwhile  it  is  our  will, 
principally  from  our  great  predilection  for  freedom  of  conscience,  to  concede  so  far  as 
to  grant  that  those  of  the  clergj'  who  are  already  in  public  employment,  even  if  it  be 
known  of  them  that  they,  alas  !  are  more  or  less  infected  by  the  errors  denounced  in 
§  7,  should  tranquilly  retain  their  office  ;  only  they  must,  in  the  instruction  of  their 
congregations,  sacredly  and  inviolably  maintain  the  precepts  laid  down  in  this  system 
of  doctrine.  If  they  should,  on  the  contrary,  oppose  this  the  command  of  the  governor 
of  the  country,  and  not  set  forth  truly  and  fundamentally  this  system  of  their  peculiar 
confession,  such  a  determined  opposition  to  the  commands  of  their  ruler  shall  be  met 
without  fail  by  deposition  from  office  and  by  still  severer  punishments."  (Latest 
Eeligious  Events  in  the  Year  1780,  p.  659  S(|q.) 


300  HISTORY  OF   THE   CATHOLIC   CHURCH. 

lations  of  the  Bible  after  the  pattern  of  the  Wertheini  translations 
(1737)  by  Laurence  Smith,  and  invented  the  accommodation  theory, 
by  the  help  of  which  all  the  passages  disagreeable  to  them  could  be 
explained  away. 

§  208.    Rationalism  in  Catholic  Circles. 

The  false  enlightenment  so  much  lauded  by  French  atheists, 
and  by  the  rationalistic  professors,  beaux  esjyrits  (fine  wits),  consis- 
torial  counsellors,  and  journalists  of  Germany,  found  propagators 
and  j)rotectors  both  in  temporal  and  in  spiritual  princes,  who  not 
only  permitted  the  heretical  and  destructive  principles  of  an  un- 
christian theology  to  be  taught  in  their  high  schools,  but  surren- 
dered their  very  selves  as  tools  for  the  practical  carrying  out  of 
the  same. 

Laurence  Isenbiehl,  educated  in  Gottingen,  professor  at  Mentz,  in 
seeking  to  introduce  the  Protestant  rationalistic  explanation  of  the 
Bible,  denied  that  the  passage  in  Isaias  vii.  14  had  any  reference  to 
the  Messias ;  but  he  incurred  deposition  and  imprisonment  thereby^ 
and  in  1779  finally  submitted  to  the  judgment  of  the  Church. 

But  in  Austria,  under  the  Emperor  Joseph  II.,  the  Illuminati,  or 
men  of  the  so-termed  enlightenment,  proceeded  more  at  ease  in  the 
contempt  they  showered  in  word  and  writing  on  religion  and  morals. 
Even  the  representatives  of  learning  were  seized  with  the  enlighten- 
ment craze,  which  the  routine  of  studies  laid  down  by  the  Abbe 
Rautenstrauch  had  already  prepared  the  students  to  adopt.  The 
characteristic  of  the  philosophical  and  theological  works  which 
appeared  at  that  time  in  Austria  is  a  spiritless  superficiality,  a 
blind  imitation  of  the  Protestant  leadership,  and  a  frivolity  abso- 
lutely repulsive  to  a  truly  educated  man,  with  which  the  "  purifiers 
of  faith  "  attacked  the  dogmas,  the  institutions,  and  the  hierarchy 
of  the  Church. 

Rationalistic  views  made  their  way  into  other  Catholic  universities 
also,  even  if  not  in  the  same  degree.  The  Benedictines  of  Salzburg, 
even  though  they  were  disciples  of  Kant,  were  in  good  faith ;  whereas 
Professor  Danzer  took  the  side  of  the  new  lights,  and  found  in 
the  Archbishop  Jerome  a  protector  against  the  Orthodox  theolo- 
gians. The  "High-German  Literary  Gazette"  (1788-1799)  repre- 
sented more  or  less  the  false  principles.  The  theological  faculty 
in  Wiirzburg  numbered,  besides  her  Orthodox  professors,  Oberthiir, 
Rosshirt,  Feder,  and  Berg,  who  all  accepted  the  novel  views.     The 


RATIONALISM  IN  CATHOLIC  CIRCLES.  301 

Wiirzburger  "  Learned  Indicator  "  and  the  ''  Literary  Gazette,"  edited 
by  the  Benedictines  in  Banz,  had  not  escaped  a  taint  of  the  anti- 
ecclesiastical  stream  of  the  times.  Fulda  and  Erfurt  were  not  in 
all  particulars  correct. 

But  the  universities  of  the  three  archbishops  on  the  Rhine  were  in 
the  greatest  degree  influenced  by  the  bad  spirit  of  the  age.  At  Treves, 
the  professors  Oehmbs,  Hanbs,  Weber,  Conrad,  and  others  were  not 
pi'ecisely  enemies  to  the  Church,  yet  they  were  strongly  infected 
with  rationalism.  This  applies  still  more  to  Professor  Werner,  who 
with  unsparing  hand  lays  hold  of  the  most  venerable  institutions 
and  drags  them  down  to  the  dust,  subordinates  the  Church  to  the 
State,  etc. ;  and  to  Castello,  who  insults  and  slanders  the  defenders 
of  faith,  that  he  may  the  more  exalt  the  anti-ecclesiastical  writers. 
Rationalism  had  full  sway  in  the  University  of  Bonn,  which  the 
Electoral  Prince  Maximilian  Franz  founded  in  1786  in  order  to  ruin 
the  old  Catholic  High  School  of  Cologne.  Here  taught  Philip  Hed- 
derich,  professor  of  ecclesiastical  law,  who  openly  boasted  of  his 
condemnation  by  the  Holy  See.  The  expositor  Thaddeus  of  St. 
Adam  reproduced  all  rationalistic  heresies  in  a  truly  blasphemous 
manner.  Elias  Van  Schiiren  at  first  gave  his  philosophical  lectures 
according  to  Feder,  afterwards  according  to  Kant.  The  immoral 
unbeliever  Eulogius  Schneider  inoculated  the  frequenters  of  the 
gymnasium  with  the  poison  of  infidelity  and  of  godlessness ;  and  it 
was  not  until  the  indignation  of  the  people  had  publicly  risen 
against  the  practices  of  this  man  that  the  authorities  apparently 
interfered  in  1790.  Schneider  figured  afterwards  as  a  hero  of  the 
Revolution  in  1794,  and  died  on  the  scaffold.  The  University  of 
INfentz  also  stood  under  the  influence  of  "  enlightened "  professors. 
F.  A.  Blau  taught  the  dogmatics,  which  he  propounded  in  the  shal- 
lowest form  of  rationalism ;  and  in  his  anonymous  writings  he 
denied  even  the  infallibility  of  the  Church  and  the  divine  insti- 
tution of  Confession.  United  with  him  in  the  destruction  of  every- 
thing holy  was  A.  J.  Dorsch,  professor  of  philosophy,  —  a  miserable 
echo  of  Kant,  a  man  without  faith  or  morals.  At  their  side  stood 
Jung  as  professor  of  Church  history,  and  Becker  as  moralist,  who 
also  followed  in  the  irreligious  stream  of  the  era.  G.  Kohler,  pro- 
fessor of  liturgy,  a  Benedictine,  compromised  himself,  though  in  a 
less  degree. 

The  spirit  of  the  times  is  mirrored  in  the  plainest,  most  signi- 
ficant manner,  in  the  "  Mentz  Monthly  Publication  of  Spiritual 
Matters,"    from  the   year   1785.      Its   principal  editor   was  J.   K. 


302  HISTORY  OF   THE   CATHOLIC   CHURCH. 

Muller,  prefect  of  the  gymnasium.  The  "Journal  of  Religion," 
on  the  other  hand,  edited  by  the  zealous  Jesuit  Hermann  Gold- 
hagen,  from  the  year  1776,  defended  the  affairs  of  the  Church, 
while  the  archbishops  worked  together  for  the  destruction  of  all 
genuine  religious  feeling. 

The  false  enlightenment  was  not  confined  to  the  jM-ofessor's 
lecture-room;  it  made  itself  felt  in  the  composition  of  popular 
literature,  in  prayer-books  and  devotional  Avorks,  and  even  in  song- 
books,  to  the  great  annoyance  of  the  faithful  people,  who  instinc- 
tively shrank  from  these  Avatery  products  of  the  brain,  and  refused 
to  exchange  their  books  of  devotion,  so  full  of  faith  and  unction, 
for  the  productions  of  a  cold  rationalism. 

The  real  object  of  the  exertions  of  these  rationalists  was  Avhat 
they  termed  reform,  by  which  they  meant,  levelling  the  liturgy, 
by  especially  casting  out  all  the  higher  and  mystical  elements,  sub- 
stituting for  it  a  bare  morality  in  the  sense  of  the  philosophy  of 
Kant,  and  promoting  a  union  with  Protestantism  on  the  foundation 
of  a  religious  indifferentism  ;  it  meant  also  enmity  to  the  religious 
orders,  and,  finally,  the  establishment  of  a  national  church. 

The  most  violent  opposition  to  the  Church,  and  against  the 
constitution  of  the  State,  proceeded  from  the  Order  of  Illumi- 
nati,  which  was  founded  by  the  notorious  A.  Weishaupt,  professor 
of  canon  law  in  Ingolstadt,  1776.  It  was  divided  into  the  grades  of 
Magus  and  Rex,  or  Priest  and  King,  and  was  to  make  an  end  of  the 
rule  of  parsons  and  knaves.  To  this  union  belonged  high  and  low, 
clerics  and  laymen;  but  the  real  object  aimed  at  was  known  but 
to  few  members.  The  order  obtained  such  extended  power  that 
it  provided  tutors  for  princes,  professors  for  the  universities,  com- 
manders for  the  fortresses,  counsellors  and  ministers  to  princes- 
regnant,  who  then  also  promoted  their  fellow-members.  At  last 
the  dangerous  society  was  suppressed  by  the  Electoral  Bavarian 
Government  in  1785.  i\Ieantime  it  is  difficult  to  assign  limits  to 
the  devastation  it  caused. 

Most  of  the  men  named  above  belonged  to  it.  Fellow-members 
of  it  were  also  B.  A.  Werkmeister,  an  ex-Benedictine,  and  Catholic 
chaplain  at  the  court  of  Duke  Charles  of  Wlirtemberg  in  J^tuttgart, 
and  Philip  Brunner,  parish  priest  at  Tiefenbach.  The  first  was  an 
incarnate  rationalist,  who  in  several  anonymous  writings  soiaght-  to 
bring  down  religion  to  the  circuit  of  naturalism,  and  uttered  many 
blasiDliemies.  His  friend  Brunner  cherished  the  same  opinions,  for 
the  dissemination  of  which  he  desired  to. found  an  "Academy  of 


HOSTILITY    TO    THE   JESUITS.  303 

Science  for  Catholic  Germany."  The  central  point  was  to  be  Mentz ; 
and  Dalberg,  the  Free-thinking  canon,  who  was  afterwards  coadjutor, 
was  to  undertake  the  protectorate  thereof.  Concerning  the  ten- 
dency of  this  association  Brunner  speaks  without  circumlocutiou 
in  two  letters,  one  of  which  is  addressed  to  the  ex-Capuchin  of 
]\Ientz,  the  other  to  Professor  Norbert  Nimis. 

In  opposition  to  these  destructive  tendencies,  the  Catholic  people 
and  the  greater  part  of  the  clergy  held  on,  with  unwavering  fidelity, 
to  the  faith  and  to  the  institutions  of  Holy  Mother  Church,  and 
withstood,  with  an  energetic  resistance  and  most  solid  argumenta- 
tive writings,  alike  the  godless  practices  in  vogue  and  the  shameless 
attacks  made  on  religion. 

The  Jesuits  were  peculiarly  the  objects  of  hatred  to  the  enemies 
of  the  Church ;  on  which  account,  heresy,  unbelief,  and  false 
enlightenment  joined  together,  to  annihilate,  by  exterior  force,  an 
order  with  which  they  could  not  compete  m  learning  and  science: 

§  209.  Hostility  to  the  Jesuits  and  Suppression  of  tlieir  Order. 

The  activity  so  fraught  with  blessings  which  distinguished  the 
order  of  Jesuits  attracted  to  them  the  hate  of  the  enemies  of  the 
Church,  who  by  every  means  at  their  disposal  attacked  their  Insti- 
tute and  at  length  accomplished  its  suppression. 

The  contest  was  carried  on  with  great  warmth  about  the  middle 
of  the  eighteenth  century,  j^articularly  in  Portugal,  in  which  the 
Marquis  de  Pombal,  Carvalho,  held  the  reins  of  government  in 
lieu  of  the  incapable  king  Joseph  Emmanuel.  This  parvenu  was 
filled  with  an  implacable  hatred  towards  the  high  nobility  and 
the  clergy,  the  victims  to  which  hatred  the  Jesuits  were  to  become. 
After  his  first  plan  of  convicting  them  as  guilty  of  revolutionary 
plots  had  failed,  Pombal  hired  pamphleteers  to  calumniate  them 
systematically  ;  and  then,  on  the  ground  of  these  false  accusations, 
he  extorted  a  brief  from  Pope  Benedict  XIV.  (1757)  by  which  Car- 
dinal Saldanha  was  commissioned  to  make  a  visitation  in  the  houses 
of  the  order.  The  cardinal  performed  his  office  in  the  very  spirit 
of  Pombal's  intention.  The  commands  he  laid  upon  the  Jesuits 
were  but  the  prelude  to  harsher  measures.  An  attempt  to  assassi- 
nate the  king  was  laid  to  the  charge  of  the  order ;  and  the  members 
of  it,  against  whom  the  prosecution  (which  was  conducted  with 
frightful  injustice  and  utter  neglect  of  the  forms  of  law)  brought 
not  a  shadow  of  proof  of  guilt,  were  either  stripped  of  everything 


304  HISTORY  OF   THE   CATHOLIC   CHURCH. 

packea  together  closely  in  ships,  and  set  on  shore  on  the  coasts  of 
the  States  of  the  Church,  or  they  were  immured  in  horrible  prisons. 
As  the  reason  of  such  unheard-of  treatment,  the  crimes  of  the 
Jesuits  were  alleged,  who,  it  was  maintained,  had  transgressed  the 
rules  of  their  Holy  Institute.  It  was  not  until  Queen  Maria  (1777) 
ascended  the  throne  that  the  prisoners  were  restored  to  liberty. 
Most  of  them  had  by  that  time  succumbed  to  hunger  and  misery 
of  every  sort.  Then  the  punishment  he  had  merited  at  length 
overtook  Pombal,  who  had  transformed  the  University  of  Coimbra 
into  an  arsenal  of  godlessness  and  freemasonry.  In  1781  he 
was  convicted  of  gross  embezzlement,  condemned  to  an  exem- 
plary punishment,  and  only  pardoned  on  account  of  his  extreme 
old  age. 

The  ancient  enemies  of  the  Jesuits  in  France,  the  Jansenists  and 
Huguenots,  were  powerfully  supported  in  their  exertions  against 
them,  in  the  eighteenth  century,  by  the  atheistical  philosophers 
and  Encyclopsedists,  and  also  gained  faithful  allies  in  the  ill-famed 
Pompadour  and  the  minister  Choiseul.  The  motives  which  in- 
fluenced these  parties  were  indeed  different;  but  their  object  was 
the  same,  —  the  destruction  of  the  order,  to  which  also  the  Jansen- 
istic-revolutionary  Parliament  lent  a  helping  hand.  A  disposition 
inimical  to  the  Jesuits  had  already  been  manifested  in  1757,  at  the 
prosecution  of  Damiens ;  but  the  fierce  storm  broke  over  the  order 
after  the  unfortunate  undertaking  of  La  Valette  ^  had  miscarried. 
The  Parliament  (17G0)  adjudged  the  whole  order  to  be  responsible 
for  the  failure,  and  condemned  them  to  pay  the  creditors  of  one 
whom  they  had  expelled  from  among  them  ;  on  this  occasion  also 
they  gave  utterance  to  the  most  hateful  sentiments  against  the 
Institute. 

In   order  to  prejudice  the  public   mind  against   the   order,  the 

1  La  Valette  had  formerly  been  superior  of  the  order  on  the  island  of  Martinico, 
but  was  no  longer  a  member  of  the  society.  After  he  had  brought  the  French 
colony  into  a  prosperous  condition,  he  became  insolvent  in  consequence  of  some 
vessels  laden  with  millions'  worth  of  goods  being  captured  by  the  hostile  English. 
A  merchant-house  in  Marseilles  laid  a  claim  on  the  order  for  a  debt  of  four  nullion 
livres ;  this  they  repudiated,  as  La  Valette,  so  far  from  being  commissioned  by  them, 
had  been  first  reproved  by  them,  then  expelled  from  the  order,  which  had  even 
then  to  meet  a  similar  demand  on  his  account.  On  this  refusal  a  universal  storm 
broke  forth  against  the  Jesuits.  The  commercial  house  won  its  suit  before  the 
Consulate  of  Marseilles  and  before  the  chambers  of  the  Parisian  Parliament ;  the 
latter  converted  the  civil  process  into  a  criminal  one,  and  demanded  the  forfeiture 
of  the  constitution  and  privileges  of  the  whole  order.     Hergcnrdthcr,  ii.  563. 


HOSTILITY   TO    THE   JESUITS.  305 

so-called  "  Extracts  "  were  published,  purporting  to  be  taken  from 
the  writings  of  the  Jesuits/  and  to  contain  immoral  and  treasonable 
doctrines.  This  miserable  piece  of  work,  the  author  of  which 
imputes  false  doctrine  to  the  Jesuits,  wrests  passages  from  their 
context,  and  lays  the  mistakes  of  a  few  individuals  on  the  whole 
order,  was  circulated  all  over  France,  while  not  even  the  right  of 
defending  themselves  was  accorded  to  the  Jesuits. 

Force  completed  that  which  had  been  begun  by  falsehood  and 
calumny.  At  the  instigation  of  the  Abbe  Chauvelin,  the  Parlia- 
ment of  Paris  concluded,  in  1761,  to  close  the  Jesuit  colleges; 
and  on  Aug.  6,  1762,  the  Society  of  Jesus  was  suppressed,  because 
"  in  their  doctrine  they  were  godless  and  sacrilegious,  and  in  their 
acts  were  pernicious  alike  to  Church  and  State."  But  a  few 
months  before  this,  fifty  bishops  assembled  at  Paris  had  borne  a 
most  glorious  testimony  in  favor  of  the  order. 

The  Aveak-minded  monarch,  Louis  XV.,  who  was  controlled  by 
his  mistresses,  and  whose  objections  to  the  Decree  of  1761  had 
not  been  listened  to,  could  not  resolve  on  any  energetic  action 
against  the  decree  of  suppression  of  Aug.  6,  1762 ;  but  the  whole 
episcopate  of  France  protested  against  it.  Pope  Clement  XIII., 
on  the  3d  of  September  declared  the  decree  to  be  null  and  void. 
These  protests  were  of  no  avail.  The  Parliament,  which  had  also 
adjudged  the  pastoral  letter  of  Archbishop  Christopher  de  Beau- 
mont to  the  flames,  in  1764  left  the  Jesuits  only  the  alternative 
either  to  declare  their  Institute  abominable  and  dangerous  to  the 
State  or  to  go  into  exile.  They  chose  the  latter.  The  king  at  last 
gave  consent  to  the  suppression  of  the  Society,  but  allowed  the 
members  of  it  to  remain  in  France  as  private  persons.  The  brief 
"  Apostolicum "  (1765),  by  which  the  Pope  confirmed  the  order 
anew,  and  commended  it,  neither  effected  the  restoration  of  the 
order  to  France,  nor  hindered  the  Jesuits  from  being  driven-out 
of  Spain. 

The  chief  agitators  against  the  Society  in  this  last-named  country 
were  the  ministers  Aranda  and  De  Roda,  who,  being  supported  by 
the  enemies  of  the  Church,  had,  after  an  insurrection  of  the  people 
in  Madrid,  excited  the  distrustful  king  Charles  III.  against  the 
order,  and  by  means  of  a  shameful  deception  extorted  (also  in 
1766)  a  decree  of  banishment  against  them,  which  in  the  mother- 

^  Extraits  des  assertions  dangereuses  et  pernicieuses,  que  les  Jesuites  ont  en- 
seignees  avec  I'approbation,  verifies  par  les  commissaires  du  Parlement.  Paris, 
1762. 

VOL.    II.  20 


306  HISTORY  OF   THE   CATHOLIC   CHURCH.         y 

land  (on  the  2d  and  3d  of  April)  and  in  the  colonies  was  put  in 
force  with  great  severity.  The  principal  motive  of  this  barbarovis 
conduct  Charles  kept  "  concealed  in  his  royal  bosom."  The  peti- 
tions of  the  Pope  and  those  of  the  Spanish  Episcopate  had  no 
power  to  move  him  from  his  pvirpose.  The  example  of  Spain  was 
imitated  in  Naples  (1767)  under  the  reign  of  Charles's  son  Ferdi- 
nand IV.,  for  whom  Tanucci,  the  enemy  of  the  Church,  governed 
the  kingdom.  The  same  took  place  in  the  dukedom  of  Parma  and 
Piacenza  (1768),  over  which  Ferdinand,  the  brother  of  Charles,  held 
sway. 

When  we  look  at  the  men  from  whom  the  enmity  towards  the 
Jesuits  sprung,  and  the  means  of  which  they  availed  themselves, 
together  with  the  conduct  of  the  clergy  and  people,  we  cannot  avoid 
the  conclusion  that  the  order  was  the  innocent  victim  of  a  revolu- 
tionary and  godless  party,  to  which  crowned  heads  in  their  miserable 
blindness  lent  their  aid. 

The  enemies  of  the  Church  were  not  content  with  driving  out  the 
Jesuits  from  some  countries.  On  Dec.  10,  1768,  they,  with  their 
royal  confederates,  demanded  of  Clement  XIIT.,  under  threats, 
the  formal  suppression  of  the  order.  The  Pope  firmly  refused 
this  unreasonable  proposition ;  but  unfortunately,  his  successor, 
Clement  XIV.,  did  not  possess  the  steadfastness  of  character  of 
his  predecessor.  Besieged  by  the  Bovirbon  courts,  he,  for  the  sake 
of  peace,  signed  the  brief  of  suppression,  ''Dominus  ac  redemptor 
noster,"  July  21,  1773.     It  was  first  published  on  Aug.  16. 

Without  making  the  slightest  objection,  the  members  of  the  order 
submitted  to  the  decision  of  the  Pope,  whose  brief  had  not  a  single 
crime  to  lay  to  their  charge.  The  general  of  the  Jesuits,  Lorenzo 
Ricci,  died  in  the  Castle  of  St.  Angelo,  1775,  solemnly  attesting  the 
innocence  of  the  order. 

No  one  can  question  the  right  that  Pope  Clement  XIV.  had  to 
suppress  a  spiritual  order ;  but  his  conduct  was  harsh  and  unjust 
in  itself,  and  in  its  consequences  injurious.  His  compliance  by  no 
means  brought  to  the  Church  the  wished-for  peace.  Antagonism 
to  the  Church  and  especially  to  the  Holy  See  now  showed  a 
broader  front ;  while  the  ex-Jesuits,  forgetting  the  sufferings  they 
had  undergone,  came  forth  as  champions  of  the  papacy. 

In  spite  of  the  brief  of  suppression,  the  Jesuits  still  held  posses- 
sion of  the  Jesuit  colleges  of  Mohilev  and  Polotzk  in  White  Russia, 
for  which  Catherine  II.  interceded.  Pius  VI.  (1782)  even  permitted 
the  Fathers  to  choose  a  general-vicar  for  Russia.     Pins  VII.  per- 


THE    CELEBRATION   OF  DIVINE    WORSHIP.  307 

mitted  them,  under  the  Emperor  Paul,  to  settle  in  the  whole  of 
Eussia  in  1801.  The  same  Pope,  on  Aug.  7,  1814,  restored  the 
order  to  its  rank  in  religion. 


III.   WORSHIP   AXD   DISCIPLINE. 

§  210.   The   Celebration  of  Divine  Worship.  —  Christian  Art.  — 

Religious  Life. 

The  Fathers  of  the  Council  of  Trent  gave  special  rules  for  the 
worthy  celebration  of  divine  service,  for  the  guidance  of  the  preach- 
er's office,  and  for  affording  Christian  instruction,  in  order  to  pre- 
vent any  unseemly  act  from  interfering  with  devotion ;  they  also 
sought,  through  the  newly  edited  and  improved  liturgical  books,  to 
exclude  all  possibility  of  caprice  being  exercised  in  the  administra- 
tion of  the  sacraments,  etc. 

Church  chant,  or  song,  was  also  an  object  of  the  business  of  the 
synod,  which  desired  to  exclude  every  worldly  and  undignified  form 
from  its  practice.^  John  Pierluigi,  from  Palestrina  (+  1594),  ac- 
quired immortal  renown  in  the  department  of  the  science  of  music  : 
his  compositions  for  the  artistic  blending  of  individual  voices  in 
harmony  fully  met  the  requirements  of  the  Council  of  Trent.  His 
"  ]\Lissa  Papae  Marcelli"  (1555),  which  gave  new  expression  to  the 
choral  ecclesiastical  singing,  is  a  masterpiece.  The  music  school  estab- 
lished in  Rome  by  St.  Philip  Neri  gave  occasion  to  the  oratorios.  In 
the  seventeenth  century  a  new  direction  was  given  to  Church  music, 
which  accorded  less  with  Church  principles. 

The  festivals  of  the  Church  were  increased  by  the  festival  of  the 
Holy  Rosary,  that  of  the  Five  Wounds,  and  that  of  the  Name  and  of 
the  Sacred  Heart  of  Jesus ;  ^  on  the  other  hand,  Benedict  XIV.  and 
Clement  XIV.  diminished  the  number  of  festivals,  at  the  earnest  re- 
quest of  several  courts  that  had  refused  to  have  the  above-named 
feasts  celebrated  from  reasons  of  State.  The  Way  of  the  Cross  and 
that  of  the  Stations  were  intended  to  compensate  for  the  pilgrimage 
to  Jerusalem. 

1  "  Ab  ecclesiis  vero  musicas  eas,  nhi  sive  organo  sive  caiitu  lascivum  aut  inipunim 
aliquid  miseetur  .  .  .  arceant.'"  (Sess.  22,  Dec.  de  observ.  et  evitand.  in  celebr. 
missae.) 

2  The  Jansenists  made  a  point  of  opposing  the  latter  devotion,  which  nevertheless 
continued  to  spread  in  all  directions.  Dnigairns,  The  Sacred  Heart  of  Jesus.  Mentz, 
1862. 


308  HISTORY  OF   THE   CATHOLIC   CHURCH. 

The  use  in  public  devotions  of  such  litanies  as  had  not  been  sanc- 
tioned by  the  Church  was  forbidden  in  1601  by  Pope  Clement  YIII., 
in  the  constitution  "  Sanctissimus,''  and  the  introduction  of  new  lit- 
anies in  public  worship  was  made  dependent  on  the  approval  of  the 
Congregation  of  Eites.  The  approved  litanies  are  those  of  All 
Saints  and  of  Loretto,  to  which  was  added  (Aug.  21,  1862)  that  of 
the  Name  of  Jesus. 

According  to  the  rule  given  by  the  Council  of  Trent  (Sess.  25),  in 
the  granting  of  indulgences  "  moderation  "  was  to  be  observed,  and 
"  all  scandalous  gains "  were  to  be  avoided  Sick  people  were 
strenuously  urged  to  receive  the  sacraments. ■^ 

The  Ecclesiastical  Inquisition,  newly  organized  by  Pope  Paul  III., 
and  more  widely  extended  by  Pius  Y.  and  Sixtus  V.,  continued  to 
exist  in  Eome ;  in  other  countries  of  Christendom  this  institution 
was  done  away  with  in  the  eighteenth  and  nineteenth  centuries. 

The  style  of  Church  architecture  in  the  sixteenth  century  Avas 
principally  tliat  of  the  Renaissance,  which  in  the  time  of  Louis  XIV. 
degenerated  into  the  Rococo,  or  ornamental  st^ie,  while  the  Barok 
style  of  the  Jesuits  tried  a  medium  course. 

The  Church  paintings  and  sculpture  bear  the  vuimistakable  stamp 
of  an  age  which  had  renounced  the  higher  aims  and  the  ideal  of  the 
dark  ages,  to  give  expression  to  their  naturalistic  and  sensual  views. 

But  a  greater  triumph  was  reserved  for  poetry,  Avhich  bore  the 
spirit  of  the  Church,  and  cast  into  the  shade  the  conceptions  of 
the  Humanists,  both  as  to  matter  and  form. 

As  regards  religious  life  at  this  period,  it  is  not  to  be  doubted 
that  its  discipline,  which  had  fallen  into  decay  in  many  ways,  in 
consequence  of  tlie  Reformation,  was  revived  b}^  the  activity'  of  the 
Council  of  Trent.  The  devastating  wars,  especially  the  Thirty 
Years'  War,  were  very  prejudicial  to  faith  and  morals,  and  had  eai'- 
ried  rough  manners  and  uncouth  behavior  in  their  train.  After 
peace  had  been  again  restored  to  Germany,  a  religious  and  moral 
renovation  proceeded  at  a  very  cheering  rate  of  progression  till 
about  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century,  when  the  infidel  en- 
lightenment took  possession  of  tiie  higher  classes,  and  by  degrees 
drew  the  lower  ranks  of  the  people  into  the  snare.      France  espe- 

1  Pius  V.  decreed  (1566),  in  the  bull  "Supra  gregem  Dominicum "  (Bull.  ed.  Taur. 
toni.  vii.  p.  436  sqq.),  that  physicians  should  admonish  the  sick  to  receive  the  Sacra- 
ments, "neque  tertio  die  ulterius  eos  visitent,"  etc.,  unless  they  wei'e  willing  to 
confess  their  sins.  This  decree  was  renewed  by  Benedict  XIII.  (1725)  and  Pius  IX. 
(1869), 


RELIGIOUS   LIFE.  309 

cially  became  in  the  eighteenth  century  a  scene  of  unbelieving  and 
frivolous  efforts,  which  found  countenance  and  protection  at  the 
court  of  the  "  Most  Christian  "  king,  and  first  corrui)ted  the  higher 
nobility,  leading  them  to  irreligion  and  immonility,  while  in  the 
sequel  it  exercised  a  terrible  result  and  brought  most  painful  conse- 
quences to  the  common  people.  In  Spain  and  Portugal  heresy,  with 
its  sad  results,  met  with  an  energetic  opposition.  It  was  not  till 
royal  absolutism  made  common  cause  with  Freemasonry  that  some 
small  portion  of  the  clergy  and  people  were  won  over  to  the  false 
enlightenment,  to  which  the  healthy  and  ecclesiastically  inclined 
majority  of  the  people  of  Spain  and  Portugal  were  always  averse. 
In  Italy  the  reformatory  efforts  of  many  saintly  men  and  women 
were  not  without  result  (see  §  186),  although  the  spirit  of  the  times 
rendered  the  development  of  a  true  religious  life  very  difficult. 

But  in  spite  of  such  a  lamentable  state  of  things,  the  fact  still  re- 
mains indisputable,  that  during  this  period  the  Church  left  no  meaus 
untried  that  could  conduce  to  the  religious  and  moral  perfection  of 
the  faithful ;  that,  as  a  whole,  she  effected  the  most  beautiful  results, 
and  in  fact  brought  forth  in  every  land  saints  whose  exami)les 
were  bright  patterns  for  their  contemporaries. 

Bosidcs  Palestrina  (Baini,  Mem.  della  vita  ili  G.  P.  da  Palestr.  2  vols. 
Rt>ina,  1828),  the  Spaniard  Morales,  a  member  of  tlie  Papal  Chapel  in  Rome, 
Guerrero,  Ortiz,  and  especially  L.  da  Vittoria,  chapel  master  of  St.  Apollinare 
in  Rome  were  celebrated  composei's ;  besides  these,  the  Italians  Dentice, 
Festa,  John  and  Paul  Animuccia,  Felix  and  Francis  Anerio,  Agostini,  and 
the  celebrated  Gregory  AUegri  (+  1652).  France  also  possessed  distinguished 
musical  artists  hi  Arcadelt  and  Goudimel,  whose  pupil  \Vi\s  Palestrina. 

Among  the  masters  of  the  Netherlands,  Orlando  di  Lasso  (1520-1.594)  is  espe- 
cially eminent.  See  Gerhert,  De  cantu  et  musica  sacra  a  prima  ecclesiae  aetate 
usque  ad  ])7'aesens  tempus,  torn.  ii.  Typis  scl.  Blasianis,  1774.  On  the  painters 
of  the  Renaissance,  see  the  works  given  in  ^151.  The  best  known  are  the 
Italians  Domenechino  and  Guido  Reni,  tlie  Spaniard  Murillo,  and  P.  P.  Rubens, 
of  the  Netherlands.  Among  the  poets  of  the  Church  we  may  give  a  high 
rank  to  tlie  Polisli  Jesuit  Casimir  Sarbiewski  (+1640),  and  his  cf>mpanlon 
in  the  order,  James  Balde  (+  1668).  Their  Latin  hymns  and  songs  vie  in 
elegance  of  diction  with  those  of  the  ancient  classics.  In  Spain,  Lope  de  Vega 
(+  Hi:}5)  and  Calderon  (+  1687)  glorify  Christian  heroism  and  the  mysteries 
of  religion,  especially  the  Holy  Sacrifice  of  the  Altar,  by  their  thoroughly 
artistic,  profound,  and  fervently  pious  dramatic  poems  ("  Autos  sacramentales ''). 
In  Italy  Torquato  Tasso  gives  a  better  direction  to  literature  by  his  "  Epos,"  — 
"  Jerusalem  Delivered." 


310  HISTORY  OF   THE   CATHOLIC   CHURCH. 


PERIOD    II. 

FEOM    THE    FRENCH    REVOLUTION    DOWN    TO 
OUR     OWN    DAY. 


A.     EXTERIOR   HISTORY  OF  THE  CHURCH. 
I.     Sl^READ   OF   CHRISTIANITY. 

§  211.  Missions  in  the  East  Indies,  China,  Japan,  etc. 

IN  the  nineteenth  century  Catholic  missions  resumed  a  flourishing 
condition ;  secular  priests  and  those  of  the  regular  orders,  espe- 
cially members  of  the  newly  revived  order  of  the  Jesuits,  united 
tlieir  endeavors  either  to  enkindle  the  light  of  faith  in  heathen  lands 
or  to  prevent  it  from  being  extinguished.  jVIany  societies  were 
founded  to  support  and  aid  the  missionaries  by  alms  and  prayer. 
Among  these,  the  Society  of  Lyons  for  the  spreading  of  the  faith 
holds  the  first  place  (1822). 

The  ancient  Portuguese  bishoprics  in  the  East  Indies  were  hin- 
dered in  their  operation  by  the  English  conquerors,  and  were  grad- 
ually tending  to  complete  decay.  The  Holy  See  therefore  erected 
apostolic  vicariates  ^  for  the  territories  under  English  dominion  ;  and 
Gregory  XVI.,  by  his  brief  "  Multa  praeclare,"  in  18.38  suppressed 
some  of  tlie  bishoprics.  The  archbishopric  of  Goa  and  the  bishopric 
of  Macao  were  retained,  but  their  mission  had  to  be  confined  to  the 
territory  of  the  Portuguese.  The  following  difficulties  retarded  the 
progress  of  the  missions  until  very  recently,  but  of  late  they  have 
been  carried  on  with  considerable  success.^ 

Under  the  Dutcli  Government,  Catholic  missionaries  were  severely 
oppressed  in  Ceylon.  Their  position  became  more  tolerable  when 
the  English  took  possession  of  the  island  in  1796.  Since  the  year 
1849  there  have  been  two  apostolic  vicariates,  Jaffna  and  Colombo, 
in  Ceylon.  The  native  Christians  are  remarkable  for  their  faithful 
attachment  to  the  Church,  and  for  a  touching  willingness  to  eon- 

1  There  are  about  1,221,000  Catholics  in  British  India  and  Siam. 

2  By  a  new  Concordat  conohidcd  between  Rome  and  F^ortugal,  the  apostolic  vica- 
riates of  the  whole  peninsula  and  of  the  island  of  Ceylon,  and  also  the  prefecture  in 
Central  Bengal,  are  convtMted  into  episcopal  sees.  The  archbishojiric  of  Goa  has  been 
raised  to  the  dignity  of  a  patriarchate. 


.UJS:SJU,\S   IN  THE   EAST  INDIES,    CHINA,   ETC.      oil 

tribute  to  all  Church  purposes ;  the  number  of  the  heathen  con- 
verted daily  increases ;  while  many  of  the  "  Christians  of  the 
Government  "  —  namely,  the  Protestants  —  either  fall  back  into 
Buddhism  or  enter  the  Catholic  Church. 

In  Farther  India  the  Christian  missionaries  found  the  inhabitants 
of  Birmah  and  Siam  but  little  inclined  to  Christianity,  on  the  whole. 
They  had  greater  success  in  the  kingdom  of  Anam,  which  includes 
the  provinces  of  Tonquin,  Cochin  China,  etc.  Notwithstanding  the 
almost  continuous  persecutions  of  the  Christians  since  the  year  1830, 
the  adherents  of  Christianity  are  constantly  on  the  increase  in  the 
kingdom  of  Anam. 

The  apostolic  vicariate  for  Agra  and  Thibet  (1808)  was  confided 
to  the  Capuchins.  In  the  year  1844  the  Lazarists  Hue  and  Gabet 
succeeded  in  gaining  an  entrance  into  Lassa,  where  they  made  many 
conversions ;  but  they  were  expelled  at  the  instance  of  the  Chinese 
ambassador,  (jther  missionaries  attempting  to  enter  the  country  in 
1851  suffered  martyrdom.  The  chief  enemies  of  Christianity  are 
the  Lamas,  who  frustrate  the  efforts  of  the  missionaries. 

Towards  the  end  of  the  reign  of  the  Emperor  Kien-long,  persecu- 
tion had  ceased  in  China.  It  was,  however,  renewed  with  great  vio- 
lence under  the  tyrant  Kia-king  (1795-1820),  who  ordered  thousands 
of  Catholics  to  be  cruelly  put  to  death.  The  victories  of  the  French 
and  English  at  last  effected  a  treaty  in  the  year  1858,  by  which 
Christian  missionaries  were  to  be  freely  permitted  to  enter  the  em- 
pire. This  permission  was  reinforced  after  the  capture  of  Pekin  in 
18G0.  The  Society  of  the  Holy  Childhood,  founded  in  1843  by  Bishop 
Forbin-Janson  of  Nancy,  did  a  great  deal  of  good.  Persecution  has 
not  yet,  however,  entirely  ceased  in  China.  In  the  year  1870  the 
cruel  murder  of  the  Sisters  of  Charity  and  of  the  Lazarists  took 
place  at  Tien-tsin.  After  the  outbreak  of  the  late  war  with  France 
the  condition  of  the  Christians  in  China  again  grew  very  deplorable.^ 
The  greatest  number  of  the  martyrs  of  the  Church  in  modern  times 
suffered  at  the  peninsula  of  Corea. 

The  missions  at  Japan,  where  the  native  Christians  are  still  ex- 
posed to  the  oppressions  and  persecutions  of  the  imperial  officers, 
are  placed  under  the  direction  of  an  apostolic  pro-vicar.  The  apos- 
tolic pro-vicar  Gerard  built  a  church  at  Yokahama  in  1862.  The 
persecution  which  broke  out  in  1867  increased  after  the  Revolution 
of  1868,  and  caused  the  death  of  numerous  Christians. 

1  A  promising  event  is  the  recent  establishineut  of  dijiloniatic  relations  between 
the  Chinese  Empire  and  the  Holy  M'.'. 


312  HISTORY  OF   THE   CATHOLIC   CHURCH. 


Missions  in  North  America,  including  the  United  States, 
British  North  America,  and  Mexico. 

§  212.   The  Catholic  Church  in  the  United  StatesA 

I.  The  unceasing  labors  of  the  Church  have  been  crowned  by  very  cheering 
results  in  the  New  World.  We  will,  in  the  first  place,  speak  of  the  progress 
of  religion  in  the  United  Slates  of  North  America. 

Before  the  Revolution  of  1776  Catholicity-  was  held  on  a  somewhat  pre- 
carious tenure  iu  the  thirteen  original  States  of  the  present  Union.  The  whole 
number  of  its  adherents  did  not  exceed  twenty-iive  thousand.  The  penal  laws, 
enforced  with  such  animosity  against  the  Catholic  Church  in  the  British  Isles, 
were  also  put  into  execution  in  the  English  colonies  of  the  West.  It  was  the 
important  and  noble  co-operation  of  Catholics,  and  the  aid  rendered  by  Catho- 
lic nations  during  the  warfare  for  political  independence,  that  induced  the 
inauguration  of  the  policy  of  toleration,  —  a  policy  wliich  motives  of  expediency 
rendered  advisable,  even  if  the  movers  of  it  had  not  been,  as  we  hope  they 
were,  actuated  by  higlier  motives  of  what  was  iu  justice  due  to  so  large  a 
number  of  their  fellow-citizens.  A  change  of  public  sentiment  in  favor  of 
Catholics  manifested  itself  as  tune  went  on,  although  prejudice  and  bigotry 
still  held  sway  over  many  minds.  An  amendment  to  the  I^'ederal  Constitution 
iu  ]787,  which  was  ratified  iu  1791,  granted  i-eligious  freedom  in  explicit 
terms. 

Before  and  during  the  AVar  of  Independence  the  Catholics  had  been  subject 
to  the  spiritual  jurisdiction  of  the  Vicar  Apostolic  of  London.  After  the 
war  the  American  clergy,  wisely  taking  the  altered  circumstances  into  con- 
sideration, petitioned  for  an  ecclesiastical  superior  for  their  own  country;  this 
was  given  to  them  iu  the  person  of  the  celebrated  Rev.  John  Carroll.  By 
a  bull  of  November,  1789,  he  was,  in  conformity  with  the  nomination  of  the 
clergy,  appointed  first  Bishop  of  Baltimore,  and  consecrated,  Aug.  15,  1790, 
by  Rt.  Rev.  Bishoji  Walmsley  in  Loudon.  The  number  of  Catholics  in  his 
diocese  of  the  then  United  States  was  about  thirty  tliousand  among  a  white 
]H)pulation  of  a  little  more  than  three  millions.  On  his  return  to  the  wide  field 
(if  labor  now  opened  to  him,  the  zealous  bishop,  on  Nov.  7,  1791,  convened  his 
first  diocesan  synod,  at  which  twenty-two  clergymen  assembled  and  passed 
regulations  suitable  for  the  government  of  the  young  Church.     The  political 

1  J.  O'Kanc  Munrty,  Hist,  of  tlie  Cath.  Church  in  the  United  States.  Eev.  C.  J. 
White,  D.D.,  Sketch  of  the  Cath.  Cliureh,  Appendix  to  Darras's  General  Hist,  of  the 
Church.  De  Courcy's  Cath.  Church  in  the  United  States.translated  by/.  G.  Shea. 
Clarke's  Lives  of  Deceased  Bishops.  Bayleijs  Life  of  Bishop  Brute.  Fitton's  Hist,  of 
the  (lunch  in  New  England.  Bishop  England's  Works.  5  vols.  /.  G.  Shea,  Hierarchy 
of  the  Cath.  Ch.  in  the  U.S.    Catholic  Historical  Researches.    By  Rev.  A.  A.  Lambiiig. 

2  North  American  Review,  January,  187t). 


THE  CATHOLIC  CHURCH  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES.    313 

rovoliitum  iu  France,  so  disastrous  al  home,  prodiu-ed  good  effects  for  the 
Church  on  this  conthient.  It  induced  many  able  priests  to  seek  a  refuge  here. 
In  1791  the  Abbe  Emery,  superior-general  of  the  Sulpitians  in  France,  sent 
a  number  of  clergymen  to  found  an  ecclesiastical  seminary  at  Baltimore.  In 
the  year  following,  this  institution  received  an  eminent  student  in  the  person 
of  the  Russian  prince  D.  A.  Gallitzin,^  who  was  ordained  by  Bishop  Carroll 
in  179.5,  and  became  the  apostle  of  western  Pennsylvania.  A  new  arrival  of 
French  priests,  six  of  whom  afterwards  became  bishops,  enabled  Bisliop  Carroll 
to  provide  more  fully  for  the  \vants  of  the  faithful,  —  as,  for  example,  in  Ken- 
tucky,'■^  —  and  to  send  missionaries  to  the  Indian  tribes  in  the  north  of  the 
Union. 

The  gradual  introduction  of  religious  communities  and  the  progressive 
establishment  of  learned  institutions  prt)moted  the  life  of  piety  and  religion ; 
while  tlie  revival  in  the  United  States  of  the  Society  of  Jesus,  under  the  direc- 
tion of  Rev.  Robert  Mohjneux,  in  1805,  attracted  old  members  from  Europe, 
8ome  of  whom  entered  as  professors  at  the  Georgetown  College,  which  had 
been  already  founded  by  Dr.  Carroll.  The  first  establishment  of  Domin- 
icans was  founded  in  Washington  County,  Kentucky,  by  Rev.  Edward 
Fenwick  (1806).  Augustinians  from  Dublin,  Ireland,  settled  at  Philadel- 
phia in  1809.  Mount  St.  Mary's  College,  at  Emmitsburg,  Maryland,  was 
founded  by  Rev.  John  Dubois  in  1809.  The  Visitation  Nuns  wei-e  founded  by 
Mother  Teresa,  under  the  direction  of  Rt.  Rev.  Leonard  Neale,  coadjutor  of 
Bishop  Carroll  from  the  year  1800.  The  Sisters  or  Daughters  of  Charity  at 
Emmitsburg,  Maryland,  were  organized  in  1809  by  the  renowned  Mother 
Seton^  (+  1821),  who  had  become  a  convert  to  Catholicity  iu  New  York. 

In  1803  Louisiana  was  purchased  by  the  United  States,  and  Dr.  Carroll 
was  directed  by  the  Holy  See  to  attend  to  the  vacant  diocese  of  New  Orleans, 
whicli  had  become  au  episcopal  see  iu  1793.  Dr.  Carroll  appointed  Rev. 
Donatian  Olivier  as  his  vicar  in  Louisiana ;  to  him  succeeded  Rev.  William  V. 
Dubourg.  The  tide  of  immigration,  especially  from  France  and  Ireland,  having 
swollen  the  number  of  Catholics  to  about  a  hundred  and  fifty  thousand  in  the 
year  1808,  the  Holy  See  thought  it  expedient  to  raise  Baltimore  to  the  rank 
of  an  archiepiscopal  see,  with  four  suffragan  sees  attached  to  it  ;  namely, 
New  York,  Philadelphia,  Boston,  and  Bardstown.  Rev.  3Iichael  Egan  was 
appointed  to  Philadelphia,  Rev.  John  B.  Cheverus  to  Boston,  and  Rev.  Bene- 
dict Joseph  Flaget  to  Bardstown ;  their  consecration  took  place  at  Baltimore 
in  1810.  The  Rev.  Luke  Concanen,  a  Dominican  who  had  been  consecrated 
at  Rome  for  the  see  of  New  York,  died  at  Naples,  before  embarking  for  the 
West.  The  spiritual  affairs  of  that  diocese  were  then  administered  by  two 
zealous  Jesuits,  Anthony  Kohlmann,  as  vicar-general,  and  Benedict  J.  Fen- 

1  Miss  Broivnson's  Life  of  Gallitzin.     1  vol.     See  Kesearches,  Oct.,  1886. 
^  Centenary  of  Catholicity  in  Kentuckj',  by  Hon.  B.  Wehh.     Eev.  S.  T.  Badin, 
the  first  priest  ordained  in  the  United  States,  was  sent  to  Kentucky  in  1794. 
8   IVhites  Life  of  Mrs.  Seton. 


314  HISTORY  OF   THE   CATHOLIC   CHURCH. 

wick,  to  whom  the  erection  of  St.  Patrick's  Cathedral  was  due.  After  the  death 
of  Bishop  Egan  in  1814,  Rev.  Louis  de  Barth  conducted  the  diocese  of 
Philadeljihia  as  administrator ;  he  introduced  the  Sisters  of  Charity  from 
Emmitsburg,  who  formed  the  first  colony  sent  out  by  Mother  Set  on.  Bishop 
Flaget  of  Bardstown  established  an  ecclesiastical  seminary,  and  introduced  the 
Lorettines,  instituted  by  the  saintly  father  Charles  Nerinckx^  of  Kentucky. 

At  the  time  that  the  cause  of  religion  was  advancing  in  the  most  favorable 
manner,  the  illustrious  patriarch  of  the  American  Church,  the  saintly  arch- 
bishop Carroll,  died,  at  the  age  of  eighty-one,  on  Dec.  3,  1815.  He  was  suc- 
ceeded by  his  coadjutor.  Rev.  Leonard  Neale,  who  survived  him  only  eighteen 
montlis,  and  was  himself  succeeded  by  the  Rev.  Ambrose  Mare'clml,  who,  like 
his  predecessors,  had  to  meet  with  opposition  from  unprincipled  clergymen  and 
insubordinate  laymen.  Trusteeism  was  creating  many  troubles  almost  every- 
where. 

In  1820  the  bishopric  of  Charleston,  embracing  the  Carolinas  and  Georgia, 
was  established,  and  Dr.  John  England  from  Ireland  became  its  first  pastor. 
Rt.  Rev.  Patrick  Kelly,  who  in  the  same  year  was  appointed  Bishop  of  Rich- 
mond, Virginia,  where  the  faith  was  as  yet  but  slowly  advancing,  was,  on  re- 
consideration, recalled  and  transferred  to  the  see  of  Waterford,  Ireland,  in  1822. 
A  year  after  the  erection  of  the  diocese  of  Charleston,  Cincinnati  became  an 
episcopal  see,  embracing  Ohio,  Michigan,  and  the  Northwest  Territory  ;  Rev. 
Edward  Fenwick  of  the  Dominican  Order  became  its  first  bishop.  In  the  year 
1815  the  Rev.  William  V.  Dubourg  was  appt>inted  to  the  vacant  see  of  New 
Orleans,  where  great  discord  had  prevailed.  On  tliis  bishop's  return  from  Rome, 
in  1817,  he  brought  with  him  a  number  of  Lazarists  or  priests  of  the  C'ongre- 
gation  of  tlie  Mission,  who  founded  St.  Mary's  Seminary  of  the  Barrens,  Perry 
County,  Missouri.  Rt.  Rev.  Bishop  Dubourg  labored  for  several  years  in 
Missouri,  where  he  introduced  other  religious  communities.  In  1823  he  moved 
to  New  Orleans,  and  received  a  coadjutor  in  Rev.  Joseph  Bosati,  who,  in  1826, 
was  appointed  first  Bishop  of  St.  Louis  for  upper  Louisiana,  while  in  the  same 
year,  on  the  resignati(m  of  Bisliop  Dubourg,  Rev.  Leo  de  Neckere  was  appointed 
to  the  see  of  New  Orleans,  wliich  also  embraced  the  territory  of  Mississij)pi. 

The  low  country  embracing  Alabama,  Florida,  and  Arkansas  Territory  be- 
came a  vicariate  apostolic  in  1825.  Rev.  Michael  Portier  became  Vicar  Apos- 
tolic; and  in  1829,  when  the  same  district  was  formed  into  a  diocese,  the  same 
reverend  gentleman  was  appointed  first  Bishop  of  Mobile.  Towards  the  close 
of  1815  the  vacant  see  of  New  York,  embracing  the  States  of  New  York  and 
New  Jersey,  was  filled  liy  the  learned  Dominican  Rev.  John  Connolhj,  who 
died  in  1825,  and  was  succeeded  by  Rev.  John  Dubois,  President  of  Mount  St. 
Mary's  College.  At  that  tune  the  number  of  Catholics  liad,  it  is  estimated, 
risen  to  the  number  of  a  hundred  and  fifty  thousand,  owing  principally  to 
increasing  immigration.  Bishop  Dubois,  like  his  predecessor,  had  to  struggle 
with  insolent  trustees.     Religion  was  on  the  increase  in  the  diocese  of  Bards- 

1  See  Life  of  Rev.  Charles  Nerinckx,  by  Bishop  Maes. 


THE  CATHOLIC  CHL'RCH  IX  THE  rXITEl)  STATES.   315 

town.  Ill  1819  Rev.  Father  John  B.  David  was  consecrated  coadjutor  to 
Bishop  Fhiget.  The  colleges  of  St.  Mary's  and  St.  Josei)h's  were  founded  in 
that  diocese. 

The  see  of  Boston,  the  centre  of  the  Church  in  tlie  New  England  States, 
became  vacant,  in  1828,  by  the  departure  of  Bishop  Cheverus,  who  became 
Cardinal  Archbishop  of  Bordeaux.  He  was  succeeded  by  the  pious  and  ener- 
getic Benedict  J.  Fenwick,  who  found  in  his  immense  district  about  fifteen 
thiHisaud  Catholics  and  only  three  priests  at  his  disposition.  The  Church  of 
New  England  gradually  progressed  by  immigration  and  by  conversions  to  the 
faith.  After  a  six  years'  administration  by  Father  de  Barth,  the  see  of  Phila- 
delphia was  filled,  in  1820,  by  Kev.  Dr.  Henry  Comcell,  who  was  during  his 
whole  administration  almost  always  in  a  deplorable  contest  with  the  rebellious 
pri'^st  W.  Hogan  of  St.  Mary's  Church.  A  compromise  regarding  the  appoint- 
ment of  pastors,  which  the  bishops  made  with  the  trustees,  was  condemned  at 
Rome. 

During  the  administration  of  Archbishop  Marechal  the  important  Asso- 
ciation for  the  Propagation  of  the  Faith  was  organized.  The  venerable 
archbishop  died  in  1828,  and  was  succeeded  by  Rev.  Dr.  James  Whitfield. 
He  presided  over  the  First  Provincial  Council  of  Baltimore  in  1829. 

At  this  council  were  assembled  the  bishops  of  Charleston,  Bardstown,  Cin- 
cinnati, Boston,  and  St.  Louis.  The  Fathers  published  thirty-three  decrees 
relative  to  ecclesiastical  discipline,  which  were  approved  by  the  Holy  See. 
The  number  of  Catholics  then  resident  in  the  United  States  was  estimated  at 
over  five  hundred  thousand. 

II.  A  few  years  after  the  death  of  Archbishop  Marechal,  Bishops  Fenwick  of 
Cincinnati  (1832)  and  De  Neckere  of  New  Orleans  (1833)  departed  from  the 
scene  of  this  life ;  the  former  was  succeeded  by  John  B.  Purcell,  and  the  latter 
by  Anthony  Blanc  (1835),  while  in  1830  Francis  Patrick  Kenrick  had  been 
consecrated  Bishop-Coadjutftr  of  the  distressed  diocese  of  Philadelphia.  The 
new  diocese  of  Detroit,  embracing  Michigan  and  the  Northwestern  Territory, 
was,  in  1833,  filled  by  the  Indian  missionary  Frederick  Re'se'. 

In  October  of  the  same  year  Archbishop  Whitfield  convened  the  Second 
Provincial  Council  of  Baltimore  ;  five  other  bishops  attended.  The 
Fathers  of  the  council  adopted  a  regular  mode  of  nominating  bishops  to 
vacant  sees.  They  also  made  arrangements  for  taking  care  of  the  Indians  in 
the  far  West.  Bishop  Dubourg,  after  his  appointment  to  the  see  of  New 
Orleans,  had  already  introduced  the  Jesuits  from  Maryland  into  ancient  Louisi- 
ana. In  1824  they  had  opened  a  school  for  Indian  boys  at  Florissant,  where 
the  Ladies  of  the  Sacred  Heart  had  established  a  school  for  Indian  girls.  The 
missions  on  the  Missouri  were  then  assigned  to  the  Jesuits,  and  those  on  the 
Mississippi  to  the  Lazarists,  among  whom  Fathers  Odin  and  Timon  have 
acquired  special  fame  as  zealous  missionaries.  The  Council  of  Baltimore  con- 
fided the  main  care  of  the  western  Indian  tribes  to  the  Society  of  Jesus. 
Father  Van  Qmckenhorne,  the  first  Superior  in  the  West  of  the  newly  restored 
order,  and  founder  of  the  vice-province  of  Missouri,  with  the  Fathers  Hx)ecken, 


316  HISTORY  OF   THE    CATHOLIC   CHURCH. 

Verreydt,  Verhaegen,  Schultz,  and  other  Jesuits,  labored  \A'ith  marked  succesa 
among  the  Kikapoos,  Pottawatomies,  Osages,  Kaskaskias,  and  several  other 
tribes  until  1850,  when  the  Indian  Territory  became  an  apostolic  vicariate. 

In  Michigan  and  the  surrounding  country  the  old  Ottawa  mission  was  re- 
vived after  Cincinnati  had  been  erected  into  a  see.  The  laborious  Sulpitian 
Gabriel  Richard,  who  had  already  been  hard  at  work  among  the  Ottawas 
towards  the  close  of  the  preceding  century,  J.  V.  Badin,  F.  Be'se,  Mazzuchelli, 
De  Jean,  and.  on  the  departure  of  the  latter,  F.  Baraga,  afterwards  Vicar 
Apostolic  of  Upper  Michigan,  Pierz,  J.  Mrack,  0.  Skolla  (a  Franciscan), 
Bellecourt,  Petit,  and  others,  labored  witli  great  devotedness  and  success  among 
the  Ottawas,  Chippeways,  and  Pottawatomies. 

At  the  recommendati(jn  of  the  Second  Council  of  Baltimore,  the  see  of  Vin- 
cennes  was  erected  in  1834.  It  comprised  Indiana  and  the  greater  part  of 
Illinois.  Simon  G.  Bride',^  its  first  bishop,  was  consecrated  in  October  of  the 
same  year  in  the  then  recently  consecrated  catheilral  of  St.  Louis.  In  the 
same  month  and  year  the  venerable  archbishop  Whitfield  died ;  he  was  im- 
mediately succeeded  by  his  coadjutor  Samuel  Eccleston,  who  had  previously 
been  President  of  St.  Mary's  C<jllege.  He  presided  over  the  Third  Provin- 
cial Council  of  Baltimore,  held  in  April,  18.37,  at  which  eight  other  pre- 
lates assisted.  In  the  pastoral  letter  they  issued,  the  Fathers  took  occasion 
solemnly  to  protest  against  the  caUumiies  uttered,  and  the  fanatical  spirit  of 
persecution  aroused  at  the  progress  of  Catholicity  ;  the  anti-Catholic  spirit,  which 
in  August,  1834,  had  led  to  the  destruction  of  the  Ursuliue  Convent  by  a  Boston 
mob,  had  been  animating  the  whole  land  for  several  years. ^  Originating  in 
New  England,  it  had  been  fostered  by  sectarian  ministers,  and  re-echoed  in 
New  York,  where  a  mob,  in  1830,  attempted  to  destroy  St.  Patrick's  Cathe- 
dral ;  in  Baltimore,  where,  in  1839,  the  Carmelite  Convent  was  threatened ; 
and  in  Philadelphia,  where,  in  1844,  St.  Michael's  Cimrch  was  burned. 

Notwithstanding  these  outbursts  of  bitter  bigotry,  the  Church  went  on  her 
course  of  peaceful  mission.  The  Fathers  of  the  Third  Provincial  Council 
proposed,  as  was  usually  the  case  at  these  ecclesiastical  meetings,  the  erection 
of  new  dioceses.  Those  now  proposed  were,  —  Dubuque  for  the  Territories  of 
Iowa  and  Minnesota,  Nashville  for  the  State  of  Tennessee,  and  Natchez  for  the 
State  of  Mississippi.  3Iathias  Loras,  previously  Vicar-General  of  Mobile,  was 
appointed  to  the  first-named  see.  He  traversed  his  vast  diocese  with  holy 
enthusiasm,  providing  for  the  spiritual  welfare  of  the  souls  intrusted  to  him, 
both  of  the  white  man  and  of  the  red.  Father  Ravoux  was  placed  in  charge 
of  a  mission  among  the  Sioux  ;  to  Father  Pelamoiirges  was  delegated  another 
among  the  Sacs  and  Foxes  ;  while  that  among  the  Winnebagos  was  confided 
to  the  charge  of  Father  Cretin.  Bishop  Loras  did  much  to  attract  the  tide 
of  immigratioxi  to  the  territories  of  his  diocese.  To  the  see  of  Nashville,  Richard 
P.  Miles,  a  native  of  Maryland  and  a  member  of  the  Dominican  Order,  was  ap- 

»  Memoirs  of  Bishop  Brute,  by  Rt.  Rev.   Bishop  Bayley.     History  of  the  Cath. 
Church  in  the  Diocese  of  Vincennes.     By  Rev.  H.  Ahrding. 
2  See  Murray,  pp.  240,  244,  257. 


THE  CATHOLIC  CHURCH  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES.   317 

pointed  ;  he  was  consecrated  in  1838.  Already  liad  he  been  a  zealous  mission- 
ary in  Kentucky  and  Ohio.  The  see  of  Natchez  was  filled  in  1841  by  John  M. 
Chanche,  a  native  of  Baltimore,  a  prominent  Snlpitian,  the  appointment  having 
lii'cn  declined  by  Rev.  Thomas  Haydennf  Pennsylvania.  Bishop  Chanche,  al- 
thoiigli  cimimencing  under  trying  circumstances,  brought  his  diocese  to  a  com- 
{taratively  prosperous  state  of  development.  He  invited  the  Sisters  of  Charity, 
and  effected  their  union  with  those  instituted  by  St.  Vincent  de  Paul  in  France, 
—  a  fusion  whicih  had  been  greatly  desired  by  Mother  Seton.  The  Fathers  of 
the  Council  above  mentioned  also  earnestly  advocated  Catholic  journalism, 
which  was  then  in  its  infancy.^  There  were  five  weekly  papers:  the  U.  S. 
Catholic  Miscellany  (fiiunded  in  1822  by  Bishop  England  of  Cliarleston)  ;  the 
Truth-teller  of  New  York  (founded  in  1822)  ;  the  Catholic  Telegraph  of  Cin- 
cinnati (founded  by  Bishop  Fenwick  in  1831);  the  Catholic  Herald  of  Phila- 
delphia (founded  by  J.  Hughes)  ;  the  Catholic  Advocate  of  Bardstown  and 
the  Wahrheits  Freund  (founded  by  Rev.  M.  Henni,  subsequently  Archbishop 
of  Milwaukee,  in  1837).  Other  periodicals  previously  started  had  been  sus- 
pended. The  Boston  Pilot  was  founded  in  the  year  of  the  Third  Provincial 
Council,  and  the  New  York  Freeman's  Journal  three  years  later.  The  U.  S. 
Catholic  Magazine,  an  ably  conducted  monthly,  was  founded  in  1842,  and  was 
published  for  seven  years.  Brownson's  Review  (series  from  1844  to  18G4  and 
from  1873  to  1875),  published  quarterly,  exhibited  the  great  ability  and  reli- 
gious loyalty  of  its  editor. 

Rev.  John  Hughes'^  of  Philadelphia,  who  had  proved  himself  to  be  eminent 
as  a  pastor,  and  who  had,  in  his  discussions  with  John  Breckinridge,  the  Pres- 
byterian minister,  shown  great  acuteness  of  intellect,  was.  at  the  recommen- 
dation of  the  Third  Council  of  Baltimore,  appointed  Coadjutor  Bishop  of  New 
York.  He  was  consecrated  in  1838,  became  administrator  of  the  diocese  in 
the  year  fidlowing,  and  on  the  death  of  Bish(»p  Dubois,  in  1842,  succeeded  to 
the  office.  He  successfully  repressed  lay-trusteeism,  the  evils  of  which  he  had 
painfully  experienced  when  pastor  in  Philadelphia,  and  he  caused  Catholicity 
to  be  respected. 

At  the  Fourth  Provincial  Council  op  Baltimore,  1840,  thirteen 
bishops  were  in  attendance.  At  the  request  of  the  prelates  the  see  of  Bards- 
town was  transferred  to  Louisville ;  and  Richard  V.  JVhelan  was  appointed 
to  the  see  of  Richmond,  in  Virginia,  which  until  then  had  remained  under  the 
jurisdiction  of  the  Archbishop  of  Baltimore.  The  Fathers,  as  also  those  of 
the  next  council,  directed  their  attention  to  the  important  question  of  Church 
property. 

In  May,  1843,  sixteen  bishops  assembled  at  the  Fifth  Provincial  Coun- 
cil of  Baltimore.  The  council  proposed  to  Rome  the  erection  of  the  .sees 
of  Little  Rock,  comprising  the  State  of  Arkansas  and  the  Cherokee  and  Choc- 
taw nations  in  the  Indian  Territory ;  of  Chicago,  for  the  State  of  Illinois  i  of 

1  See  JFhitc,  p.  653. 

2  See  Hassard's  Life  of  Archbishop  Hughes.     New  York,  1866. 


318  HISTORY  OF   THE   CATHOLIC   CHURCH. 

Hartford,  for  Coimccticut  and  Kliode  Island;  of  Pittsburg,^  for  western  Penn- 
sylvania ;  and  of  Milwaukee.  Rev.  Andreic  Byrne,  appointed  to  Little  Rock, 
and  Rev.  William  Quarter,  appointed  to  Chicago,  who  had  both  been  pastors 
in  New  York  City,  were  there  consecrated,  together  with  Rev.  John  McClos- 
keij,  coadjutor  to  Bishop  Hughes,  on  Marcli  10,  1844.  William  Tyler,  a 
member  of  the  Barber  family,  converted  in  New  Hampshire,  became  first 
Bishop  of  Hartford,  the  zealous  M.  O'Connor  was  the  first  Bishop  of  Pitts- 
burg, and  M.  Henni,  vicar-general  of  Bishop  Purcell,  was  consecrated  Bishop 
of  Milwaukee  at  the  same  time  that  Ignatius  A.  Reynolds  was  consecrated 
second  Bishop  of  Charleston. 

At  the  time  of  the  Fifth  Council,  Oregon,  the  territory  north  of  California 
between  the  Rocky  Miiuntains  and  the  Pacific  Ocean,  had  become  a  fertile 
field  for  missionary  labor.  It  was  in  the  year  1840  that  the  celebrated  Jesuit 
Peter  John  De  Sinet,  one  of  the  young  Belgians  who  had  come  out  to  America 
under  the  care  of  Father  Nerinck.v,  went  from  St.  Louis  to  visit  the  Flatheads 
west  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  who  had  repeatedly  asked  for  a  missionary,  and 
in  the  course  of  a  few  years  established  flourishing  missions  among  them  and 
other  tribes.  A  few  years  previous,  two  Canadian  priests.  Rev.  Francis  N. 
Blanchet,  as  vicar-general  of  the  Archdiocese  of  Quebec,  and  Rev.  Morleste 
Demers,  had  penetrated  to  the  western  portion  of  the  territory,  and  afterwards, 
assisted  by  two  other  priests,  had  successfully  announced  the  gospel  to  various 
tribes.  The  Holy  See,  at  the  ajiplication  of  the  Fathers  of  the  Baltimore 
Council,  erected  the  whole  territory  into  a  vicariate,  and  Blanchet  became 
vicar-apostolic.  Three  years  later  the  vicariate  was  formed  into  an  ecclesi- 
astical province :  Rt.  Rev.  Francis  N.  Blanchet  became  Archbishop  of  Ore- 
gon City;  his  brother,  Rt.  Rev,  A.  M.  A.  Blanchet,  Bishop  of  Walla-Walla 
(Nesqualy),  and  Rt.  Rev.  M.  Demers,  Bishop  of  Vancouver's  Island,  became 
his  suffragans. 

The  Sixth  Council  of  Baltimore,  in  184fi,  at  which  twenty-three  bish- 
ops were  present,  chose  '*  the  Blessed  Virgin  Mary,  conceived  without  sin,"  as 
the  patroness  of  the  Church  in  the  United  States.  At  the  request  of  tlie 
Fathers,  the  sees  of  Bufialo  and  Albany,  in  the  State  of  New  York,  and  of 
Cleveland,  in  Ohio,  were  erected.  Rev.  John  Timon,  C.  M.,  well  known  as 
an  eminent  missionary  in  Missouri  and  Texas,  was  appointed  to  tlie  sec  (.f 
Buffalo.  Rt.  Rev.  John  McCloskey  was  appointed  to  Albany,  and  Rt.  Rev. 
Amadeus  Bappe  to  Cleveland.  Rt.  Rev.  J.  M.  Odin,  C.  M.,  Vicar-Apostolic 
of  Texas  from  1842,  became  in  1847  bishop  of  this  territory,  with  his  see  at 
Galveston.  In  the  same  year  St.  Louis  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  a  metropcd- 
itan  see  ;  and  the  learned  Dr.  Peter  Richard  Kenrick,  Coadjutor  of  Bishop 
Rosati  from  1841,  and  his  successor  in  1843,  became  first  Archbislioj)  of 
St.  Louis. 

The  Seventh  Council  of  Baltimore  assembled  in  1849.  Twenty- 
five  bishops  were  in  attendance.  The  Fathers  gave  expression  to  their  pro- 
found belief  in  the  immaculate  conception  of  the  Blessed  A^'irgin  Mary,  and 
their  wish  that  this  doctrine  might  be  proclaimed  a  dogma  of  faith.     Tlic  acts 

1  Lambimjs  Hist,  of  the  Cath.  Cliurch  in  the  Dioceses  of  Pittsburg  and  Allegheny. 


THE  CATHOLIC  CHURCH  IX   THE   CNITED  STATES.    319 

of  the  couuc'il  were  coufinned  by  the  Huly  See  in  1850.  Among  these  acts 
was  the  erection  of  new  dioceses  and  new  metropolitan  sees.  Bisliop  Wlielan 
became  Bishoj)  of  Wlieeling  (West  Virginia),  and  Rev.  John  McfriU  was  nom- 
inated IJishop  of  KicliiiKind.  The  see  of  Walhi- Walla  was  transferred  to  Nes- 
qnaly.  Rev.  Francis  Xavier  Gartlcmd  became  first  Bishop  of  Savannah,  which 
comprised  the  State  of  Georgia  and  a  ])ortion  of  Florida.  Rev  Joseph  Cretin, 
Vicar-General  of  Dubufpie,  who  had  been  a  zealous  missionary  in  the  North- 
west, was  app(nnted  to  the  see  of  St.  Paul  for  the  Territory  of  Minnesota: 
he  was  a  distinguished  promoter  of  westward  immigration.  Rev.  Joseph  S. 
Alemany,  ().  P.,  became  second  l^ishop  of  Monterey,  in  Upper  California,  which, 
like  New  Mexico,  was  ceded  to  the  United  States  in  1848.  He  thus  became 
the  successor  ()f  the  Rev.  Garcia  Diego  y  Moreno,  0.  S.  F.,  who  in  1.832  had 
been  apjioiuted  Prefect  of  the  Indian  Missions  in  California,  which  had  been 
conducted  with  encouraging  results  by  members  of  his  order,  and  in  1840  had 
been  nominated  Bishop  of  both  Californias.  Rev.  John  B.  Lamy,  of  Ohio,  was 
appointed  Vicar  Apostolic  of  tlie  Territory  of  New  Mexico.  In  1850  the  In- 
dian Territory  was  made  an  apostolic  vicariate,  to  which  Rev.  John  B.  Miege, 
S.  J.,  was  appointed.  The  two  principal  missions  here  were  those  of  the  Pot- 
tawatomies  and  of  the  Osages,  which  comprised  several  thousand  Indians. 
The  Sisters  of  the  Sacred  Heart  and  the  Sisters  of  Loretto  conducted  schools 
for  their  benefit. 

At  the  request  of  said  council,  the  dioceses  of  New  York,  Cincinnati,  and 
New  Orleans  were  raised  to  metropolitan  rank.  There  were  now  six  ecclesi- 
astical provinces : — 

1.  That  of  Baltimore,  embracing  the  sees  of  Philadelphia,  Pittsburg,  Rich- 
mond, Wheeling,  Charleston,  and  Savannah. 

2.  That  of  Oregon  City,  embracing  the  sees  of  Walla- Walla  (Nesqualy) 
and  Vancouver's  Island. 

3.  That  of  St.  Louis,  embracing  the  sees  of  Dubuque,  Nashville.  St.  Paul, 
Chicago,  and  Milwaukee. 

4.  That  of  New  York,  embracing  the  sees  of  Boston,  Hartford,  Albany, 
and  Buffalo. 

5.  That  of  Cincinnati,  with  the  sees  of  Louisville,  Detroit,  Vincennes,  and 
Cleveland. 

6.  That  of  New  Orleans,  with  the  sufifragan  sees  of  Mobile,  Natchez,  Little 
Rock,  and  Galveston. 

The  Catliolic  population,  which  Irish  and  German  hnmigration  had  increased 
during  the  last  ten  years,  now  amounted  to  about  three  millions,  with  about 
eighteen  hundred  priests.  The  bishops  had  paid  marked  attention  to  the 
establishment  of  institutions  of  learning, i  both  in  the  secular  department  and 
in  those  for  the  spiritual  training  of  youth.  Many  of  these  were  conducted 
by  religious  communities. 

Besides  the  orders  for  men  that  have  been  already  mentioned,  there  were 

1  There  were  twenty-nine  ecclesiastical  institutions,  seventeen  colleges,  and  ninety- 
one  female  academies.     (Murray,  ]>.  260.) 


320  HISTORY  OF   THE    CATHOLIC   CHURCH. 

now  the 'Benedictines,  introduced  in  184G  by  the  Rt.  Rev.  Abbot-General  Bon- 
iface Wimmer,  as  also  several  branches  of  Franciscans,  Trappists,  and  Re- 
demptorists ;  the  Congregation  of  the  Holy  Cross,  introduced  in  1841  by 
V.  Rev.  Father  Sorin;  the  Congregation  of  the  Most  Precious  Blood,  intro- 
duced in  1844,  by  Rev.  Father  Francis  de  Sales  Br  miner  ;  and  the  Brothers 
of  the  Christian  Schools. 

In  April,  1851,  the  distinguished  prelate  Rt.  Rev.  Archbishop  Eccleston 
departed  this  life ;  he  was  succeeded  in  the  see  of  Baltimore  by  the  Rt.  Rev. 
Francis  Patrick  Kenrick,  Bishop  of  Philadelphia,  who  was  soon  called  upon  to 
preside  over  the 

First  Plenary  Council  of  Baltimore,  May,  1852, 

at  which  six  archbishops  and  twenty-six  bishops  were  present. 

Two  months  before  the  opening  of  the  First  Plenary  Council,  the  see  of 
Philadelphia,  vacant  by  the  departure  of  Bishop  Kenrick,  v\-as  filled  by  his 
esteemed  friend,  the  humble  and  saintly  Redemptorist,  Father  John  N.  Neu- 
mann. He  took  part  in  the  deliberations  of  the  council, i  as  did  also  the  emi- 
nent Coadjutor-Bishop  of  Louisville,  Martin  J.  Spalding,  who  was  afterwards 
chosen  to  preside  over  the  Second  National  ^  Council.  The  Fathers  assembled 
at  Baltimore  directed  their  attention  to  the  subject  (at  that  time  most  urgent) 
of  the  establishment  of  parochial  schools,  the  importance  of  which  was  stren- 
uously advocated  by  Dr.  Spalding.^  There  were  as  yet  comparatively  few  con- 
gregations which  enjoyed  the  benefit  of  having  such  schools,  that  are,  generally 
speaking,  indispensably  necessary  for  the  preservation  of  faith  and  virtue  in 
the  Catholic  youth  of  this  country,  in  consequence  of  the  spirit  of  indifference  to 
religion  and  of  infidelity  which  is  so  widely  spread  in  every  direction.  "  We 
exhort  the  bishops,"  the  prelates  said,  "  and,  considering  the  very  serious  evils 
which  commonly  follow  from  a  defective  training  of  youth,  we  beseech  them, 
through  the  bowels  of  divine  mercy,  to  see  that  schools  be  established  in  each 
of  the  churches  in  their  dioceses."  This  appeal  w-as  in  full  accordance  with 
the  wish  of  the  first  bishops  of  Baltimore  and  of  the  Holy  See.* 

III.  The  plenary  council  proposed  the  erection  of  new  dioceses.  Accord- 
ingly there  were  established  :  — 

1.  The  see  of  Erie,  Pennsj'lvania,  with  Josue  M.  Young,  a  distinguished 
convert,  for  its  first  bishop. 

2.  The  see  of  Covington,  separated  from  that  of  Louisville,  Kentucky,  of 
which  George  A.  Carrell,  S.  J.,  was  the  first  bishop. 

3.  The  sees  of  Burlington,  Vermont,*  and  of  Portland,  Maine,  separated 

1  Life  of  Rt.  Kev.  J.  N.  Neumann  by  Rev.  /.  A.  Bcrgcr,  lately  translated  into 
English  by  Rev.  Eugene  Grimm,  C.  SS.  R. 

2  A  plenary  council  is  also  called  national,  because  it  represents  several  ecclesiasti- 
cal provinces  ordinarily  under  one  civil  government.  (Pastoral  letter  of  the  Second 
Plenary  Council). 

3  See  his  article  on  common  schools  in  his  "  Miscellanea." 

*  See  Dcirras,  Appendix,  p.  661.     O'Kaac  Murray,  p.  425  sqq. 

6  Oath.  Memoirs  of  Vermont  and  New  Hampshire,  by  Rt.  Rev.  Louis  de  Goesbriand. 


THE  CATHOLIC  CHURCH  IN  THE  UXlTEl)  STATE:i.    321 

from  Busti'ii,  with  Louis  De  Goeshriand  and  David  W.  Bacon  as  tlieir  first 
bishops,   respectively. 

4.  The  see  of  Newark,  New  Jersey,  with  James  Boosevelt  Bayley,  f(jrraerly 
an  Episcopal  minister,  as  its  first  bishop. 

5.  The  see  of  Brooklyn,  New  York,  with  John  Loughlin,  Vicar- General  of 
New  York,  as  its  first  bishop. 

6.  The  see  of  Quiucy,  Illinois,  separated  from  Chicago,  which  see  was  in 
ISM  transferred  to  Alton,  and  Henry  D.  Juncker  became  its  first  bishop. 

7.  The  see  of  Natchitoches,  separated  from  New  Orleans,  with  Augustus 
31.  Martin  for  its  first  bishop. 

8.  San  Francisco,  separated  from  Monterey,  in  1853  became  an  archiepis- 
copal  see,  with  Rt.  Rev.  Joseph  S.  Alemany  as  its  first  archbishop;  while  the 
see  of  Monterey,  to  which  Tkaddeus  Amat,  C.  M.,  was  appointed,  became  a 
sufii-agan  to  it. 

9.  Santa  Fe  became  a  safi"ragan  see  to  St.  Louis 

Upper  Michigan,  wliere  fiourislnng  Indian  missions  existed  owing  to  the 
ardent  zeal  of  Rev.  Frederic  Baraga,^  and  where,  also,  in  later  years  nu- 
merous innnigrants  had  settled,  was  formed  into  a  vicariate  apostolic,  and  its 
renowned  missi<jnary  was  appointed  to  preside  over  it.  When  in  1850  the 
vicariate  was  formed  into  a  diocese,  he  became  the  bishop.  At  first  the  see 
was  at  Sault  Ste.  Marie;  and  then,  from  the  year  1865,  it  was  transferred  to 
Marquette. 

The  rapid  increase  of  tlie  Catholic  Church  in  the  New  World,  which  was  a 
source  of  exultation  to  the  faithful,  excited  the  envy  and  hatred  of  infidels  and 
sectarians.  The  visit  to  this  country  in  1853  of  Archbishop  Bedim,^  then 
papal  nuncio  at  the  court  of  Brazil,  gave  occasion  to  those  Italian  and  Ger- 
man revolutionists  who  had  sought  safety  on  our  shores,  to  raise  the  voice  of 
slander  and  to  organize  a  formal  persecution  against  the  papal  envoy  as  he 
went  on  his  way  in  his  peaceful  mission  through  the  East  unto  the  West.  As- 
sisted by  the  notorious  Gavazzi,  an  ex-Barnabite,  they  decried  the  Roman 
Church,  representing  it  as  an  intriguing  enemy  to  Protestantism  and  to  Amer- 
ican liberty.  Wliile  the  nuncio  was  courteously  received  by  President  Pierce 
at  Washington,  and  welcomed  by  Catholics  on  every  side  with  enthusiastic 
demonstrations  of  joy,  the  whide  country  was  kept  in  agitation  by  the  infidel 
and  sectarian  press.  An  attempt  was  made  on  his  life  at  Cincinnati,  which 
was  happily  defeated  ;  but  a  German  paper  of  tlie  city  vilified  the  nuncio  in  the 
basest  terms.  The  good  prelate  endured  these  vile  assaults  with  magnanimous 
patience,  and  concluded  his  mission  in  1854,  after  having  manifested  the  great 
interest  felt  by  the  Pope  and  by  liimself  for  the  growing  American  Church. 
But  liy  these  events  the  spirit  of  fanaticism  was  fiercely  aroused  ;  a  coalition 

1  Bishop  Baragri  jtublished  a  number  of  works  in  Indian  dialects  for  the  instruc- 
tion and  edification  of  his  beloved  children.  See  Shea's  History  of  the  Catholic 
Missions  ;  Cath.  Telegraph,  February,  186S. 

2  See  Clarke's  Lives  of  the  Deceased  Bishops,  p.  605  sqq. 
VOL.  II.  21 


322  HISTORY  OF   THE    CATHOLIC   CHURCH. 

known  as  the  Knoiv- Nothings  was  formed,  to  resist,  as  they  said,  ''the 
insidious  policy  of  the  Church  of  Rome,  aud  other  foreign  influences,  against 
the  institutions  of  our  country."  Like  the  rioters  of  ten  years  preceding,  tliey 
raised  insurrections  of  the  mob,  and  proceeded  to  destroy  Catholic  places  of 
worship.  A  man  iianied  Orr,  who  called  him.self  the  "angel  Gabriel,"  was  a 
prominent  leader  of  this  infamous  league,  which,  however,  could  not  hinder  the 
progress  of  religion,  and  in  fact,  by  calling  men's  attention  to  its  claims,  fur- 
nished the  occasion  for  many  t(j  perceive  better  the  cliaracter  aud  purposes  of 
Catholicity. 

In  1857  tlie  see  of  Fort  Wayne  was  separated  from  that  of  Vincenues,  and 
J.  H.  Liters  appointed  its  first  bishop.  Upper  Michigan  became  a  diocese;  the 
vicariates  erf  Florida  and  Nebraska  were  formed:  Augustin  Verot  was  ap- 
pointed to  the  former,  and  James  O' Gorman  to  the  latter.  In  1860  the  vicariate 
of  JIarysville,  California,  was  erected,  and  Eugene  CConnell  appointed  to  it. 
By  a  decree  of  July  25,  1858,  the  primary  rank  was  granted  to  the  incumbent 
of  the  archiepiscopal  see  of  Baltimore. 

The  clamor  of  civil  war,  in  1862,  rendered  it  impossible  to  hold  a  second 
national  council  at  that  time ;  the  spirit  of  the  Catholic  Church,  so  different 
from  that  portrayed  l;>y  the  conduct  of  sectarian  ministers  at  that  period  of  po- 
litical excitement,  is  beautifully  explained  in  the  pastoral  letter  of  the  Third 
Provincial  Council  of  Cincinnati,  opened  in  May,  1861.^  Catholic  priests  and 
the  Sistei'S  of  Charity  also  found  ample  opportunity  to  manifest  the  sjiirit  of 
Christian  humanity  in  the  self-sacrificing  care  they  bestowed  on  the  sick. 
During  the  war  the  American  Church  had  to  mourn  the  loss  of  two  of  her 
greatest  prelates,  — that  of  the  renowned  theologian  the  Most  Rev.  Francis  P. 
Kenrick,"^  Archbishop  of  Baltimore  (-1-  186.3),  and  that  of  the  Most  Rev.  Arch- 
bishop Hughes^  of  New  York  (-1-  1864),  the  sturdy  champion  of  the  Catholic 
cause.  The  latter  was  succeeded  by  Most  Rev.  J.  McCloskey  of  Albany, 
while  the  former  see  was  filled  by  Rt.  Rev.  M.  J.  Spalding,*  at  first  Coadju- 
tor-Bishop, and  then  from  1850  Bishoj)  of  Lt>uisville.  As  apostcdic  delegate 
he  presided  over  the 

'     Second  Plenary  Council  of  Baltimore,  in  1866, 
at  which  were  present  seven  archbishops,  thirty-eight  bishops,  three  mitred 
abbots,  fourteen  superiors  of  religious  orders,  and  upwards  of  one  hundred 
theologians. 

1  O'Kane  Murray,  p.  309. 

2  His  works  are  :  Catholic  Doctrine  of  Justification,  Primacy  of  Apostolic  See, 
Theologia  Dogmatica  et  Moralis,  Treatise  on  Baptism  and  Confirmation,  Vindication 
of  Catholic  Church,  Translation  and  Annotation  of  all  the  Books  of  the  Old  and  New 
Testaments. 

'His  works  were  edited  by  L.  Kchoe,  New  York. 

*  See  Rev.  J.  L.  Spalding,  Life  of  Archbishop  SpaliUng.  He  wrote  :  Evidences  of 
Catholicity,  Life  of  Bi.shop  Flaget,  Miscellanea,  Sketches  of  Kentucky,  Reviews,  Lec- 
tures, and  Essays,  and  A  History  of  the  Protestant  Reformation  in  Germany  aud 
Switzerland. 


THE  CATHOLIC  CHURCH  IN  THE   UNITED  STATES.    .o23 

Tlio  tlccroes  of  this  council,'  whicli  were  approved  liy  the  Holy  Sec,  besides 
giving  a  clear  exposition  of  the  main  doctrines  of  the  Catlndic  Church  and  con- 
demning the  errors  of  the  time,  contain  many  salutary  regulations  and  admo- 
nitions concerning  worship,  ecclesiastical  discipline,  and  the  -jiromotion  of 
religious  life.  Recapitulating  the  above-cited  words  of  tlie  First  Plenary 
Council  on  parochial  schools,  the  Fathers  direct  all  pastors  of  souls  to  provide 
for  the  establishment  of  such  schools,  to  be  conducted  uuder  their  own  super- 
vision, as  the  best  and  almost  the  only  effectual  means  to  meet  the  evils  and 
dangers  to  the  morals  and  faith  of  the  generality  of  Catholic  youth,  which  re- 
sult from  attending  the  public  sciiools;  they  also  expressed  their  desire  for  the 
establishment  of  a  Catholic  university  ;  and  they  petitioned  the  Holy  Father  to 
erect  several  new  dioceses  and  vicariates.  In  fulfilment  of  this  desire,  in  1868 
were  erected  in  the  province  of  Baltimore  the  episcopal  sees  of  Wilmington  in 
Delaware,  of  Scranton,  Pennsylvania,  of  Harrisburg,  Pennsylvania,  and  the 
vicariate-apostolic  of  North  Carolina  ;  in  the  province  of  Oregon,  the  vica- 
riate-apostolic  of  Idaho;  in  the  province  of  St.  Louis,  the  sees  of  Green  Bay 
and  La  Crosse  (both  in  Wisconsin),  of  St.  Joseph  in  Missouri,  the  vicariate  of 
Montana,  the  vicariate-apostolic  of  Colorado ;  in  the  province  of  Cincinnati, 
the  see  of  Columbus,  Ohio  ;  in  the  province  of  San  Francisco,  the  see  of  Grass 
Valley,  replacing  the  apostolic  vicariate  of  Marysville ;  in  the  province  of  New 
York,  the  see  of  Rochester.  In  18()9  tlie  vicariate  of  Arizona  was  erected;  in 
the  year  following,  the  vicariate  of  Florida  was  formed  into  a  see,  with  its  seat 
at  St.  Augustine;  the  see  of  Springfield,  in  Massachusetts,  was  also  erected; 
in  1872  the  sees  of  Ogdensburg,  in  New  York,  and  of  Providence,  in  Rhode 
Island.  In  1874  the  sees  of  San  Antonio  and  the  vicariate  of  Brownsville 
were  established  ;  in  the  same  year  the  bishoprics  of  Philadelpiiia,  Bt)Ston, 
Milwaukee,  and  Santa  Fe  were  raised  to  the  rank  of  metropolitans,  and  the 
apostolic  vicariate  of  northern  Minnesota,  with  its  seat  at  St.  Cloud,  was 
formed. 

In  1875  the  venerable  Archbishop  McCloskey,  of  New  York,  was  created 
Cardinal  by  his  Holiness  Pius  IX.  In  1876  an  apostolic  prefecture  was 
assigned  to  the  Indian  Territory.  In  1877  Peoria  was  made  a  bishopric,  and 
the  apostolic  vicariate  of  Kansas  changed  to  the  episcopal  see  of  Leaven- 
worth ;  while  the  see  of  Alleghany,  founded  in  1876,  was  reunited  to  Pitts- 
burg. In  1879  the  vicariate  of  Dakota  was  established.  In  1880  Kansas 
City  became  an  episcopal  city,  and  Chicago  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  an 
archbishopric;  also,  in  1880,  the  sees  of  Davenport,  Trenton,  and  Grand 
Rapids  were  fortned.  In  1884  the  vicariate  of  Montana  was  formed  into  the 
diocese  of  Helena,  and  in  New  Hampshire  the  diocese  of  Manchester  was 
established. 

There  are  now^  in  the  United  States  12  ecclesiastical  provinces,  54  bishop- 

'  Concilii  PI.  Baltimor.  II.  acta  et  decreta.     Notes  on  the  Second  Plenary  Coun- 
cil of  Baltimore,  by  Kev.  S.  B.  Smith,  of  Seton  Hall  College. 
"^  Statistics  according  to  the  Catholic  Director)'  of  1 885. 


324  HISTORY  OF   THE   CATHOLIC   CHURCH. 

rics,  7  apostolic  vicariates,  1  prefecture-apostolic,  7,043  priests,  6,626  churches, 
907  chapels,  1,895  stations.  There  are  also  9  abbeys:  namely,  one  at  St. 
Vincent's,  Pennsylvania,  one  at  St.  Meinrad's,  Indiana,  one  at  Collegeville, 
Minnesota,  one  at  Atchison,  Kansas,  one  at  Conception,  Missouri,  and  of  late 
one  at  Newark,  New  Jersey,  and  one  in  Gaston  County,  North  Carolina, — 
these  belong  to  the  Order  of  St.  Benedict;  one  at  Gethseuiane,  Kentucky,  and 
one  at  New  Melleray,  Iowa,  belonging  to  the  Order  of  La  Trappe.  The 
number  of  religious  orders  of  men  has  increased  to  about  thirty.  The  Pas- 
sionists,  who  are  chiefly  engaged  in  giving  missions,  were  introduced  into  the 
United  States  from  Rome,  in  1853,  by  Bishop  O'Connor  of  Pittsburg.  The 
Congregation  ^  of  St.  Paul  the  Apostle  at  New  York  was  founded  by  Very  Rev. 
Isaac  T.  Hecker,  1858.  There  are,  in  all,  nearly  iifty  religious  orders  and  con- 
gregations of  women.  The  religious  orders  have  brought  immeasurable  bene- 
fits to  the  Church  in  this  country.  The  cultivation  of  science,  the  instructi<in 
and  edification  of  the  people,  the  accomplishment  of  vari(jus  works  of  charity, 
the  training  of  youth  in  institutions  of  higher  learning  as  well  as  in  elementary 
schools,  is  to  a  great  extent  attributable  to  them.  Several  of  the  religi(jus  of 
both  sexes  devote  themselves  to  the  care  of  the  native  Indians. 

According  to  the  last  report  there  are  263,000  Indians  in  the  United  States ; 
they  live  in  certain  districts  assigned  to  them.  In  the  Indian  Territory  there 
are  3,180  Catholic  Indians,  intrusted  to  the  care  of  French  Benedictines; 
Jesuits  and  secular  priests  assist  them  in  their  labors.  In  the  vicariate  of 
northern  Minnesota  there  are  about  2,000  Indians,  tended  partly  by  Benedictine 
Fathers  from  White  Earth  Reservation,  partly  also  by  Franciscan  Recol- 
lects from  Superior  City,  Wisconsin,  and  by  Jesuits  fi'om  Fort  William, 
Canada.  The  Jesuits  have  Indian  missions  in  the  vicariate  of  Idaho,  where 
there  are  about  800  Catholic  Indians.  The  fionrishing  Indian  missions  in  the 
vicariate  of  Dakota  are  attended  by  Benedictines  under  the  direction  of  Rt. 
Rev.  M.  Marty,  0.  S.  B.  Jesuits  and  secular  priests  attend  to  several  Indian 
missions  in  Washington  Territory.  The  Jesuits  also  have  missions  in  Mon- 
tana. In  the  dioceses  of  La  Crosse,  Green  Bay,  and  Grand  Rapids,  the 
Recollects  from  St.  Louis  labor  with  great  zeal  at  several  Indian  missions. 
The  priests  of  the  diocese  attend  the  Indian  reservations  in  the  archdiocese 
of  Oregcm  City.  Most  Rev.  C.  J.  Seghers,  who  lias  left  the  archiepiscopal 
see  of  Oregon  City  to  return  to  the  vacant  diocese  of  Vancouver  Island,  is 
exerting  himself  to  the  utmost  for  the  conversion  of  the  Indians.  Archbishop 
SaUiointe,  in  New  Mexico,  has  about  10,000  Catholic  Indians  living  in  twenty 
pueblos  or  towns. 

1  To  this  Congregation  we  owe  the  establisliment  of  the  "  Catholic  World,"  an 
ably  conducted  monthly.  In  place  of  the  famous  "  Brownson's  Quarterly,"  suspended 
at  the  close  of  1875,  the  "American  Catholic  Quarterly  Review  "  was  founded  in  1876. 
Its  chief  editor  is  Pit.  Rev.  /.  A.  Corcomn,  D.D.,  the  distinguished  theologian  and  a 
member  of  the  Faculty  of  the  Seminary  oF  St.  Charles  Borromeo,  at  Overbrook,  Pa. 
The  number  of  Catholic  weekly  journals  |nililislied  in  the  United  States  is  compara- 
tively great.  There  is,  however,  a  want  of  daily  papers,  which,  being  truly  devoted 
to  the  cause  of  Catholicity,  might  more  strongly  counteract  the  threatening  influence 
of  tlie  aiiti-Oatliolic  and  nnti-Cliri>tian  press. 


THE  CA  THOLIC  CHURCH  IN  THE  UNITED  ST  A  TES.   325 

Alaska  Territory  contains  G0,000  of  the  red  race  as  yet  unconverted  to  the 
faith. 

We  have  already  mentioned  several  ecclesiastical  institutions  of  learninj; 
founded  and  conducted  by  regular  and  secular  priests.  Others  have  arisen  since 
the  middle  of  this  century.  Among  these  are  Mount  St.  Mary's  of  the  West, 
at  Cincinnati,  Ohio,  founded  by  Archbishop  Purcell  and  opened  in  1851 ;  the 
Seminary  of  St.  Francis  de  Sales,  near  Milwaokee,  founded  in  1855,  under  the 
patronage  of  Bishop  Henni,  by  Rev.  Dr.  Salzmann,  and  first  conducted  by 
Rev.  M.  Heiss,  now  Archbishop  of  Milwaukee;  the  Seminary  of  our  Lady 
of  Angels,  Niagara  Falls,  New  York,  founded  in  J85G  by  Rev.  J.  Lynch, 
CM.,  now  Archbishop  of  Toronto;  St.  Joseph's  Seminary,  Troy,  New  York, 
founded  in  18G4  by  Archbishop  Hughes ;  the  Seminary  of  the  Immaculate 
Conception,  South  Orange,  New  Jersey,  connected  with  Seton  Hall  Col- 
lege, founded  in  1856  by  Rt.  Rev.  J.  R.  Bayley,  at  that  time  Bishop  of 
Newark. 

There  are  now  in  all  35  diocesan  seminaries  and  houses  of  study  for  regulars, 
1,597  ecclesiastical  students,  83  colleges,  581  academies  and  select  schools. 
The  great  works  of  Christian  charity,  so  far  as  figures  can  enumerate  them, 
consist  in  272  asylums  and  154  hospitals. 

The  "  question  of  questions,"  as  Murray  calls  it,  "  How  shall  our  children 
l)e  educated  without  religion  or  in  connection  with  religion  '?  "  has  engrossed 
the  earnest  attention  and  intense  solicitude  of  bishops,  priests,  and  intelligent 
laymen.  Though  taxed  to  maintain  the  State  schools  where  an  education 
without  religion  is  ofiered,  Catholics  have,  at  great  sacrifices,  built  and  sup- 
ported schools  of  their  own.  "  Without  these  schools,"  says  Bishop  McQuaid, 
•'•  in  a  few  generations  our  magnificent  cathedrals  and  churches  would  remain 
as  samples  of  monumental  folly,  — of  the  unwisdom  of  a  capitalist  who  consumes 
his  fortune  year  by  year  without  putting  it  out  at  interest  or  allowing  it  to  in- 
crease. The  Cliurch  has  lost  more  in  the  past  from  the  want  of  Catholic 
schools  than  from  any  other  cause  named  by  me  this  evening.  The  establish- 
ment of  these  schools  and  their  improvement  in  management  and  instruction 
is  our  surest  guarantee  of  future  growth  and  fixedness."  i  It  is  estimated  that 
there  are  now  about  twenty-five  hundred  schools,  with  half  a  million  of  scholars. 
Much  indeed  has  been  done;  yet  tliere  remains  much  more  to  do. 

Notwithstanding  numerous  lamentable  defections,^  the  Church  has  largely 
increased  in  numbers.  "  An  estimate,"  says  Bishop  McQuaid,  "  that  would 
place  our  Catholic  population  at  eight  millions  would  not,  in  my  judgment,  be 
far  from  the  truth." 

This  cheering  spread  of  Catholicity  called  forth  the  aflfectionate  interest  of 
Pope  Pius  IX.  for  this  Church  of  America,  —  an  interest  shared  by  his  illustri- 

1  "The  Catholic  Church  in  the  United  States  :  "  Sermon  delivered  at  the  Plenary 
Council. 

2  Compare  "The  Losses,  Gains,  and  Hopes  of  CathoJicity  in  the  United  States," 
in  Murray's  History  of  the  Catholic  Church  in  the  United  States. 


326  HISTORY  OF   THE    CATHOLIC   CHURCH. 

ous  successor  Leo  XIII.,  —  a  special  result  of  whose  solicitude  was  the  conven- 
ing of  the 

Third  Plenary  Council  of  Baltimore  in  1884. 

It  was  in  the  fall  of  1883  that  the  American  archbishops  and  their  representatives 
wcnit  to  Rome,  in  compliance  with  the  call  «if  Pope  Leo  XIII.,  in  order  to  discuss 
with  his  Holiness  and  a  committee  of  cardinals  appointed  by  him,  the  interests 
of  the  Church  in  this  country,  aud  to  determine  the  principal  subjects  which  it 
would  be  necessary  to  discuss  in  the  council  to  be  held  in  the  following  year. 
A  schema  of  these  subjects  was  drawn  up  and  presented  to  the  Pope  by  the 
archbishops  before  they  left  Rome.  Most  Rev.  James  Gibbons,  Archbishop 
(if  15altimore  (1877),  now  Cardinal,  was  app<iinted  Apostolic  Delegate  to 
preside  over  the  council.  The  questions  to  be  discussed  were  classed  under 
tweuty-iive  distinct  hetulings.  Tlic  proximate  preparations  for  the  council 
were  made  under  the  supreme  direction  of  the  apostolic  deh^gate.  The  prin- 
cipal objects  of  the  proceedings  liad  been  already  expressed  by  the  Pope 
when,  in  December,  1883,  the  American  students  at  Rome  exprei^sed  their 
gratitude  in  that  the  North  American  C()llege  had  been  honored  by  having  the 
dignity  of  a  Pontifical  Institution  ^  conferred  upon  it.  The  Pope  then  said 
that  special  importance  would  be  given  to  the  following  considerations :  (1)  In 
regard  to  the  provision  and  tenure  of  Church  property  ;  (2)  The  establishment 
of  a  more  uniform  Church  government  in  all  the  provinces  and  dioceses,  more 
especially  in  regard  to  ecclesiastical  discipline,  in  the  management  of  semina- 
ries, colleges,  aud  schools  ;  (3)  A  more  harmonit)us  co-operation  of  the  Church 
with  the  laws  of  America. 

The  number  of  prelates  who  took  part  in  this  august  assembly  was  nearly 
double  that  of  those  who  had  attended  the  Sect)nd  Plenary  Council.  The 
members  of  this  council  ranked  as  follows  :  fourteen  archbishops,  sixty  bishops, 
five  visiting  bishops  from  Canada  and  Japan,  seven  abbots,  one  prefect-apos- 
tolic, eleven  monsignors,  eighteen  vicars-general,  twenty-three  superiors  of 
religious  orders,  twelve  rectors  of  seminaries,  and  ninety  theologians.^ 

The  decrees  of  the  council,  which  have  received  the  approval  of  the  Holy 
Se<',  vvill  doubtless  prove  to  bear  greatly  on  the  furtherauce  of  the  interior  life  of 
the  Church  in  the  United  States  as  well  as  on  its  exterior  condition,  and  may 
thus  inaugurate  new  ])rospects  for  the  extension  of  unworldliness  and  interior 
sanctity  in  this  our  beloved  country. 

The  Church  in  Canada,  whence  so  many  nol)le  missionaries  have 
gone  forth  for  the  conversion  of  the  heathen  natives  of  America, 
remained  true  to  its  renown  for  apostolic  zeal.  The  labors  of  the 
missionaries  among  the  Indians  were  crowned  with  success  in  spite 
of  obstacles. 

By  a  bull  of  July  12,  1844,  Gregory  XVI.  united  the  dioceses  of 

'  ratholic  Review,  February,  1885. 

-  Menioiial  Volume  of  the  Third  Plenary  Council. 


THE  CATHOLIC  CHURCH  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES.   327 

Upper  and  Lower  Canada  into  the  province  of  Quebec,  with  the 
suffragan  sees  of  Kingston  (founded  in  1826),  of  Montreal  (founded 
in  1836),  and  of  Toronto  (founded  in  1842).  In  the  course  of  time 
new  episcopal  and  metropolitan  sees  were  established.  Halifax, 
already  a  bishopric  in  1845,  became  a  metropolitan  see  in  1852 ; 
Toronto  in  1870,  and  St.  Boniface  in  1871. 

In  the  Dominion  of  Canada  there  are  now  four  ecclesiastical 
provinces ;  namely,  — 

1.  The  province  of  Quebec,^  to  which  belong  the  sees  of  Quebec, 
Chicoutimi,  Montreal,  Ottawa,  Rimouski,  St.  Hyacinth,  Sherbrooke, 
Three  Rivers,  the  vicariate-apostolic  of  Pontiac,  the  prefecture-aiX)s- 
tolic  of  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence. 

2.  The  province  of  Halifax,  to  which  belong  the  sees  of  Halifax, 
Arichat,  Charlottetown,  Chatham,  and  St.  John. 

3.  The  province  of  Toronto,  to  which  belong  the  sees  of  Toronto, 
Hamilton,  Kingston,  London,  and  Peterborough. 

4.  The  province  of  St.  Boniface,  to  which  belong  the  sees  of 
St.  Boniface,  St.  Albert,  the  vicariates-apostolic  of  Athabaska- 
Mackenzie  and  British  Columbia. 

The  dioceses  of  Xewfoundland  and  of  Harbor  Grace,  with  the 
prefecture-apostolic  of  St.  George's,  W.  N.  F.,  are  directly  subject 
to  the  Holy  See. 

The  diocese  of  Vancouver  Island  belongs  to  the  province  of 
Oregon  in  the  United  States. 

In  regard  to  education,  Canada  possesses  great  advantages,  espe- 
cially in  the  diocese  of  Montreal. 

According  to  the  "  Catholic  Almanac "  of  1885  there  are  in  said 
provinces  17  ecclesiastical  seminaries,  besides  44  colleges  and  about 
3,500  parish  schools,  although  the  number  of  the  latter  is  not  stated 
for  all  the  dioceses. 

The  Laval  University,  founded  in  1852,  is  an  offshoot  from  the 
Seminary  of  Quebec,  established  in  1663  by  Francis  de  Laval,  first 
Bishop  of  Canada. 

At  Quebec  there  is  a  grand  seminary  and  a  minor  seminary.  In 
the  diocese  of  Montreal,  besides  the  grand  seminary,  the  Sulpitians 
conduct  a  number  of  other  institutes  of  learning ;  and  in  addition  to 
the  Sulpitians,  the  Jesuits,  the  Congregation  of  the  Holy  Cross,  the 
Oblate  Fathers  of  Mary  Immaculate,  the  Clercs  de  St.  Viateur.  the 
Basilian  Fathers,  and  the  Christian  Brothers  devote  themselves  to 
the  work  of  education.  The  French  islands  at  St.  Pierre  and 
Miquelon  form  an  apostolic  prefecture. 

1  Most  Eev.  E.  A.  Tascherpau,  Aichbishop  of  Quebec,  was  oreated  cardinal  in  1886. 


328  HISTORY  OF  THE   CATHOLIC   CHURCH. 

In  Mexico,  President  Comonfort  persecuted  the  Church  vehe- 
mently. The  property  of  various  religious  orders  which  have  done 
so  much  for  the  country  was  conhscated.  The  French  expedition 
and  the  election  of  the  Archduke  Maximilian  as  Emperor  of  Mexico 
brought  no  help  to  the  Catholics ;  for  the  new  ruler  leaned  towards 
the  Liberals,  who  finally  delivered  him  over  to  destruction.  On 
July  19,  1867,  the  betrayed  monarch  was  shot  at  the  command  of 
the  republican  president  Juarez  (+  1872).  Under  him  the  perse- 
cution and  plundering  of  the  Church  was  renewed  with  increased 
violence.  His  successor,  Lerdo  de  Tejada,  persecuted  alike  priests 
and  members  of  the  religious  orders ;  but  these  proceedings  were 
resisted  by  the  faithful  population.  The  episcopate  also  stood  up 
resolutely  in  defence  of  the  rights  of  the  Church. 

§  213.  Missions  in  Central  America,  the  West  Indies,  and  South 
America,  in  Africa  and  Oceanica. 

The  Constituent  Assembly  of  the  five  States  of  Central  America 
(Nicaragua,  Guatemala,  San  Salvador,  Honduras,  and  Costa  Rica) 
was,  in  1823-1824,  animated  by  a  spirit  inimical  to  the  Church, 
which  manifested  itself  in  many  ways.  The  dissolution,  in  1838, 
of  the  bond  that  united  them  ameliorated  the  lot  of  Catholics  in 
some  districts,  where  the  Government  concluded  a  concordat  with 
the  Apostolic  See,  without,  however,  fulfilling  the  conditions  which 
had  been  agreed  upon. 

The  situation  of  the  Church  in  the  republic  of  Hayti,  where 
political  revolutions  have  inflicted  great  wounds  on  her,  is  most 
deplorable.  In  the  republic  of  St.  Domingo  the  condition  of  relig- 
ion is  no  better  on  that  island.  Since  1862  the  archbishopric  of 
St.  Domingo  has  been  vacant;  the  negroes  are  falling  back  into 
heathenism.^  In  the  Spanish  Antilles,  Cuba,  and  Porto  Rico,  and 
in  the  apostolic  vicariate  of  Jamaica,  religion  is  in  a  better  con- 
dition ;  but  the  missions  thrive  best  in  the  Lesser  Antilles,  which 
are  under  the  government  of  France  and  England. 

Several  republics  arose  in  1820,  in  what  had  heretofore  been  the 
Spanish  provinces  of  South  America ;  the  governments  ^  of  these 
are  very  hostile  to  the  Church.  The  instigators  of  the  persecutions 
undergone  by  the  Church  were,  and  still  are,  the  liberal  Freemasons, 
who  employ  the  same  means  everywhere ;  plundering  the  churches, 

1  Acta  Pii  IX.,  torn  i.  p.  559  sqq. 

2  Ibid.,  torn.  i.  p.  383  sqq. 


MISSIOXS    LY  CENTRAL   AMERICA,   ETC.  329 

banishiug  such  priests  and  monks  as  are  faithful  to  their  duty, 
raising  unecclesiastical  and  immoral  men  to  positions  in  the  Church, 
tolerating  the  shameful  calumnies  against  the  Church  propagated 
by  an  unbelieving  and  unbridled  press. 

The  Holy  See  protested  against  the  violation  of  Church  rights  by 
the  Government;  a  i)ortion  also  of  the  clergy  of  those  districts 
resisted  the  wrong  done.  The  bishoprics  remained  vacant  for 
years.  This  miserable  state  of  things  was  made  worse  by  con- 
tinual civil  wars,  which  occasioned  a  fearful  return  to  barbarism. 
The  concordats  concluded  lately  with  the  Holy  See  have  for  the 
most  part  not  been  carried  out.  The  republic  of  Ecuador  under 
the  able  and  faithful  president  Gabriel  Garcia  Moreno,  formed  a 
pleasing  exception  to  the  general  run;  in  revenge  for  which  the 
Freemasons  had  him  assassinated  on  Aug.  6,  1875.  After  his 
death  the  situation  of  the  Church  became  worse  again.  On  Good 
Friday,  1877,  the  Archbishop  of  Quito  was  poisoned ;  on  the  17th 
of  October  of  the  same  year  the  Bishop  of  Guayaquil  underwent  a 
like  fate. 

In  the  republic  of  Bolivia  existed,  on  the  whole,  a  good  under- 
standing between  the  Church  and  the  State  power.  The  war  with 
Chili,  however,  in  1880  led  to  a  plundering  of  churches.  In  Peru 
]VIasonic  liberalism  now  wages  war  with  the  Church.  The  situation 
is  better  in  Chili,  although  conflicts  between  the  Church  and  the 
State  are  not  infrequent  even  here.  In  the  Argentine  Republic, 
Buenos  Ayres,  and  on  the  Rio  de  la  Plata  the  Catholic  Church  had 
to  suffer  much  from  the  temporal  power.  The  seducing  arts  of 
Protestant  missionaries  were  rendered  of  no  avail  by  the  prevailing 
faith  of  the  people.  In  the  year  1858  the  widowed  sees  were  again 
filled.  The  missions  of  Uruguay  and  Paraguay  were  hindered  in 
their  progress  by  the  hostility  of  unbelieving  statesmen. 

The  Government  of  Brazil,  which  had  been  separated  from  Por- 
tugal in  1826,  imitated  the  example  of  Pombal,  but  found  powerful 
opposition  in  the  believing  people  and  in  the  States,  who  power> 
fully  resisted  schismatical  efforts.  The  conflict  occasioned  by  the 
nomination  of  the  unecclesiastical  Dr.  Moura  to  the  bishopric  of 
Rio  Janeiro  ended  with  the  defeat  of  the  Government.  The  meas- 
ures taken  by  the  Bishop  Don  Vital  of  Olinda,  or  Pernambuco, 
against  the  Freemasons,  who  had  forced  themselves  even  into  relig- 
ious societies,  occasioned  a  violent  conflict  between  the  Church  and 
the  Masonic  Government.  The  bishops  of  Olinda  and  Para  were 
in  1876  condemned  to  imprisonment,  but  the  other  bishops  followed 


330  HISTORY  OF   THE   CATHOLIC   CHURCH. 

the  example  of  their  imprisoned  co-brothers.  The  clergy  and  people 
bravely  and  faithfully  took  their  part,  and  Pope  Pius  IX.  expressly 
sanctioned  the  excommunication  of  Freemasons.  The  proposed  pro- 
gramme of  laws  inimical  to  the  Church,  planned  by  the  minister 
Rio  Branco  on  June  30,  1876,  was  not  carried  out.  The  Emperor 
Dom  Pedro  II.  dismissed  the  ministers,  set  the  imprisoned  bishops 
at  liberty,  and  came  to  an  understanding  with  the  Holy  See. 
Catholic  societies  have  been  formed  for  the  preservation  of  the 
rights  and  freedom  of  the  Church.  In  the  year  1878  another 
liberal  ministry  again  obtained  the  reins  of  government. 

In  Africa  the  heroic  sacrifices  made  by  the  missionaries  have 
hitherto  been  crowned  with  small  success.  In  the  north  of  this 
division  of  the  world,  which  was  once  the  cradle  of  so  many  great 
doctors  of  the  Church,  there  are  now  the  apostolic  vicariate  for 
Tunis,  the  archbishopric  of  Algiers  (1867),  together  with  the  suffra- 
gan bishoprics  of  Oran  and  Constantine  for  the  French  province 
of  Algiers,  and  the  Spanish  bishopric  of  Ceuta  for  Morocco.  In 
modern  times  the  archbishopric  of  Carthage  has  been  re-established. 
The  principal  merit  for  the  prosjierity  of  the  missions  accrues  to 
Cardinal  Lavigerie. 

For  the  countries  of  Central  Africa  Gregory  XYI.,  at  the  request 
of  the  Jesuit  Ryllo,  erected  an  apostolic  vicariate  in  1846.  For  the 
support  of  this  mission,  which  A.  Knoblecher  (-f  1858)  conducted 
with  success,  the  Sodality  of  Mary  was  established  in  Austria  in 
1851.  The  most  meritorious  bishop  Daniel  Comboni  (+  1881),  who 
sought  "  to  regenerate  Africa  by  Africa  itself,"  obtained  greater 
results ;  unhappily,  his  work  is  more  than  temporarily  endangered 
by  the  insurrections  in  the  Soudan.  On  the  western  coast,  where 
in  1854  a  mission  seminary  was  established,  the  priests  of  the 
Congregation  of  the  Holy  Ghost  and  of  the  Immaculate  Heart  of 
Mary  labor  courageously  in  Senegambia,  Sierra  Leone,  and  Gabun, 
though  beset  by  the  difficulties  offered  by  the  murderous  climate  as 
well  as  by  the  stupidity  and  moral  corruption  of  the  natives.  The 
missions  of  Zambesi  since  1880  have  been  conducted  by  Jesuits, 
many  of  whom  have  succumbed  to  the  climate  and  to  the  hardships 
they  have  had  to  encounter.  On  Aug.  28, 1860,  an  apostolic  vicariate 
was  established  for  Dahomey.  In  Congo  also  the  missions  received 
a  fresh  impetus.  Mgr.  Carrie  became  first  bishop  of  the  Congo  terri- 
tory (October,  1886).  In  Cape  Colony  there  have  been  erected  since 
1851  three,  apostolic  vicariates,  to  which  an  apostolic  prefecture  was 
added  in  1874.  On  the  Seychelle  Islands  missionaries,  since  1853, 
are  again  at  work.     A  bishopric  was  founded  in  1850,  for  the  Isle  of 


MISSIONS   IN    TURKEY  AND  PERSIA.  331 

Bourbon.  In  the  island  of  Madagascar  Queen  Kanavolana  (4- 1861) 
persecuted  the  missionaries.  In  1863  King  Eadama  II.  permitted 
the  Christian  religion  to  be  announced.  Queen  Rasoherina  died, 
as  a  Catholic,  in  1868.  Her  sister  Kanavolana  II.  adopted  Protes- 
tantism, which  then  became  the  religion  of  the  State.  In  1861 
Pope  Pius  IX.  erected  an  apostolic  vicariate  in  Madagascar,  over 
which  the  zealous  Father  Jouen  (+  1872)  presided.  Abyssinia 
drinks  in  the  sweat  of  the  missionaries,  but  brings  forth  no  fruit 
of  salvation. 

The  first  missionary  in  Zanguebar  was  Father  Horner  (1867).  For 
Egypt  and  Arabia  the  apostolic  vicariate  of  Alexandria  was  erected 
in  1837.  The  exertions  of  religious  communities  have  effected 
some  results  among  the  Copts ;  the  adherents  of  Islamism,  on  the 
other  hand,  oppose  Christianity  with  all  their  might.  In  the  year 
1867  two  institutes  were  founded  in  Cairo  for  the  unfortunate 
negroes,  who  were  brought  as  slaves  to  Egypt  from  the  interior  of 
Africa.  Similar  establishments  have  been  opened  for  the  reception 
and  Christian  education  of  poor  negro  children. 

The  missions  in  Oeeanica  are  making  good  progress  in  spite  of 
the  unworthy  measures  taken  by  the  Methodists ;  in  spite  also  of 
the  savage  nature  of  the  inhabitants,  who  are  cannibals.  On  the 
whole,  the  faith  is  spreading.  In  the  year  1844  it  was  found  prac- 
ticable to  hold  a  provincial  synod  in  Sidney.  The  missions  on  the 
Gambler  Islands  are  very  flourishing.  Besides  the  Benedictines 
and  Jesuits  the  Marian  Priests  ^  and  the  priests  of  the  Picpus 
Society  labored  in  this  part  of  the  world,  in  which  also  the  blood 
of  martyrs  was  poured  forth.  Since  the  year  1874  two  ecclesiastical 
provinces,  Sidney  and  jNIelbourne,  have  been  established  in  Austra- 
lia ;  ^  Polynesia  has  three  bishoprics  and  eight  apostolic  vicariates. 

§  214.    Missions  in  Turkey  and  Persia. 

In  spite  of  the  enmity  of  the  fanatical  Moslems,  of  the  artifices 
of  schismatics,  and  of  the  intrigues  of  Russia,  the  Catholic  religion 
maintained  itself  in  the  Turkish  Empire,  and  daily  gains  new  mem- 

1  The  Marian  Priests,  or  Marists,  of  Lyons  were  founded  in  1815  by  E.  de  Maze- 
nod,  subseijuently  Bishop  of  Marseilles  (+1861),  and  approved  by  Leo  XIL  The 
Congregation  of  Picpus  (so  called  from  the  street  of  Paris  in  which  tlie  head  monas- 
tery is  situated),  or  of  the  Heart  of  Jesus  and  Mary,  was  founded  in  1805  by  the 
venerable  Coudrin. 

2  The  first  Australian  Plenary  Council  was  opened  in  the  Cathedral  of  Sydney  on 
Nov.  15,  1885,  by  his  Eminence  Cardinal  Moran. 


332  HISTORY   OF   THE    CATHOLIC   CHURCH. 

bers.  Many  religious  orders  —  as  the  Benedictines,  Franciscans, 
Capuchins,  Jesuits,  Lazarists,  Passionists  (founded  by  St.  Paul  of 
the  Cross,  + 1775)  —  were  very  active  missionaries  among  them ; 
their  efficiency  was  much  enhanced  by  the  labors  of  the  Sisters  of 
Charity  among  the  sick  and  in  giving  instruction  to  the  young. 
The  Porte  has  somewhat  abated  the  rigor  of  its  system  of  perse- 
cution; yet  oppression  of  the  Christians  has  not  altogether  ceased, 
notwithstanding  the  Hatti-Scherif  of  Giilhane  on  Nov.  3,  1839, 
and  the  Hatti-Humayum  (Toleration  Edict)  of  1856.  In  July, 
1860,  the  fearful  massacre  of  Christians  in  Lebanon  and  Syria 
took  place.  Even  the  visit  of  the  Sultan  Abdul  Aziz,  in  1867,  to 
many  European  courts,  appears  to  have  in  no  way  improved  the 
situation  of  Christians.  When  in  1870  a  very  insignificant  por- 
tion of  the  united  Armenians  renounced  obedience  to  the  Patriarch 
Hassun,  the  Porte  took  the  part  of  the  schismatics,  acknowledged 
their  Patriarch  Kupelian,  and  bestowed  on  him  the  Church  property 
of  the  Catholic  Armenians.^  It  was  not  till  1874  that  they  tolerated 
the  '•'  Hassunists,"  and  even  then  it  was  without  restoring  to  them 
their  rights  and  their  possessions. 

In  the  kingdom  of  Greece  there  are  eight  bishoprics,  with  about 
thirty  thousand  Catholics. 

In  the  Levant  the  Lazarists  performed  their  labors  under  the 
protection  of  Austria  and  France.  The  apostolic  vicariate  of  Aleppo 
embraces  the  Catholics  of  the  Latin  rite  in  Syria  and  Phoenicia, 
from  which  Egypt  in  1837  and  Abyssinia  in  1843  became  detached. 
In  the  year  1847  the  Latin  Patriarch  of  Jerusalem  again  took  up 
his  residence  in  the  Holy  City.  The  Franciscans,  who  have  twenty- 
two  convents  in  Palestine,^  still  keep  watch  around  the  Holy  Sepul- 
chre ;  they  have  often  to  suffer  severely  from  unseemly  acts  at  the 
hands  of  the  schismatics.  The  Association  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre, 
founded  at  Cologne  in  1855,  has  been  of  great  advantage.  The 
institutions  of  learning  founded  by  the  Jesuits  at  Gazir  (a  semi- 
nary) and  at  Beirut  are  of  great  importance. 

Through  the  influence  of  France  the  Catholic  missionaries  ob- 
tained in  Persia  the  restoration  of  their  churches  and  protection 
against  their  enemies.  In  1834  the  Shah  issued  a  firman  securing 
protection  to  Father  Deuberia,  Superior  of  the  Armenian  mission. 

1  Kupelian  returned  penitently  to  the  Church  in  1879.  Hassun  was  created 
Cardinal  by  Leo  XIII.  in  1880.  He  died  in  1884.  Pope  Leo  XIII.  has  founded 
an  Armenian  seminary  in  Rome. 

2  The  institutions  founded  by  Alphonse  Ratisbonne  (-f-  1884)  are  very  successful. 


MISSIONS  IN    TURKEY  AXD  PERSIA.  333 

Eugene  Bore  erected  a  mission  house  in  western  Persia.  On  Oct.  7, 
1875,  Pius  IX.  received  the  ambassador  of  the  Shah  in  the  Vatican 
at  a  solemn  audience  ;  the  latter  presented  a  letter  from  his  master, 
and  informed  the  Pope  that  the  Shah  had  commanded  his  officials 
to  permit  the  free  exercise  of  the  Catholic  religion  in  Persia. 

The  ancient  Oriental  sects,  —  the  Chaldeans,  the  Syrians,  the 
Maronites,  the  Armenians,  the  Greco-Melchites,  etc.,  —  who  have 
returned  to  union  with  Rome,  have  their  own  patriarchs,  whose 
rights  and  privileges  have  been  reaffirmed  by  the  Apostolic  See. 
The  schism  occasioned  by  J.  Audu  (+ 1878),  Patriarch  of  the  Chal- 
deans, was  announced  by  Pope  Leo  XIII.  in  April,  1879,  as  being 
finally  ended. 

The  greatest  merit  regarding  the  missions  belongs  to  France, 
which  sends  out  the  largest  number  of  the  preachers  of  the  gospel, 
contributes  to  the  establishment  and  preservation  of  the  missions 
more  than  any  other  nation,  and  notwithstanding  her  anti-ecclesias- 
tical government,  exercises  up  to  this  present  time  a  protectorate 
over  the  missions. 

A  shameful  assault  upon  the  missions  has  been  made  in  our  own 
time  by  the  revolutionary  government  in  Italy,  which  has  not 
scrupled  to  deprive  the  Propaganda  of  its  property ;  and  while 
adverting  to  this  subject  it  may  not  be  amiss  to  remark  that  the 
Catholics  of  North  America,  with  whom  many  Protestants  have 
on  this  subject  united,  have  remonstrated  in  so  energetic  a  manner 
against  the  proposed  act  of  violence  in  regard  to  their  own  Ameri- 
can College  of  the  Propaganda  at  Kome,  that  the  Government  of 
the  United  States  interposed  its  intercession,  and  it  has  been  spared 
to  them. 

Besides  the  College  of  the  Propaganda,  which  is  the  greatest 
missionary  establishment  in  the  world,  there  are  other  institutes 
devoted  to  the  training  of  missionaries  :  these  are  St.  Lazare  and  the 
Seminary  of  St.  Esprit,  at  Paris ;  the  College  of  All  Hallows,  near 
Dublin,  Ireland ;  St.  Joseph's  College,  at  Mill  Hill,  for  negro  mis- 
sions, near  London,  England  ;  and  the  Chinese  College  at  Naples. 

The  Protestant  missionary  societies  in  London  (l^Oo),  Boston  (1810), 
Basel  (1816),  Berlin  (1823),  Barmen,  and  others,  have  the  disposal  of  con- 
siderable sums  of  money,  yet  attain  but  slight  results.  Nor  do  the  Bible 
Societies  in  London  (1804)  and  in  Berlin  (1816)  effect  their  object,  altliough 
they  yearly  send  out  millions  of  Bibles  in  every  tongue  to  heathen  'ands. 
Morrison  labored  in  China  (1807)  and  Giitzlaw  (1829),  yet  on  the  whole 
without  success.     The  hopes  which  the  Protestants  placed  on  the  religio- 


334  HISTORY  OF   THE   CATHOLIC   CHURCH. 

political  movement  (Tae-ping,  i.  e.  Universal  peace)  which  arose  in  China 
in  1850,  were  not  realized.  In  India  the  English  even  countenanced  idolatry. 
Some  Anglican  bisht)prics  were  erected,  but  the  number  of  the  neophytes  is 
inconsiderable. 

The  Methodists  had  more  success  in  Madagascar.  There  are  Protestant 
missions  also  in  Oceanica,  particularly  in  Tahiti,  in  the  Society  and  Friendly 
Islands.  Livingstone,  a  Scotchman,  by  his  discoveries  in  Africa  enriched 
science,  but  displayed  no  great  energy  as  a  missionary.  Tlie  Anglo-Prussian 
bishopric  of  St.  James  at  Jerusalem,  founded  in  1841,  at  Bunsen's  suggestion, 
by  King  Frederic  William  IV.  of  Prussia,  and  Howley,  Archbishop  of  Can- 
terbury, and  endowed  with  £38,000  sterling,  called  forth  protestations,  both 
in  England  and  Prussia,  against  this  "mixed  marriage."  It  acquired  no 
practical  importance,  and  was  suppres.sed  in  1883. 

On  Protestant  work  in  Italy  and  Spain,  see  $$  224,  225.  On  Protestant 
missions,  see  Browne,  History  of  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society,  from 
its  institution  in  1804  to  the  close  of  its  Jubilee,  1854.     2  vols.     London,  1859. 


II.     CHURCH  AND   STATE. 

§  215.   Influence  of  the  French  Revolution  on  Ecclesiastical 

Affairs. 

The  Revolution  had  long  been  preparing  in  France,  (a)  by  the 
revolutionary  principles  of  the  Huguenots,  which  were  brought  to 
bear  in  the  political  sphere  as  well  as  in  that  of  religion ;  (h)  by 
the  royal  absolutism  which  had  been  formed  in  conflict  with  these 
principles;  (c)  by  the  moral,  or  rather  the  immoral  corruption  of 
the  higher  classes ;  {d)  by  the  godless  writings  of  the  atheistic 
philosophers ;  (e)  by  the  unaccountable  carelessness  of  the  Govern- 
ment; and  (/)  by  the  turning  of  men's  brains,  occasioned  by  the 
freedom-mania  that  followed  the  American  war  for  liberty.  All 
these  things  had  conspired  to  produce  the  event,  which  broke  out 
in  the  reign  of  the  noble-hearted  but  weak-minded  King  Louis  XVI., 
and  was  accompanied  by  the  most  disastrous  results,  not  only  for 
the  throne,  but  for  the  altar. 
'  The  proximate  occasion  of  this  sad  catastrophe  ^  was  the  convoca- 

1  See  interesting  details  in  Collection  des  niemoires  sur  la  revolution  fran9aise. 
41  vols.  Paris,  1821  sqq.  Barrucl,  Collection  ecclesiastique  ou  recueil  des  ouvrages 
faits  depuis  I'ouverture  des  etats  generaux  relativenient  au  clerge.  7  vols.  Meinoires 
pour  servir  a  I'histoire  de  la  persecution  fran^aise  recueillies  par  les  ordres  de  Pie  VI. 
par  I'abbe  d'Hes7nivy  d'Auriheau.  2  vols.  Rom.  1794.  Jcrvis  (Anglican),  The 
Galilean  Church  and  the  Revolution.     London,  1882. 


INFLUENCE    OF   THE   FRENCH   IIEVOLUTION.        335 

tion  of  the  States  General,  called  forth  by  the  deplorable  condition 
of  the  finances.  The  Estates  met  at  Versailles  (]May  4,  1789),  and 
on  the  motion  of  the  Abbe  Sieyes  and  Count  Mirabeau  declared 
themselves  to  be  the  Constituent  iSTational  Assembly,  and  as  such 
entered  into  the  most  violent  opposition  against  both  the  throne 
and  the  Church.  The  anti-ecclesiastical  spirit  of  the  majority  of 
this  assembly  had  been  already  manifested  in  the  proclamation  of 
the  Eights  of  Man  and  of  religious  liberty  (August  2G),  as  proposed 
by  Lafayette.  The  contest  raged  still  more  vehemently  at  Paris, 
whither  the  J^ational  Assembly,  now  governed  by  Freemasons,  had 
followed  the  unfortunate  king  on  the  6th  of  October. 

On  iSTovember  2,  all  ecclesiastical  property  was,  on  the  motion  of 
Talleyrand,  Bishop  of  Autun,  placed  at  the  disposal  of  the  nation, 
which  in  future  was  to  provide  for  the  requirements  of  religious 
worship.     An  armed  and  paid  mob  suppressed  all  o]3position. 

Some  weeks  later,  on  Feb.  13,  1790,  a  decree  was  passed,  on 
the  motion  of  the  lawyer  Treillard,  which  suppressed  all  the  reli- 
gious orders  in  France  and  interdicted  solemn  monastic  vows.  The 
expelled  monks  were  to  receive  pensions,  but  the  nuns  were  still 
allowed  to  dwell  in  their  convents.^ 

In  order  to  un-Catholicize  France  more  thoroughly,  the  so-called 
"Civil  Constitution  of  the  Clergy"  was  adopted  by  the  National 
Assembly,  July  12,  1790.,  After  the  insurgents  had,  on  August  24, 
extorted  the  royal  signature  to  this  measure,  they  demanded,  on  the 
motion  of  the  Protestant  Barnave,  on  Jan.  4,  1791,  that  the  clergy 
should  take  the  oath  of  the  Civil  Constitution.  Very  few  of  the 
clergy  complied  with  this  demand.  On  April  13,  Pope  Pius  VI. 
condemned  the  Civil  Constitution.  In  revenge  for  this,  the  Na- 
tional Assembly,  which,  on  April  4,  had  converted  the  church 
of  St.  Genevieve  into  a  Pantheon,  declared  that  the  papal  prov- 
inces of  Avignon  and  Venaissin  were  annexed  to  France  (Sep- 
tember  14). 

The  frustrated  attempt  at  flight  made  on  June  25  by  the  king, 
who  too  late  discovered  the  significance  and  tendency  of  the  events 
passing  around  him,  facilitated  the  iniquitous  work  of  the  Revolu- 
tion. The  Constituent  Assembly  closed  its  sessions  on  Sept.  30, 
1791.  It  was  replaced  by  the  Legislative  Assembly,  in  which  the 
Jacobins  had  the  upper  hand.  The  oath  to  the  Civil  Constitu- 
tion was,  on  a  motion  of  Fran9ois  de  Neufchateau  (November  29), 

^  Prat.  Essai  hist,  sur  la  destruction  des  ordres  relig.  en  France  au  18  siecle. 
Paris,  1845. 


336  HISTORY  OF   THE   CATHOLIC   CHURCH.  . 

extended  to  all  the  clergy,  and  those  refusing  to  take  it  were  to  be 
condemned  to  perpetual  banishment. 

The  wearing  of  the  ecclesiastical  dress  was  forbidden  (April  2, 
1792).  Divorce  was  legalized.  A  cruel  persecution  of  the  Catholic 
priests  followed.     The  king  himself  was  imprisoned. 

When  the  National  Convocation  was  established  on  Sept.  20,  1792, 
it  assumed  the  government  and  proclaimed  the  republic.  The  king 
was  beheaded  Jan.  21,  1793.  Under  the  direction  of  Eobespierre, 
Marat,  Danton,  and  others,  a  most  barbarous  method  of  persecution 
was  carried  on.  Among  the  victims  were  three  hundred  priests, 
including  the  venerable  archbishop  Dulau  of  Aries,  then  eighty-seven 
years  old ;  the  two  brothers  La  Rochefoucauld,  bishops  of  Beauvais 
and  Saintes  ;  Montmorin,  formerly  Minister  of  State  and  superior 
of  the  Eudists  ;  Hebert,  confessor  to  King  Louis  XVL  ;  the  Princess 
de  Lamballe ;  etc. 

Already,  on  June  14,  1790,  the  Protestants  of  Nismes  and  the 
region  around  had  murdered  three  hundred  Catholics  of  that  city, 
had  plundered  and  destroyed  Catholic  churches  and  cloisters,  and 
had  exercised  the  greatest  cruelty.  And  now  revolutionary  tribu- 
nals and  committees  of  public  safety  ("comit^s  du  salut  public") 
were  organized  everywhere,  which,  by  means  of  forty-four  thousand 
guillotines  and  a  flying  column  of  six  thousand  soldiers,  were  to 
purify  France  from  all  aristocratic  elements.  Even  the  vile  and 
worthless  Duke  of  Orleans,  Philippe  Egalite,  whose  intention  it  was 
to  ascend  the  throne  of  France,  for  which  purpose  he  had  joined 
the  Revolution,  perished  by  the  guillotine,  Nov.  6,  1793. 

The  Convention  pursued  its  course,  more  and  more  intent  on 
unchristianizing  France.  The  Gregorian  Calendar  was  abolished 
on  Oct.  5,  1793,  and  replaced  by  the  Republican  Calendar  composed 
by  the  mathematician  Romme,  in  which  decades  were  introduced 
instead  of  weeks.  The  cathedral  of  Notre  Dame  and  the  other 
churches  were  desecrated  by  orgies  in  honor  of  the  Goddess  of 
Reason.  This  example  was  imitated  in  the  provinces.  The  heroic 
inhabitants  of  La  Vendee  (Aujou,  Poitou,  and  Bretagne),  who 
on  March  10,  1793,  had  arisen  in  behalf  of  religion  and  royalty, 
succumbed  indeed  to  the  overpowering  force  of  the  Revolution,  but 
not  without  winning  for  themselves  (February,  1795)  freedom  of 
religious  worship.  The  senseless  worship  of  Reason,  was,  however, 
of  short  duration.  Its  author,  Anacharsis  Cloots,  and  his  followers, 
were  beaten  in  the  strife  between  their  party  and  that  of  Robes- 
pierre, who,  after  their  execution  on  March  24,  had  a  decree  passed, 


INFLUENCE   OF   THE   FRENCH  REVOLUTION.        337 

on  'May  7,  1794,  recognizing  the  existence  of  a  Supreme  Being 
(Etre  sujireme)  and  the  immortality  of  the  soul. 

After  the  fall  of  Robespierre  (July  28,  1794)  the  Reign  of  Terror 
ceased ;  but  the  persecution  of  the  Church  continued,  in  spite  of 
the  edicts  of  Feb.  21  and  May  30,  1795.  The  Convention  dissolved 
'tself  oil  October  26.  "  The  Council  of  the  Five  Hundred  "  and 
"The  Council  of  the  Elders-"  took  its  place.  The  executive  power 
was  in  the  hands  of  the  Directory.  The  condition  of  Catholics 
was  in  no  way  improved  by  this.  If  the  Edict  of  Aug.  24,  1797, 
recalled  the  banished  priests,  the  Revolution  of  September  4  ban- 
ished them  anew  or  brought  them  death ;  the  constitutional  bishops 
meanwhile  enjoyed  freedom.  The  Protestants  were  also  unmo- 
lested, and  the  deistic  sect  of  Theophilanthropists  enjoyed  the 
peculiar  favor  of  the  Directory.  After  Napoleon  Bonaparte  had 
become  First  Consul  the  prospects  of  the  Catholic  Church  seemed 
better. 

The  French  Revolution  provoked  similar  movements  in  other 
countries.  After  the  victorious  campaign  of  Napoleon  in  Upper 
Italy,  the  French  Government  declared  war  against  the  Holy  See. 
Pius  VI.,  on  June -25,  1796,  concluded  an  armistice  with  Napoleon, 
and  after  the  unsuccessful  alliance  with  Naples,  he  agreed  to  the 
Treaty  of  Tolentino,  which  was  so  very  prejudicial  to  the  Holy 
See  (Feb.  19,  1797).  Joseph,  the  brother  of  the  consul,  was  sent 
to  Rome  as  ambassador  of  the  republic.  His  house  was  the 
place  of  assembly  for  all  revolutionists.  Now  began  the  agitation 
against  the  Papal  Government.  A  street  mob,  purposely  incited, 
in  which  the  French  General  Duphot  was  killed,  eventually  occa- 
sioned General  Berthier  to  march  into  Rome  on  Feb.  10,  1798,  and 
on  the  loth  to  proclaim  Rome  a  republic.  The  Pope  was  carried 
as  prisoner  to  Siena,  thence  to  be  transferred  to  Florence,  and 
thenr-e  to  Valence,  where  he  closed  the  days  of  his  troubled  life  on 
Aug.  29,  1799. 

On  the  1st  of  December  thirty -five  cardinals  went  into  conclave  ^ 
at  Venice,  and  on  ^lay  14,  1800,  elected  Barnabas  Chiaramonti 
(Pius  VII.)  Pope.  Under  the  patronage  of  the  allied  powers  he 
returned  to  Rome.  The  dignity  of  Secretary  of  State  was  con- 
ferred on  Cardinal   Hercules  Consalvi. 

1  On  the  conclave,  namely,  on  the  intrigues  of  the  Cardinal   Hcrzan,  see  the  Me- 
moirs of  Consalvi.     Paderborn,   1870.     Artaud,   Hist,  du   Pape   Pie  VII.     2  vols. 
Paris  (3d  ed.),  1839.     Critincau-Joly,  L'eglise  en  face  de  la  revolution,  i.  243  sqq. 
Rohiano,  Continuation  de  I'histoireeccles.  ([\x  Berault-Bercastel.     4  vols.     Paris,  1836. 
VOL.  II.  22 


338  HISTORY  OF  THE   CATHOLIC  CHURCH. 

§  216.  Restoration  of  Ecclesiastical  Order  in  France. —  Concordat 
0/I8OI.  —  Napoleon  and  Pope  Pius  VII. 

To  check  the  horrors  of  the  Eevolution,  the  First  Consul  entered 
into  negotiations  with  Pius  VII.  with  the  view  of  concluding  a  con- 
cordat. At  first  this  threatened  to  be  a  failure  on  account  of  the 
immoderate  demands  of  France,  till,  at  the  request  of  Bonaparte, 
Consalvi  came  in  person  to  Paris,  and  after  great  difficulties  con- 
cluded the  Concordat  of  July  15,  1801,^  by  which  the  Church  made 
grea.t  concessions  to  the  French  Republic.  The  publication  of  this 
concordat  followed  on  Easter  Sunday,  April  18,  1802, 

The  joy  of  the  Pope  at  the  restoration  of  religious  worship  in 
France  was  very  soon  disturbed  by  the  opposition  offered  to  the 
concordat.  The  turmoil  was  increased  by  the  refusal  of  some  of  the 
"  ancient "  bishops  to  resign  their  sees.  In  a  brief  of  Aug.  15,  1801, 
Pope  Pius  VII.  had  called  upon  them  to  do  this.  There  were  from 
eighty-one  to  eighty -four  of  them  then  living.  Of  these,  forty-five 
immediately  complied  with  the  papal  command ;  thirteen  bishops  who 
were  living  in  England  addressed  a  remonstrance  to  the  Pope  in 
common.  It  was  in  vain  that  Pius  VII.  sought  to  change  their 
dispositions  by  writing  to  them  with  his  own  hand  on  the  11th  of 
November.  On  April  6,  1803,  the  "Reclamations  canoniques  et 
respectueuses "  appeared,  which  was  signed  by  the  above  thirty- 
six  bishops.  In  these  also  some  of  the  articles  of  the  concordat 
were  attacked.  Against  the  "Reclamations,"  Barruel  wrote  his 
pamphlet  "du  Pape  et  de  ses  droits  religieux  a  I'occasion  du  Con- 
cordat." ^  The  bishops  in  the  countries  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine, 
which  had  been  conquered  by  France,  were  also  obliged  to  vacate 

1  The  first  article  permitted  ptiblic  worsliip  on  condition  of  conforming  to  such 
regulations  of  the  police  as  public  safety  might  demand  in  the  judgment  of  the  Gov- 
ernmc.it  ("en  se  conformant  aux  reglements  de  police,  que  le  gouvernement  jugera 
necessaires  pour  la  tranquillite  publique  ").  This  article  cansed  the  most  difficulty  in 
making  the  arrangements.  Art.  2  stipulates  a  new  diocesan  division,  diminishing 
the  bishoprics  from  one  hundred  and  thirty-five  to  sixty.  (Art.  3.)  The  Pope  un- 
dertakes to  induce  those  who  have  been  bishops  hitherto  to  resign  their  sees.  Gov- 
ernment endows  neither  the  cathedral  nor  the  seminaries.  (Art.  11.)  The  possessors 
of  the  confiscated  Church  property  are  to  remain  in  undistnrbctl  possession  of  the 
same.  (Art.  13.)  The  First  Consul  retains  the  same  rights  and  prerogatives  as  the 
old  Government.  (Art.  16.)  To  him  belongs  the  nomination  of  the  bishops.  (Arts. 
4  and  5. )  When  the  First  Consul  is  not  a  Catholic,  a  new  agreement  shall  be  made 
regarding  his  rights  and  the  nomination  of  bishops,  etc. 

2  Cf.  Barruel,  Memoires  pour  servir  a  I'histoire  eccles.  iii.  428  sqq. 


COXCOllDAT   OF   1801.  339 

their  places.  Aiiioug  tlieiu  was  Cardinal  von  Frankenberg,  Arch- 
bishop of  Mechlin.  The  hfty-iiine  constitutional  bishops  were  simply 
told  that  they  had  lost  their  places.  On  June  29,  1801,  they  had 
held  what  they  termed  a  second  national  synod  under  Gregoire.^ 

There  were  many  clergymen  also  who  were  opposed  to  the  con- 
cordat; and  in  some  places  resistance  thereto  led  even  to  schism. 
But  still  more  injurious  than  this  enmity  to  the  concordat  were 
the  seventy-seven  "  Organic  Articles  "  annexed  to  it  by  Bonaparte, 
which  restored  Gallicanism  to  its  pristine  state,  and  cancelled  sev- 
eral important  provisions  of  the  concordat.  The  protest  of  the 
Holy  See  against  those  articles  produced  no  effect  whatever. 

On  jVIaj^  8,  1804,  the  Senate  proclaimed  Xapoleon  Emperor, 
and  the  latter  requested  Pius  VII.  to  crown  him  in  Paris.  Louis 
XVIII.,  afterwards  king,  protested  against  it;  and  many  courts, 
besides  some  cardinals,  tried  to  dissuade  the  Pope  from  accepting 
the  invitation.  ]S'evertheless,  having  the  good  of  religion  at  heart, 
Pius  VII.  set  out  for  Paris,  where  on  the  2d  of  December  the  coro- 
nation took  place,  in  which  the  Pope  only  performed  the  anointing. 
Napoleon  set  the  crown  on  his  own  head.  In  his  many  interviews 
with  the  emperor,  the  Pope  obtained  some  few  concessions,  but 
could  not  induce  him  to  revoke  the  "  Organic  Articles "  and  to 
restore  the  legations.-     On  April  4,  1805,  Pius  VII.  left  Paris. 

From  this  time  forward  the  relation  of  Napoleon  to  the  Holy  See 
became  less  and  less  friendly.  The  emperor,  it  is  true,  did  a  good 
deal  for  the  Church,  but  for  his  services  he  claimed  complete  do- 
minion over  her.  The  Holy  See  was  to  be  entirely  subservient  to 
his  interests. 

The  occupation  of  the  harbor  of  Ancona  by  French  troops,  and  the 
desire  expressed  by  Napoleon,  1806,  that  the  Pope  should  regard  the 
enemies  of  the  emperor  as  foes  to  himself,  prepared  the  rupture 
which  was  soon  to  take  place.  On  Pius  VII. 's  refusing  to  accede 
to  these  and  to  several  other  demands,^ —  such  as  breaking  the  mar- 
riage between  his  brother  Jerome  and  Miss  Patterson,  acknowledg- 
ing his  brother  Joseph  as  King  of  Naj^les,  closing  the  havens  to  the 

■  Cf.  Aotes  du  second  Concile  national  de  France.     3  vols.     Paris,  1801. 

2  The  States  of  the  Church  were  divided  into  eighteen  legations,  or  delegations, 
which  had  been  seized  by  Napoleon. 

3  Cf.  Allocutio  Pii  VII.,  habita  in  consistorio  diei  16  JIartii,  1808.  Monach.  1871. 
Compare  also  Memoirs  of  Consalvi  and  Pacca,  and  Michel,  L'eglise  cath.  et  I'empereur 
Napoleon  I.  Paris,  1865.  B' Haussonvillc,  L'eglise  Piomaine  et  le  premier  empire. 
:>  vols.     Paris,   1870. 


340  HISTORY  OF  THE   CATHOLIC   CHURCH. 

enemies  of  the  emperor,  recognizing  Talleyrand  as  Prince  of  Bene- 
vento,  Bernadotte  as  Prince  of  Poute  Corvo,  etc.,  —  on  the  Pope's 
demurring  to  proposals  such  as  these,  General  Miollis,  by  order  of 
Napoleon,  entered  Rome,  Feb.  2,  1808 ;  the  eminent  cardinals  were 
banished,  and  the  Pope  subjected  to  gross  outrages.  Finally,  on 
May  17,  1809,  an  imperial  edict,  dated  from  Vienna,  was  published, 
by  which  the  remainder  of  the  States  of  the  Church  were  annexed 
to  the  French  Empire. 

Pius  VII.  replied  by  the  bull  of  excommunication  "  Quum  memo- 
randa," and  a  special  protest,  but  was  taken  prisoner  by  General 
Radet  in  the  Quirinal,  and,  accompanied  by  his  Secretary  of  State, 
Cardinal  Pacca,  was  brought  to  Grenoble.  Pacca  was  afterwards 
imprisoned  in  the  fortress  of  Fenestrella,  while  the  Pope  had  to 
stay  at  Savona. 

The  cardinals  were  likewise  obliged  to  leave  Eome  and  repair  to 
Paris.  Through  their  influence  Xapoleon  hoped  to  change  the  mind 
of  the  Pope.  He  deceived  himself.  The  Pope  remained  firm,  and 
Napoleon  could  not  obtain  his  wishes ;  the  Pope  would  not  consent 
to  give  up  the  States  of  the  Church,  nor  to  confirm  the  newly  ap- 
pointed bishops ;  neither  would  he  yield  in  the  other  matters.  At 
the  proposal  of  the  Ecclesiastical  Commission  appointed  b}^  the  em- 
peror, the  latter  convoked  a  National  Council  at  Paris,  while  at  the 
same  time  he  negotiated  with  the  Pope.  Pius  VII.  partly  complied 
with  the  demands  then  made  by  Napoleon,  promised  to  confirm  the 
election  of  the  bishops  nominated,  and  to  add  a  clause  to  the  con- 
cordat concerning  the  canonical  institution  of  the  bishops,  but  would 
not  sign  the  four  articles  drawn  up  b}-  the  deputation. 

On  June  17,  1811,  the  National  Council  was  opened  by  Cardinal 
Fesch,  Archbishop  of  Lyons.  Gaspar  Maximilian,  Baron  of  Droste- 
Vischering,  Suffragan  Bishop  of  jNIiinster,  and  other  prelates  pro- 
posed that>  they  should,  in  the  first  place,  demand  the  liberation  of 
the  Pope ;  but  the  motion  Avas  opposed  by  the  court  prelates.  After 
a  spirited  and  lengthy  debate  an  address  to  the  emperor  w^as  drawn 
up.  The  emperor,  being  informed  of  what  had  happened,  refused 
to  receive  the  address ;  he  was  still  more  indignant  when  the  council 
declared  itself  incompetent  to  resolve  the  main  question  before  it,  — 
that  is,  how  to  procure  the  canonical  installation  in  office  of  the 
bishops  appointed  by  the  emperor  when  the  Pope  refused  to  issue 
the  bulls.  The  president  prorogued  the  sessions,  and  Napoleon  im- 
prisoned the  most  courageous  of  the  l)ishops  at  Vincennes.  On  this, 
the  council  was  reopened  on  the  5th  of   August.     The  assembled 


NAPOLEON  AND  POPE  PIUS    VII.  341 

prelates  accepted  the  five  articles  proposed  by  the  emperor :  these 
articles  were,  (1)  That  a  bishop's  see  shall  not  remain  vacant  longer 
than  a  year;  (2)  The  emperor  shall  nominate  tlie  bishops  for  the 
vacant  sees,  and  beg  the  Pope  to  confirm  the  nominations  ;  (3)  This 
shall  take  place  within  six  months ;  (4)  When  the  Pope  does  not 
coirfer  canonical  institution,  the  metropolitan  or  the  oldest  bishop 
shall  do  it  after  the  lapse  of  six  months  ;  (5)  The  present  decree 
is  to  be  laid  before  the  Pope  for  his  approval. 

A  deputation  then  went  to  Savona  to  obtain  the  papal  consent. 
The  Pope  thus  besieged,  being  deserted  by  his  counsellors  and  pressed 
by  the  red  cardinals,^  especially  by  Koverella,  to  obviate  greater  evils, 
gave  his  conditional  assent,  expressly  stipulating  that  the  installa- 
tion by  the  hands  of  the  metropolitan,  to  be  'canonical,  must  be  per- 
formed in  the  name  of  the  Pope  alone  (''expresso  nomine  summi 
pontificis ").  He  then  wrote  to  ISTapoleon,  who,  however,  would 
neither  accept  the  brief  nor  answer  the  Pope's  letter. 

Once  more  an  attempt  to  obtain  larger  concessions  from  the  Pope 
was  made  by  four  members  of  the  deputation.  Pius  VII.  remained 
firm,  and  could  by  no  means  be  prevailed  upon  to  consent  fully  to  the 
emperor's  wishes.     On  October  20  the  council  was  dissolved. 

During  the  Russian  campaign  Napoleon  had  the  sick  Pope  brought 
to  Fontainebleau,  At  the  Convent  of  the  Cistercians  on  Mont 
Cenis,  Pius  had  received  the  last  sacraments ;  but,  notwithstanding 
his  weakness,  he  was  compelled  to  continue  his  journey,  and  finally 
arrived  at  Fontainebleau,  June  20,  1812.  Only  the  red  cardinals 
and  the  court  prelates  had  permission  to  see  him. 

After  the  defeat  of  the  French  army  in  Russia,  Xapoleon  again 
opened  negotiations  with  the  Pope.  On  Jan.  19,  1813,  the  emperor 
appeared  personally  at  Fontainebleau,  and  extorted  from  the  Pope 
eleven  articles,  preliminary  to  a  new  concordat.  These  were  signed 
January  25.  The  black  cardinals  now  regained  their  freedom,  and 
went  to  the  Pope. 

On  their  remonstrance  Pius  VII.  recalled  his  concessions;  the 
emperor,  however,  had  the  preliminary  articles  promulgated  as  con- 
cordat and  law  of  the  empire.  The  victories  obtained  by  the  allied 
forces  over  Napoleon  prevented  the  outbreak  of  new  contests.  The 
Pope  was  brought  to  Savona  on  Jan.  23,  1814,  and  set  at  liberty 

1  Napoleon  forbade  thirteen  cardinals  to  wear  the  purple.  They  were  therefore 
called  the  hlack  cardinaJs.  The  reason  for  the  prohibition  was,  outside  of  the  em- 
peror's personal  dislike  to  them,  their  refusal  to  assist  at  the  wedding  ceremonial  of 
Napoleon  witli  Maria  Louisa,  Archduidiess  of  Austria,  in  April,  1810. 


342  HISTORY  OF   THE    CATHOLIC   CHURCH. 

in  March.  On  May  24,  Pius  VII.  made  his  triumphal  entry  into 
Rome  ;  while  his  oppressor,  lirst  at  Elba,  and  after  the  one  hundred 
days'  reign,  at  St.  Helena,  had  ample  time  and  opportunity  to  reflect 
on  the  promises  which  Christ  gave  to  His  Church. 

§  217.    The  Catholic  Church  in  Germany.  —  Secularization. 

The  consequences  of  the  French  Revolution  were  also  sorely  felt 
by  the  Church  in  Germany.  Her  possessions  on  the  left  bank  of 
the  Rhine  were  made  over  to  France,  while  those  on  the  right  bank 
of  that  river  were  secularized.  According  to  the  seventh  article  of 
the  Treaty  of  Luneville  (1801),  those  hereditary  princes  who  were 
in  this  way  compelled  to  cede  territories  Avere  to  receive  indemnifica- 
tion "  within  the  bosom  of  the  empire." 

Notwithstanding  the  protests  of  several  spiritual  princes  of  the 
empire,  this  treaty  was  approved  by  the  diet  and  the  emperor 
(March  7  and  9),  and  a  commission  was  appointed,  consisting  of 
eight  members,  which  was  to  regulate  the  matter  of  indemnity. 
This  commission,  however,  soon  found  that  it  had  simpl}-  to  sid^mit 
to  the  dictates  of  the  Russian  and  French  governments,  or  rather  to 
those  of  the  First  Consul  himself.  Therefore,  in  order  to  secure 
their  portion  of  the  spoils,  Prussia,  on  the  22d  of  May,  and  Bavaria, 
on  the  24th  of  tlie  same  month,  concluded  separate  treaties  with 
France. 

By  the  Resolutions  of  the  Deputation  of  the  Empire  (1803),  which 
were  approved  by  the  emperor,  all  spiritual  principalities  were 
abolished,  and  both  the  secular  and  ecclesiastical  possessions,  as  also 
the  possessions  of  the  ancient  cathedral  chapters  and  the  revenues 
of  the  prince  bishops,  were  assigned  to  the  temporal  princes  as  in- 
demnity for  their  losses.  The  metropolitan  rights  of  Mentz  were 
alone  maintained,  and  these  were  transferred  to  Ratisbon. 

By  the  thirty -fifth  article  of  the  Resolutions  of  the  Deputation,  "all 
property  belonging  to  the  foundations,  abbeys,  and  monasteries  was 
committed  to  the  free  and  full  disposal  of  the  respective  rulers  who 
were  to  provide  for  the  expense  of  public  worship,  of  instruction, 
of  founding  useful  public  institutions,  and  of  lightenbuj  their  own 
financhil  cmharvassments.^'' 

As  most  of  the  secularized  territories  passed  to  the  dominion  of 
Protestant  rulers,  the  belongings  of  the  Catholic  Church  were  thus 
given  up  to  the  arbitrary  will  of  persons  who  did  not  recognize  her 
rights ;  the  advisers  of  these  new  rulers  effected  the  disposal,  in  a 


THE   CATHOLIC   CHURCH   IN   (iEIlMANY.  343 

most  sacrilegious  manner,  of  every  article  belonging  to  the  Church, 
the  altar,  and  the  service  of  God;  nay,  many  officers  exhibited  a 
ruthlessness  that  would  not  have  been  exceeded  by  the  Vandals. 

Notwithstanding  the  solemn  declaration  made  to  the  deputation 
in  the  recess  of  the  empire  (Art.  63),  that  the  relations  of  Church 
and  State  should  remain  the  same,  the  temporal  government  arro- 
gated to  itself  the  government  of  ecclesiastical  affairs,  and  made 
the  most  alarming  encroachments  on  Church  rights  and  on  Church 
property.  The  new  owners  of  this  property  neither  complied  with 
the  obligations  they  had  entered  into  to  endow  the  new  bishoprics, 
the  cathedral  chapters,  etc.,  nor  made  any  preparations  to  negotiate 
with  the  Holy  See  concerning  any  new  organization  of  Church 
affairs.  The  old  dioceses  gradually  lost  their  pastors,  and  the 
cathedral  chapters  died  out,  so  that  the  Pope  was  obliged  to  in- 
trust the  direction  of  the  bishoprics  to  vicars- apostolic.  These, 
however,  possessed  neither  the  necessary  knowledge  of  the  actual 
state  of  affairs,  nor  authority  sufficient  to  check  the  arbitrary 
caprices  of  the  rulers. 

The  dissolution  of  the  German  Empire  in  1806,  in  consequence  of 
the  Confederation  of  the  Khine,  increased  the  difficulties  of  the 
Church.  The  Apostolic  See  now  sought  to  negotiate  with  the 
separate  governments  which  had  thus  become  independent  of  each 
other. 

The  negotiations  concerning  a  concordat  entered  into  with  Ba- 
varia in  1807  were  frustrated  by  the  exorbitant  demands  of  the 
Government,  which  was  under  the  influence  of  the  minister  Montge- 
las.  The  papal  nuncio  della  Genga,  Archbishop  of  Tyre,  found 
less  difficulty  in  Wiirtemberg;  but  the  intervention  of  Napoleon, 
who  availed  himself  of  the  ecclesiastical  affairs  in  Germany  to 
bring  the  most  unjust  reproaches  against  the  Pope,  prevented  the 
agreement  from  being  concluded.  The  proposition  of  Baron  Dal- 
berg,  Archbishop  of  Ratisbon,  to  have  the  French  Concordat  in- 
troduced into  the  States  of  the  Rhine  Confederation  did  not 
receive  the  emperor's  assent.  The  subsequent  captivity  of  the  Pope 
put  off  the  adjustment  of  Church  affairs  for  a  long  period. 

The  hopes  which  the  Catholics  cherished  in  regard  to  the  Congress 
of  Vienna  (1814)^  were  not  destined  to  be  fulfilled.  The  demands 
of  the  ".Orators"  and  the  memorial  of  the  Baron  of  Wessenberg 
(Nov.  27,  1814)  were  alike  unheeded.  Cardinal  Consalvi,  who  de- 
sired the  restoration  of  the  German  Empire  and  of  the  ecclesiastical 
1  Kliibrn;  Acts  of  the  Congress  of  Meuiia. 


344  HISTORY   OF   THE   CATHOLIC   CHURCH. 

principalities,  could  do  nothing  besides  protest  against  the  decisions 
so  injurious  to  the  Catholic  Church  that  Avere  adopted  (June  14, 
1815).  Pius  VII.,  in  his  allocution  of  September  4,  did  the  same 
thing.  In  fact,  the  condition  of  affairs  was  not  essentially  improved 
by  the  subsequent  concordats.  The  revolutionary  year  of  1848  ren- 
dered a  somewhat  freer  action  of  the  Church  possible ;  but  so  much 
the  more  were  the  anti-ecclesiastical  statesmen  and  majorities  ob- 
tained by  the  Protestant  Liberals  in  the  legislative  departments 
intent  on  enslaving  the  Church  anew. 

The  projects  of  the  political  bureaucratists  were  greatly  forwarded  by  such 
ecclesiastics  as  were  imbued  with  Febrouian  views  respecting  the  relation  that 
ought  to  exist  between  Church  and  State;  such  were  Wessenberg,  Koch, 
Kopp,  and  others,  who  thought  to  found  a  "National  Church,"  which  was  to 
be  independent  of  Rome,  but  subject  to  the  arbitrary  will  of  the  State  govern- 
ments. The  false  reformers  were  opposed  by  other  more  soundly  minded 
clergymen  ;  though  among  these  little  help  came  from  the  vacillating  and 
double-dealing  Baron  of  Dalberg,  who,  on  the  contrary,  countenanced  their 
views.  ^ 

In  Bavaria,  where  the  Protestants  enjoyed  the  special  favor  of  tlae  Govern- 
ment, and  where  advocates  of  quite  rationalistic  tendencies,  such  as  Paulus. 
Jacobi,  and  Niethhammer  were  raised  to  positions  of  honor,  the  Catholic 
Church  was  in  a  lamentable  position ;  this  was  owing  in  great  measure  to 
the  adverse  influence  of  the  minister  Montgelus,  one  of  the  Illumiuati.  The 
Government  aiTogated  to  itself  tlie  direction  of  the  internal  aflairs  of  the 
Church,  tlie  training  and  appointment  of  the  clergy,  the  holding  of  religious 
services  and  devotions;  it  demanded  the  "Placet"  for  episcopal  circulars,  re- 
moved the  members  ol  the  religious  orders  and  other  able  men  from  the 
universities,  commanded  Protestant  preachers  to  bless  mixed  marriages  when 
Catholic  pastors  refused  to  do  it,  etc.  Pius  VII.,  in  a  brief  to  the  Electoral 
Prince  Maximilian,  as  early  as  Feb.  12,  1803,  makes  bitter  complaints  of  the 
ridicule  cast  on  the  Holy  Cross  by  the  students  of  the  university,  of  which 
no  notice  had  been  taken  by  the  authorities.^  This  university  had  been  trans- 
ferred from  Ingolstadt  to  Landshut,  and  had  degenerated  into  a  place  of  unbelief 
and  immorality. 

Ecclesiastical  affairs  were  in  a  similar  position  in  Tyrol  when  it  came  under 
Bavarian  rule  in  1806.  The  same  may  be  said  of  Wiirtemberg,  where  Werk- 
meister  espoused  the  interests  of  the  Illuminati;  of  Baden,  where  the  Catholic 
subjects  were  treated  so  intolerantly  tliat  it  called  fortli  the  protest  of  Napoleon 
himself,  in  his  capacity  of  Protector  of  tlie  Confederation,  while  unworthy  cler- 
gymen, under  the  influence  of  the  Baron  of  Wessenberg,  Vicar- General  of 

^  For  German  Hterature  on  the  condition  of  ecclesiastical  affairs  in  Germany,  see 
the  original  of  Briicl;  3d  edition,  p.  795  sqq. 
^  Cf.  Roskovdny,  Monuni.  Cath.  ii.  SO  sqq. 


THE    CATHOLIC    CHURCH    IX   BAVARIA.  345 

Constance,  Coadjutor  to  the  PrincL'-rrimate  Diilberg,  were  working  injuriously 
to  the  interests  of  the  Church  by  their  neological  tendencies. 

During  the  rule  of  the  French,  Joseph  Louis  Ccdmar  (+  Dec.  15,  1818) 
governed  the  dit)cese  of  ]\Ientz  with  gri-at  success,  w-hile  L.  Bruno  Liebcrnian, 
as  rector  of  tlie  theological  seminary  and  of  the  episcopal  colleges,  successfully 
resisted  the  innovations  of  infidelity  and  neology.  Things  changed  for  the 
woi'se  under  Hessian  rule,  during  the  vacancy  of  the  see,  till  1830.  Koch, 
subsequently  an  apostate,  was  counsellor  of  the  Government  of  Nassau.  The 
Catholic  territories  which  in  course  of  time  were  annexed  to  Prussia  had  a 
bitter  experience  of  the  personally  hostile  disposition  of  the  princes  and  of 
the  intolerance  (jf  their  ministers,  as  shown  by  their  numerous  encroachments 
on  the  possessions  of  the  Church  and  by  their  intermeddling  with  the  internal 
discipline  and  organization  of  ecclesiastical  affairs.     Prussian  tradition  affirms 

"THAT  THE  StATE  IS  THE   LAWFUL  RULER   OF   THE    ChURCH,  THE  ChURCH 
BEING   BUT   ITS    MAID-SERVANT."      (See  ^  219.) 

§  218.    The  CathoUo  Church  in  Bavaria  under  Maximilian       •^ 
Joseph  I.  and  Louis  I. 

After  the  withdrawal  of  the  minister  Moutgelas  (Feb.  2,  1817), 
a  concordat  ^  was  finally  agreed  upon,  on  June  5,  1817,  between  Ba- 
varia and  the  Holy  See,  which  King  Maximilian  Joseph  I.  signed  on 
October  24.  In  spite  of  the  great  concessions^  made  by  the  Pope, 
this  concordat  met  with  great  opposition  from  the  enemies  of  the 
Church,  under  the  lead  of  Anselm  of  Feuerbach,  the  president  of 
the  Government  in  Ansbach ;  and  the  Government  itself  partly 
"withdrew  its  agreement  therefrom,  by  some  articles  of  the  Consti- 
tution and  the  so-called  Second  Edict  of  Religion.^  The  Pope  pro- 
tested against  the  violation  of  tlie  concordat,  and  the  clergy  refused 
to  take  the  oath  to  tlie  constitution  until  the  king  (Sept.  15,  1821) 
made  a  declaration  which  theoretically  removed  all  difficulties ;  yet, 
in  point  of  fact,  the  Government  made  no  preparations  to  fulfil  the 
obligations  they  had  contracted,  nor  to  give  up  their  system  of 
oppression.  The  concordat  stood  on  the  paper;  but  the  Second 
Edict,  so  greatly  Protestant  in  spirit  and  drift,  maintained  its 
ground  until  the  death  of  the  weak  king  on  Oct.  12,  1825. 

1  The  concordats  are  in  Nussi,  Conventiones,  p.  146  sqq.  Walter,  Fontes, 
p.  204  sqq. 

■^  The  Holy  See  was  satisfied  with  the  endowment  of  the  bishoprics  and  the  erec- 
tion of  some  few  convents  as  compensation  for  the  secularization,  and  conferred  on 
the  king  the  right  to  nominate  the  bishops  and  to  fill  two  thirds  of  all  l)pnefices. 

3   Walter,  1.  c.  p.  213  sqq. 


o-i6  HISTORY   OF   THE    CATHOLIC    CHURCH. 

His  son  and  successor,  Louis  I.,  to  whom  the  celebrated  Gorres 
addressed  such  touching  words  of  admonition,  entertained  good  dis- 
positions towards  the  Church;  but  notwithstanding  the  personal 
good-will  of  the  king,  who  sought  to  comply,  at  least  to  some  extent, 
with  the  provisions  stipulated  for  in  the  concordat,  it  was  not  until 
1837,  when  Abel  was  nominated  prime  minister,  that  a  change  for 
the  better  ensued.  The  troubles  at  Cologne  exercised  great  in- 
fluence on  King  Louis,  who  then  proved  himself  to  be  a  "  protector 
and  guardian  of  the  Church."  Several  unecclesiastical  regulations 
were  now  suppressed ;  and  on  May  25,  1841,  free  intercourse  with 
Rome  was  permitted  to  the  bishops. 

For  the  encouragement  of  Catholic  learning,  the  king  invited  the 
most  celebrated  Catholics  of  the  day,  Gorres  (1827),  Phillips  (1833), 
Mohler  (1835),  Klee  (1838),  and  others  to  the  University  of  Munich, 
at  which  place  also  the  ablest  of  the  native  doctors  of  learning  were 
stationed ;  and  by  the  erection  of  splendid  churches,  and  bj^  the  res- 
toration of  the  ancient  and  venerable  cathedrals  of  Ratisbon,  Bam- 
berg, and  Spire,  Louis  I.  not  only  displayed  his  taste  for  art,  but 
gave  evidence  of  his  own  personal  piety.  His  choice  of  men  for 
tilling  the  episcopal  sees  ever  fell  on  persons  of  the  greatest  merit, 
and  yet  neither  he  nor  his  ministers  could  quite  come  to  the  resolu- 
tion of  completely  surrendering  their  politico-ecclesiastical  theories. 

The  friendly  relations  between  Louis  I,  and  the  Catholic  Church 
were  somewliat  disturbed  by  the  conflict  that  took  place  regarding 
the  funeral  solemnities  at  the  burial  of  his  Protestant  step-mother 
(1841).  The  royal  warning  addressed  to  the  bishops  on  Dec.  2, 
1841,  was  followed  by  many  edicts  which  clashed  with  the  rights  of 
the  Church,  and  led  to  a  conflict  between  the  Government  and  the 
spiritual  authorities.  Even  the  Chambers  took  part  in  the  measures 
concerning  ecclesiastical  affairs.  The  command  given  to  the  mili- 
tary to  genuflect  before  the  Blessed  Sacrament  called  forth  violent 
demonstrations  of  displeasure,  and  the  order  was  rescinded  by  the 
Government.  Also  the  so-called  five  grievances  of  the  Prince 
Wrede  were  supported  by  a  majority  of  the  Chamber.  Yet  they 
did  not  succeed  in  removing  the  ministry.  This  was  left  to  Lola 
Montez,  the  celebrated  dancer.  Abel  and  the  other  ministers, 
after  the  memorandum  of  Feb.  11,  1847,  received  their  dismissal. 
The  king,  enchanted  by  the  "new  Circe,"  also  dismissed  other  able 
professors.  Lassaulx,  Moy,  Hofler,  Phillips,  Dollinger,  and  joined 
the  Liberals,  who  then  led  the  unhappy  monarch  to  the  most 
perverse  measures  against  the  "Ultramontanes." 


ECCLESIASTICAL    AFFAIllS   /X  PRL'SSIA.  347 

Under  the  ministry  of  IVIaurer,  Zu-Rliein  was  appointed  Minister 
of  Worship,  and  he  issued  a  great  number  of  unjust  and  spiteful 
edicts  against  the  Church.  Oettingen-Wallerstein,  minister  a  second 
time  from  Dec.  1,  1847,  was  somewhat  more  moderate ;  but  Beisler 
was  the  more  regardless  of  justice  and  propriety  towards  the  "  sov- 
ereign Church,"  because  he  had  given  his  favor  to  the  adherents 
of  the  apostate  Ronge.  In  the  midst  of  these  contentions,  Louis  I. 
suddenly  resigned  his  crown,  March  20,  1848.     He  died  in  1868. 


§  219.  Ecclesiastical  Affairs  in  Prussia.  —  Troubles  in  Cologne. 

The  bull  ''  De  salute  animarum,"  which  had  arisen  in  consequence 
of  the  conferences  between  Niebuhr  and  Consalvi,  and  had  been 
sanctioned  by  King  Frederic  William  III.  as  "a  binding  statute," 
re-established,  it  is  true,  a  regular  state  of  ecclesiastical  affairs  in 
Prussia,  but  could  not  free  Catholics  from  the  oppressions  of  the 
Government,  which  still  adhered  to  the  traditional  Church  policy 
of  the  Prussian  House,  and  violated  in  more  than  one  respect  the 
autonomy  of  the  Church  and  of  her  rights. 

Notwithstanding  the  articles  of  agreement,  the  State  arrogated  to 
itself  the  nomination  of  bishops,  of  canons,  nay,  even  of  the  pastors ; 
it  infringed  upon  the  right  of  the  bishops  to  educate  their  clergy, 
controlled  their  correspondence  with  the  Pope,  subjected  their  pas- 
toral letters  and  other  rescripts  to  the  supervision  and  approval  of 
Protestant  officials,  while  obstacles  were  everywhere  laid  in  the  way 
of  ecclesiastical  superiors. 

How  partial  and  unequal  the  conduct  of  the  Government  was, 
appeared  in  the  assignment  of  Catholic  churches  to  Protestants,  in 
the  establishment  of  Protestant  parishes,  and  in  the  erection  of 
Protestant  schools,  paid  from  the  funds  of  the  public  treasury, 
although  surely  there  was  no  need  at  all  for  this  ;  whereas  the  peti- 
tions of  the  Catholics  to  be  allowed  to  take  up  collections  for  similar 
purposes  fell  on  deaf  ears,  although  the  necessity  for  so  doing  had 
been  clearly  proved. 

Likewise  the  Catholics  were,  as  if  from  principle  or  of  set  pur- 
pose, excluded  from  all  the  higher  civil  and  military  offices.  The 
professors'  chairs  at  the  universities  were  almost  exclusively  filled 
with  Protestants,  and  to  them  was  intrusted  the  direction  not  only 
of  the  classes  of  the  higher  learning  but  also  of  the  common  schools. 
This    one-sidedness  of    the  Prussian  State  also   manifested    itself 


348  HISTORY  OF   THE   CATHOLIC   CHURCH. 

in  its  dealings  with  the  Catholic  press,  in  the  hostile  attitude  it 
assumed  towards  Catholic  newspapers  and  magazines,  and  in  the 
lawsuits  brought  against  Catholic  clergymen  for  assumed  attempts 
at  proselyting ;  while,  on  the  other  hand,  Protestants  might,  without 
being  molested  or  reprehended,  revile  the  Catholic  Church  by  word 
or  by  writing,  and  in  the  eiforts  made  to  proselytize  they  actually 
received  the  aid  of  the  Government. 

This  was  further  obvious  in  the  regulations  for  the  ecclesiastical 
accommodations  of  the  soldiery,  who  were  all  placed  under  the 
jurisdiction  of  a  Protestant  chaplain,  no  Catholic  priest  being  ap- 
pointed to  any  regiment.  Further,  it  was  clear  from  the  royal 
or  ministerial  order  of  Aug.  17,  1825,  respecting  the  education  of 
the  children  of  mixed  marriages,  by  which  the  royal  order  of 
Nov.  21,  1803,  which  had  hitherto  been  in  force  only  for  the  eastern 
provinces  of  the  monarchy,  was  extended  to  the  western  provinces 
of  the  Ehine  and  of  Westphalia.  This  order  was,  "  that  children 
born  in  marriage  should  always  be  instructed  in  the  religion  of"  the 
father,  and  that  no  previous  compact  should  be  entered  into  between 
the  married  pair  to  annul  this  law ;  and  only  in  the  case  of  both 
parents  agreeing  concerning  the  education  of  their  children,  would 
nobody  have  the  right  to  interfere."  But  herein  was  the  stumbling- 
block  :  that  the  Catholic  pastors  refused  to  bless  mixed  marriages 
without  the  express  guarantee  being  given  for  the  Catholic  education 
of  the  children  according  to  the  law  of  the  Church.  The  opposition 
thus  excited  was  so  energetic  that  neither  threats  nor  imprisonment 
availed  to  break  it.  The  principal  persons  engaged  in  this  contest, 
which  was  of  so  much  importance  in  awakening  conscience  among 
Catholics,  were  Clement  Augustus  von  Droste-Yischering,  Archbishop 
of  Cologne  (1837),  and  Martin  von  Dunin,  Archbishop  of  Posen  and 
Gnesen  (1838),  who  preferred  the  prison  to  unfaithfulness  toAvards 
the  Church,  but  who  finally  triumphed  over  her  enemies. 

Among  the  favorable  consequences  of  the  Troubles  of  Cologne 
may  be  counted  the  two  ordinances  of  King  Frederic  William  IV., 
by  which  (Jan.  1,  1841)  the  bishops  were  permitted  to  hold  free 
intercourse  with  the  Holy  See ;  and  on  February  12  they  obtained  a 
department  in  the  ministerial  cabinet,  that  they  might  themselves 
take  a  part  in  regulating  ecclesiastical  affairs  as  regards  Catholics. 

lu  reply  to  the  German  bishops  who  had  laid  the  subject  of  mixed  marriages 
before  the  Holy  See,  Paul  VIII.  issued  a  brief  of  March  25,  1830,  iu  which, 
while  conceding  somewhat  to  these  mixed  marriages  for  tlie  avoidance  of  a 


TROUBLES   IN   COLOGNE.  349 

greater  evil,  he  roqiiires  that  the  Catholic  brides  and  mothers  sliould  be 
urgently  admonished  to  provide  for  the  Catholic  education  of  the  children. 

Count  Ferdinand  von  Spiegel,  Archbishop  of  C(dogne  (+  Aug.  2,  1835), 
after  a  long  resistance  was  prevailed  upon  by  the  Government  secretly  to 
conclude  a  convention  with  the  Chevalier  Bunsen,  in  which  it  was  falsely 
stated  that  the  order  of  Aug.  17,  1825.  did  not  contravene  the  tenor  of  tlie 
Pope's  brief.  He  signed  this  witliout  including  the  Pope's  assent  as  a  con- 
dition. The  archbishop  then  won  over  his  suffragans  to  accept  the  agreement 
or  convention  which  he  had  thus  concluded ;  and  instructions  were  issued 
accordingly  to  the  general  vicariates,  the  priests  belonging  to  which  had  to 
conform  to  the  instructions  received.     Then  the  papal  brief  was  published. 

His  successor,  Clement  Augustus,  discovered  that  the  two  documents  were 
at  variance  with  the  brief;  and  not  wishing  to  have  to  retract  his  errors  on  his 
death-bed,  as  had  been  the  case  with  Joseph  von  Hommer,  Bishop  of  Treves, 
he  at  once  showed  his  determination  to  observe  the  terms  of  the  brief.  Thus 
the  contest  opened.  The  steadfast,  undaunted  bishop  was,  by  order  of  the 
king,  Nov.  20,  1837,  carried  away  as  a  prisoner  to  the  fortress  of  Minden, 
under  the  pretext,  as  alleged  by  the  ministerial  decree,  that  he  was  connected 
with  two  revolutionary  parties.  This  act  of  violence  created  great  excitement. 
Gregory  XVI.,  undaunted,  and  anticipating  the  intention  of  the  Chevalier 
Bunsen  to  deceive  him,  held,  on  Dec.  10,  1837,  his  celebrated  allocution  "  Dum 
inter  acerbissimos  dolores,"  etc. 

Under  Frederic  William  IV.  matters  changed  for  the  better.  Clement 
August  was  acquitted  of  the  charges  against  him  by  a  royal  declaration  ;  and 
after  some  negotiations  between  the  Prussian  Government  and  the  Apostolic 
See,  he  received,  on  March  4,  1842,  a  coadjutor  in  the  person  of  the  manly 
and  prudent  bishoj?  of  Spire,  John  von  Geissel,  with  the  right  of  succession. 
The  new  coadjutornow  assumed  the  goveiniment  of  the  archdiocese  of  Cologne. 
Clement  August,  who  had  refused  the  dignity  of  cardinal,  died  at  Munster, 
Oct.  19,  1845. 

The  conflict  also  broke  out  at  last  in  the  eastern  provinces.  Martin  Dunin, 
Archbishop  of  Gnesen  and  Posen,  after  he  had  long  vainly  endeavored  to  come 
.to  an  agreement  with  the  Government,  finding  himself  compelled  to  choose 
between  the  commands  of  the  king  and  the  instructions  of  the  Pope,  published, 
on  Feb.  17,  1838,  a  stringent  pastoral  letter.  His  clergy  and  all  the  bishops 
(excepting  Leopold  von  Sedlnitzky,  Prince-bishop  of  Breslau,  who  died  in  187i, 
in  Berlin,  as  an  apostate)  made  common  cause  with  the  archbishop ;  he  was 
declared  deposed  at  the  Court  of  Posen  on  Feb.  23,  1839.  Dunin  was  sum- 
moned to  Berlin,  where  he  was  commanded  by  the  king  to  remain  as  a 
prisoner  for  six  months ;  but  this  order  he  disobeyed,  and  returned  to  his 
diocese :  on  this  he  was  arraigned  and  confined  in  the  fortress  of  Colberg. 
The  cathedral  chapter  then  ordered  the  archdiocese  to  be  put  into  ecclesias- 
tical mourning;  and  this  lasted  until  the  steadfast  pastor  was  restored  to  his 
flock,  which  happened  in  the  reign  of  King  Frederic  William  IV.,  on  June  29, 
1840. 


350  HISTORY  OF   THE   CATHOLIC   CHURCH. 

Thus  both  archbishops,  to  whom  tliirteen  American  bishops,  assembled  in 
provincial  council  at  Baltimore,  sent  an  expression  of  their  condolence  and 
veneration,*  came  out  triumphant  from  the  conflict. 

§  220.  The  Ecclesiastical  Provinces  of  the  Upper  Rhine. 

At  the  urgent  proposal  of  Austria  the  delegates  of  several  German 
States  ^  met  together  at  Frankfort  on  the  Main,  on  March  24, 1818,  to 
determine  the  basis  on  which  to  draw  up  an  agreement  between  the 
Government  and  the  Apostolic  See,  according  to  the  resolutions  of 
the  imperial  recess  of  Feb.  25,  1803.  The  result  of  this  conference 
was  the  Febronian-Josephinian  "  Outlines,"  which  were  arranged 
in  two  documents.  The  "  Organic  Statute  "  was  kept  concealed ; 
but  the  other  document  was,  on  March  23, 1819,  laid  before  Pius  VII., 
by  an  embassy,  as  a  "Declaration"  for  his  acceptance.  On  Aug.  10, 
1819,  Consalvi,  the  Cardinal  Secretary  of  State,  presented  to  the 
ambassadors  the  "Esposizioue  dei  sentimenti,"  etc.,  in  which  the 
Declaration  was  subjected  to  a  severe  criticism,  the  points  that  had 
been  omitted  in  that  document  were  emphasized,  and  the  necessary 
alterations  were  demanded.  The  envoys  answered,  on  September  3, 
in  an  official  document,  in  which,  having  modified  the  Declaration  in 
some  unessential  points,  they  affirmed  it  to  be  the  "  Magna  Charta 
libertatis  Ecclesiae  Catholicae  Romanae."  The  Holy  See  rejected 
the  Declaration  anew,  in  a  note  of  Consalvi's  of  September  25,  in 
which  the  anti-ecclesiastical  principles  are  thoroughly  pointed  out 
and  convincingly  refuted. 

In  order  to  provide  in  some  measure  for  the  religious  needs  of 
Catholics,  the  Pope  expressed  his  readiness  temporarily  to  circum- 
scribe the  diocese,  and  appoint  bishops  for  them ;  but  he  again 
expressly  rejected  the  principles  of  the  Declaration,  and  demanded 
further  negotiations  regarding  the  points  to  which  he  had  taken 
exceptions.  The  united  courts  accepted  the  temporary  provisional 
arrangement,  and  the  Frankfort  Commission  drew  \\\)  three  new 
documents  (between  March  20,  1820,  and  Jan.  21, 1821).  The  sketch 
of  organization  contained  the  necessary  notices  for  the  erection  of 

1  Collect.  Larens.  ill.  p.  74. 

2  Dr.  H.  Brilck,  The  Ei^clesiastical  Province  of  the  Upper  Rhine  from  its  Foundation 
to  the  Present  Time.  Mentz,  1868.  Longncr,  Additions  to  the  History  of  the  Prov- 
ince of  the  Upper  Rhine.  Tiib.  1863.  Besides  Baden,  Wiirteraberg,  Great  Hesse, 
Electorate  of  Hesse,  Nassau,  and  both  Hohenzollers,  other  States  had  joined  the  Union 
(Bund),  but  afterwards  separated  themselves  from  tliose  connected  with  it. 


PROVINCES   OF   THE   CPPER   RIIIXE.  331 

dioceses  ;  in  the  instrument  for  foundations  and  in  the  *'  Ecclesias- 
tical Pragniatia  "  all  the  articles  of  the  Declaration  which  had  been 
rejected  by  Koine  and  the  stipulations  of  the  Organic  Statute 
were  inserted.  The  Governments  presented  to  the  Holy  See  only 
the  first  defective  document ;  the  other  two  were  kept  concealed ; 
the  candidates  for  bishoprics  were  secretly  to  pledge  themselves  to 
these.  On  August  21,  Pius  VII.  issued  the  bull  "  Provida  solersque," 
for  the  erection  of  episcopal  sees;  but  by  a  note  of  Consalvi's  of 
August  20,  he  again  rejected  the  false  principles  of  the  Declaration. 
The  united  courts  declared,  on  December  27,  that  they  were  prepared 
to  negotiate  witli  the  Holy  See  concerning  the  points  which  were  as 
yet  undecided ;  but  on  Feb.  8,  1822,  they  concluded  a  treaty  Avhicli 
expressly  stipulated  the  obligation  of  all  future  bishops  and  canons 
to  abide  by  the  Ecclesiastical  Pragmatia,  after  which  they  desig- 
nated the  candidates  for  the  episcopal  sees. 

The  Pope  received  due  notice  of  all  these  transactions ;  he  there- 
fore rejected  the  designated  candidates,  and  to  the  papal  note  of 
June  13,  1823,  a  copy  of  the  Pragmatia  was  appended.  The 
negotiations  were  hereupon  broken  off.  Subsequent  negotiations, 
brought  about  by  the  mediation  of  Prince  jMetternich,  between 
Paden  and  the  Apostolic  See  led  to  the  so-called  Ultimatum 
which,  in  September,  1826,  was  accepted  by  all  the  princes  united. 
On  April  11,  1827,  Pope  Leo  XII.  issued  the  bull  "Ad  Dominici 
gregis  custodiam,"  giving  directions  regarding  the  candidates,  the 
appointment  of  bishops  and  canons,  the  exercise  of  episcojtal 
rights,  etc. 

In  the  mean  time  the  Prankfort  Commission  had  drawn  up  the 
so-called  Thirty -nine  Articles,  which,  after  the  appointments  to  the 
bishops'  sees  had  been  completed,  was  published  as  a  State  ordinance. 
It  was  but  a  new  form  of  the  Ecclesiastical  Pragmatia,  which  had  been 
officially  given  up  by  all  the  courts  in  unison  in  September,  1824. 
In  fact  it  again  set  aside  the  present  agreement  with  Eome,  and 
excited  great  indignation.  As  early  as  April  7,  Bai'on  von  Hornstein 
in  the  Chamber  of  'Wiirtemberg  demanded  its  abolition.  Unfortu- 
nately, the  episcopate  proved  weak.  The  aged  archbishop  Bernard 
Boll  of  Freiburg  contented  himself  with  a  protest,  while  the  other 
three  bishops  did  not  even  do  this.  Fulda  alone  tendered  effec- 
tual resistance.  Pius  VIII.,  in  his  brief  '•  Pervenerat  "  of  June 
'dO,  rejected  the  Thirty-nine  Articles,  and  censured  the  weakness 
di  the  bishops.  Gregory  XVI.,  in  a  In-ief  to  the  bishops  on  Oct.  4, 
1833,  also  protested  solemnly  against  the  said  ordinance,  and  pre- 


352  HISTORY  OF   THE   CATHOLIC   CHURCH. 

sented,  by  Cardinal  Bernetti,  Secretary  of  State,  a  note  of  protest  to 
the  united  courts  on  the  5th  of  October. 

How  little  the  bureaucracy  respected  the  rights  of  the  Church  is 
seen  from  the  fact  that  the  State  disposed  of  the  ecclesiastical  bene- 
fices, assumed  the  direction  of  theological  education,  and  granted 
such  scant  influence  to  the  bishops  in  the  appointment  of  professors 
of  theology,  that,  notwithstanding  the  urgent  remonstrances  of  Arch- 
bishop Boll  to  the  grand  duke  and  his  ministers,  men  of  doubt- 
ful character  were  placed  in  the  professors'  chairs;  among  these 
were  Reichlinn-]Meldegg  (+  1878),  who  afterwards  apostatized,  and 
Schreiber  (+ 1873),  who  taught  at  Freiburg.  On  the  other  hand, 
men  of  truly  ecclesiastical  sentiments  (as  Mack  and  Rilfel)  were 
dismissed  from  the  professorships ;  further,  the  freedom  of  epis- 
copal election  was  infringed  upon,  and  ordinances  were  issued  re- 
garding Church  property,  nay,  even  as  to  the  celebration  of  divine 
service;  the  exercise  of  episcopal  jurisdiction  was  restricted,  and 
laAvs  were  laid  down  on  matrimonial  relationships,  on  mixed  mar- 
riages, etc. 

]\ratters  were  worse  yet  in  Baden,  where  the  bureaucratic  admin- 
istration placed  every  obstacle  in  the  way  of  the  free  development 
of  the  Church,  and  assisted  all  the  anti-ecclesiastical  efforts.  It 
protected  the  association  conducted  by  the  priest  Dominic  Kuenzer 
in  Constance  against  Archbishop  Demeter ;  permitted,  in  despite  of 
the  protest  of  the  archbishops'  clergy,  the  introduction  of  profane 
music  by  Singers'  Societies  in  Catholic  churches,  and  thus  con- 
tributed not  a  little  to  the  decline  of  discipline,  which  manifested 
itself  in  a  fearful  manner  by  the  performance  of  German  Masses,  by 
asking  for  synods  with  lay  representatives,  by  the  stormy  move- 
ment against  celibacy,  by  the  unworthy  administration  of  the  sac- 
rament of  penance,  and  by  the  sacrilegious  treatment  of  the  Holy 
Eucharist.  The  consequences  of  this  false  position  of  a  godless 
bureaucratic  administration  showed  themselves  in  the  revolutionary 
year  of  1848. 

Although  the  bishops  felt  deeply  and  uttered  many  complaints 
of  the  condition  of  the  Church,  but  few  attempts  at  resistance 
were  made  by  the  ecclesiastical  authorities,  and  these  few  were  but 
weak ;  but  so  much  the  more  decided  was  the  part  taken  by  the 
noble  baron  Henry  of  Aiidlaw  in  favor  of  tlie  rights  of  the  Church. 

In  Wiirtemberg,  where  a  similar  state  of  affairs  prevailed  to  that 
in  Baden,  Bishop  Keller  of  Eottenburg,  on  Nov.  13,  1841,  brought 
forward  a  motion  in  the  Second  Chamber  "regarding  the  means 


ECCLESIASTICAL  AFFAIRS   IN  AUSTRIA.  353 

of  preserving  the  peace  of  the  Chiuvh."  The  motion  was,  how- 
ever, disregarded  here ;  but  in  the  Higher  Chamber  twenty-live 
votes  against  fourteen  supported  the  bishop's  proposition.  Yet 
the  subsequent  negotiations  between  himsLxi  and  the  Government 
led  to  no  result. 

When  the  illustrious  Peter  Joseph  Blum  was  raised  to  the  epis- 
copal see  of  Limburg,  in  1842,  the  contest  for  the  freedom  of  the 
Church  began  in  Nassau ;  and  in  Hesse  it  was  more  energetically 
pursued  by  Bishop  P.  Leopold  Kaiser  after  the  scandal  created  by 
Konge. 

§  221.    The  Condition  of  Ecclesiastical  Affairs  in  Austria  under 
Francis  II.  and  Ferdinand  I. 

Under  Leopold  II.  the  Josephist  State-Churchdom  maintained  the 
chief  authority,  notwithstanding  that  the  emperor,  moved  by  the 
bitter  experience  of  his  brother,  revoked  some  of  the  unecclesiastical 
ordinances  of  the  last  reign.  The  degrading  and  unsanctifying 
state  of  tutelage  to  which  the  State  power  had  reduced  the  Church 
continued  during  the  reign  of  Francis  IL,  and  became  more  and 
more  injurious  ;  the  pernicious  effects  of  it  showing  themselves  in 
the  decline  of  discipline  among  the  secular  and  regular  order  of 
clergy,  in  a  growing  contempt  for  the  clerical  state,  and  in  a  most 
lamentable  stagnation  in  the  held  of  religious  science. 

The  emperor,  it  is  true,  on  the  representations  of  the  bishops, 
issued  two  letters,  written  by  his  own  hand,  on  April  2,  1802, 
in  order  to  check  the  decline  of  discipline  among  the  clergy  ;  but 
he  was  so  little  acquainted  with  the  true  cause  of  the  evil  that  he 
attempted  to  correct  it  by  the  very  means  which  had  produced  it. 

The  first  autograph  letter  enjoined  that  gymnasia,  schools  of 
philosophy,  and  diocesan  seminaries  should  be  established,  to  which, 
if  required,  a  course  of  theology  might  be  added ;  but,  apart  from 
the  circumstance  that  the  emperor  prescribed  these  measures  without 
the  co-operation  of  the  spiritual  authority,  these  institutions  could 
not  flourish,  because  the  Josephist  programme  of  studies,  besides 
the  unspiritual  and  unecclesiastical  text-books  and  the  like,  were 
retained,  and  the  direction  of  the  studies  continued  to  be  under  the 
control  of  the  State. 

The  second  autograph  letter  which  authorized  religious  to  wear 
their  habits  and  observe  their  rules,  ''  in  so  far  as  they  had  not  been 
modified  by  the  imperial  decrees,"  and  which  forbade  all  intercourse 
VOL.  II.  23 


354  HISTORY  OF   THE   CATHOLIC   CHURCH. 

with  "  foreign  superiors,"  was  scarcely  adapted  to  restore  discipline 
and  order  in  the  cloister.^ 

Under  these  circumstances  it  could  be  of  little  use  that  in  1804  the 
supervision  of  the  public  schools  was  intrusted  to  ecclesiastics  as  to 
State  officials,  and  that  in  1808  the  bishops  were  granted  a  greater 
influence  on  the  higher  and  lower  institutions  of  learning;  neither 
could  the  introduction  of  Kechberger's  Canon  Law  in  1810,  instead  of 
Pehem's  Manual,  at  the  lectures  on  canonical  rights,  effect  a  change 
of  principle,  since  the  whole  was  based  on  the  fundamental  sophism 
of  the  validity  of  the  imperial  ordinances. 

The  theological  institution  erected  in  Vienna  in  1815  by  order  of 
the  Emperor  Francis,  through  the  priest  James  Frint,  subsequently 
Bishop  of  Polten  (1827),  was  organized  after  the  Josephist  pattern, 
and  the  supervision  of  bishops  withdrawn  from  it.  Yet  at  a  later 
date  ecclesiastical  principles  gained  prominence  in  this  institution, 
which  was  called  Frintaneum,  at  which  professors  and  rectors  of 
seminaries,  etc.,  received  their  training  and  education. 

Only  a  common,  united,  and  energetic  movement  of  the  Austrian 
episcopate  could  have  brought  about  a  salutary  crisis  in  this  state 
of  affairs ;  but  the  bishops  of  the  imperial  State,  though  personally 
men  deserving  of  respect,  were  far  from  uniting  to  achieve  this, 
either  because  from  their  former  position  as  referees  of  the  Govern- 
ment in  spiritual  matters  they  were  too  much  accustomed  to  regard 
the  Church  as  under  the  guardianship  of  the  State,  and  therefore 
failed  to  recognize  the  magnitude  of  the  evil,  or  because  in  their 
isolated  state  they  dared  not  venture  to  take  up  the  cudgels  against 
the  Josephist  bureaucrats. 

The  friendly  visit  paid  by  the  Emperor  Francis  in  1819  to  Pius 
VII.  was  not  followed,  as  it  had  been  hoped,  by  any  change  in  the 
existing  laws.  Meanwhile  the  eminent  writings  of  Catholic  celebri- 
ties had  found  circulation  in  Austria ;  and  in  Vienna  2:)rominent 
men,  like  Frederic  Schlegel,  Zachary  Werner,  and  others,  labored 
directly  and  indirectly  against  Josephism.  The  religious  move- 
ments in  other  countries  were  not  without  influence  for  Austrian 
Catholics.  The  imperial  court  did  not  remain  unaffected  by  these 
proceedings  from  without ;  it  granted  the  bishops  many  rights 
hitherto  withheld,  such  as  the  supervision  of  the  theological  lec- 
tures (1822)  and  the  censorship  of  theological  writings  (1824).  The 
disciplinary  power  of  the  ecclesiastical  superiors  was  much  enlarged, 

1  The  uncatholic  Canon  Law  of  Rechherger  was  removed  in  1833.  The  account  of 
the  German  literature  of  the  period  may  be  found  in  the  original  German  of  Brilck. 


ECCLESIASTICAL    AFFAIRS    LW   AUSTRIA.  355 

and  in  cases  of  matrimonial  difficulties  the  faithful  were  permitted 
to  have  recourse  to  the  Holy  See. 

The  admission  in  1816  of  the  Redemptorists  into  the  Imperial 
States  was  of  great  advantage  to  the  cultivation  of  the  scientific 
and  religious  life  ;  among  them  was  Clement  Maria  Hofbauer,  illus- 
trious for  his  merits.  The  Jesuits  also  came  in  1820  into  the 
empire,  where  they,  being  supported  by  the  aid  of  zealous  priests 
and  ,of  newly  founded  religious  sodalities,  awakened  the  genuine 
ecclesiastical  disposition  in  the  clergy  as  well  as  the  people,  to  the 
great  displeasure  of  the  Josephist  bureaucratics  and  Liberals,  who 
continually  complained  of  the  "ultramontanism  "  which  was  gaining 
ground  on  every  side.  The  united  efforts  of  well-disposed  clergymen 
at  length  succeeded  in  bringing  about  wholesome  changes  in  theolo- 
gical teaching  and  in  the  government  of  the  Church.  Yet  the  con- 
cluding of  a  concordat  with  the  Apostolic  See  proved  to  be  a  matter 
of  much  difficulty  ;  the  emperor,  deeply  afflicted  on  this  account, 
could  only  urgently  recommend  the  execution  of  this  wish  to  his 
successor,  through  Prince  Metternich. 

Under  Ferdinand  I.  no  essential  change  took  place  in  ecclesias- 
tical arrangements,  although  the  emperor,  like  his  father,  was  per- 
sonally pious  and  well  inclined  towards  the  Church.  Nevertheless, 
in  consequence  of  several  circumstances,  particularly  of  the  Con- 
flicts of  Cologne,  religion  received  a  new  impetus  in  Austria. 
The  Government  also  fulfilled  many  just  demands  of  the  Catho- 
lics, and  the  imperial  ordinances  of  July  5,  1843,  and  of  March  25, 
1844,  adjusted  the  contest  concerning  mixed  marriages;  but  it 
was  not  till  the  year  1848  that  a  freer  and  more  independent 
position  of  the  Church  within  the  Imperial  States  was  rendered 
possible. 

In  Hungary  the  Josephist  ordinances  had  not  caused  so  much 
confusion  as  m  other  countries  of  the  crown.  Alexander  Rudnay, 
Archbishop  of  Gran,  with  full  consent  of  the  emperor,  convoked  a 
national  council,  on  Sept.  8,  1822,  for  the  re-establishment  of  eccle- 
siastical discipline.  The  question  of  mixed  marriages  ^  occasioned 
no  little  controversy  even  here. 

1  Roskovdiiy,  De  matrimoiu^s  mixtis,  ii.  427  sqq. 


356  HISTORY  OF  THE   CATHOLIC   CHURCH. 


§  222.    The  Catholic  Church  in  the  States  of  the  German  Alliance 
since  the  Year  1848. 

During  the  first  half  of  our  century  the  weight  of  an  intolerant 
and  arbitrary  bureaucracy  pressed  on  the  Catholic  Church  in  Ger- 
many,^ which,  in  spite  of  solemn  guarantees,  made  almost  every  free 
and  independent  movement  denoting  life  impossible.  Some  few 
individuals  indeed  reclaimed  the  rights  withheld  from  the  Church, 
but  the  majority  both  of  the  clergy  and  of  the  laity  were  sunk  in 
lethargy.  It  was  the  Festival  of  the  Eeforniation,  1817,  which  by 
its  hateful  assaults  on  the  Catholic  Church  roused  an  opposition, 
which  first  manifested  itself  in  calling  forth  learned  replies  ^  and  in 
magazine  articles,  and  then  brought  about  a  wholesome  reaction, 
which  was  daily  increasing,  against  the  arbitrary  conduct  of  the 
Protestant  political  church  government. 

The  reawakening  of  the  Catholic  spirit,  notwithstanding  all  the 
efforts  used,  by  the  State  to  repress  it,  was  especially  shown  and 
furthered  by  the  Cologne  Troubles  (1837)  on  the  occasion  of  the 
pilgrimage  to  Treves,^  and  in  the  scandal  caused  by  Konge,^  which 
was  purposely  favored  by  the  Governments,  particularly  by  that  of 
Prussia. 

With  the  momentous  year  of  1848.  the  contest  against  the  equally 
false  and  injurious  system  of  State-churchdom  was  extended  much 
further.  Amid  the  storm  of  revolution,  at  the  instigation  of  Lennig,^ 
Dean  at  the  Cathedral  of  Mentz,  and  at  the  invitation  of  the  Arch- 
bishop of  Cologne,  John  of  Geissel,  the  German  bishops  assembled 
at  WUrzburg,  from  Oct.  22  to  Nov.  16,  1848,  in  order  to  devise  the 
means  of  reclaiming  the  people,  who  were  seized  with  the  mania  of 
revolution,  and  of  wringing  from  the  princes  of  the  nation  the 
freedom  and  independence  of  the  Catholic  Church  of  Germany, 
which  had  been  guaranteed  to  her  on  oath  and  which  had  been  so 
long  withheld. 

After  their  return  from  Wiirzburg,  the  bishops,  according  to  the 

1  The  relation  of  the  Church  to  each  separate  German  State  is  closely  and  synopti- 
cally  arranged  in  Vcriiig,  Manual  of  Catholic  and  Protestant  Canon  Law.  A  collec- 
tion of  the  most  important  literature  on  the  subject  is  given  in  Roskovdny 
Monumenta,  etc.,  torn,  xi.,  xii.  ;  Eom.  pontif.,  torn.  viii.  sqq. 

2  Rosbvdmj,  Rom.  pontif.  iv.  526  sqq. 

3  See  §  237. 

4  Ibid. 

^  Bracks  Adam  Francis  Lennig.     Mentz,  1870. 


THE   CATHOLIC   CHURCH  IN   GERMAXY.  357 

principles  they  had  there  adopted  in  common,  formulated,  each  one 
separately,  their  demands  in  special,  memorials  to  their  respective 
governments ;  while  the  newly  established  religious  societies  (Pius 
Society)  widely  promoted  the  ecclesiastical  dispositions  in  the 
circles  of  society,  especially  that  of  desiring  the  liberation  of  the 
Church  from  the  disgraceful  shackles  laid  upon  her  by  the  power  of 
the  State. 

The  special  demands  of  the  ecclesiastical  superiors  of  their  own 
rulers  consisted  of  the  fulfilment  of  the  stipulations  previously 
made  between  themselves  and  the  Holy  See  ;  namely,  the  right  of 
establishing  and  governing  educational  institutes,  of  directing  relig- 
ious instruction,  of  selecting  the  text-books  of  religion,  together 
with  the  right  of  training,  examining,  and  appointing  clerical  min- 
isters, of  forming  religious  associations,  and  of  founding  convents. 
They  also  required  the  independent  administration  of  Church  prop- 
erty, the  right  of  holding  Catholic  schools,  freedom  of  worship,  the 
abolition  of  the  "Placet,"  and  of  all  other  ordinances  impeding  the 
freedom  of  the  Church. 

This  reclamation  of  rights,  however,  called  forth  no  little  opposi- 
tion ;  the  conflict  it  aroused  between  ecclesiastical  authority  and  the 
power  of  the  State  was  violent,  and  is  hardly  yet  at  an  end. 

The  patent  of  the  Emperor  Francis  Joseph  I.,  of  March  4,  1849, 
guaranteed  to  Austria  the  freedom  and  independence  of  all  the, 
denominations  acknowledged  by  the  State.  In  1850  the  demands  ^ 
of  the  bishops  were  partially  complied  with,  through  the  imperial 
rescrijits,  and  on  Aug.  18,  1855,  a  concordat  '^  was  concluded  with 
Kome,  which  was  published  by  the  emperor  on  November  5.  In 
this  document  the  false  principles  of  Josephism  were  abandoned. 
The  concordat,  though  by  no  means  violating  the  rights  of  other 
denominations,  nor  conferring  an}-  extraordinary  privilege  on  the 
Catholic  Church,  raised  a  powerful  storm  of  opposition  on  the  part 
of  the  Josephist  States-churchmen,  which  was  more  particularly 
shown  in  the  journalism  of  the  unbelievers  and  Freemasons,  who 
attacked  it  with  relentless  fury.  Its  enemies  made  it  serve  to  stir 
up  the  m  >st  odious  agitations  against  the  Government  and  against 
the  Catholic  Church,  and  this  before  the  bishops  had  carried  out  a 
single  article  of  its  pi-ovisos.  The  defeat  of  the  imperial  army  in 
Italy  in- 1859.  and  the  unhappy  fate  of  Austria  in  1866  in  the  war 

1  Many  documents  respecting  these  and  the  subsequent  negotiations  are  printed  in 
Moy  and  Vering,  Archives  for  Catholic  Canon  Law. 

2  Nussi,  Conventiones,  p.  310  sqq. 


358  HISTORY   OF   THE   CATHOLIC   CHURCH. 

against  Prussia,  were  both  pressed  into  action,  and  made  an  excuse 
for  agitation  against  the  offensive  concordat.  The  dejected  emperor 
yielded  so  far  as  to  accept  a  liberal  ministry  ;  and  this  ministry 
sought,  by  oppressing  the  Church,  to  curry  favor  with  that  portion 
of  the  press  which  was  in  the  hands  of  Jews  and  Freemasons,  and 
to  ingratiate  themselves  with  what  went  by  the  name  of  "  Public 
Opinion."  The  enemies  of  the  Church  were  unceasing  in  their 
clamors  against  the  concordat ;  and  continued  their  agitation  until, 
after  several  violations  of  it  had  taken  place  in  spite  of  the  protests 
and  remonstrances  of  Pope,  bishops,^  and  clergy, — violations  by  laws  '^ 
on  May  25,  1863,  and  violations  by  ministerial  ordinances  ^  in  1869, — 
this  bone  of  contention,  the  concordat,  was  finally  annulled  by  the 
Government  on  July  30,  1870,  to  the  great  grief  of  all  good  Catho- 
lics and  amid  the  jubilation  of  the  liberal  and  aristocratic  enemies 
of  the  Church.  On  Jan.  21,  1874,  the  Government  laid  before  the 
House  of  Deputies  four  plans  of  Church  laws  which  had  been  framed 
according  to  the  Prussian  pattern,  and  by  which  again  the  evil  spirit 
of  Josephism  was  summoned  to  reappear. 

The  searching  criticisms  of  the  Austrian  bishops,  the  encouraging 
encyclical  of  Pius  IX.  to  them,  and  the  letter  penned  by  his  own 
hand  and  sent  by  the  Pope  to  Francis  Joseph  I.  did  not  prevent  the 
imperial  sanction  being  given  to  these  May -laws,  which  had  already 
in  a  more  stringent  form  passed  the  House  of  Deputies  and  the 
Upper  House  (of  Lords).  It  was  only  the  law  regarding  convents, 
which  was  intended  to  give  a  death-blow  to  religious  life,  that  did 
not  receive  the  sanction  of  the  emperor.  Even  yet  the  leaders  of 
the  radical  movement  were  not  satisfied ;  they  brought  in  a  series  of 
motions  which  were  intended  to  cut  asunder  the  last  threads  between 
Church  and  State. 

In  Hungary,  where  the  episcopate  had  not  been  quite  satisfied 
with  the  concessions  made  to  the  State  in  the  Concordat  of  1855, 
the  conflict  began  after  the  year  1866.  The  laws  of  1868,  the  re- 
introduction  of  the  ''  Placet  "  *  (1870)  and  other  ordinances,  called 

^  F.  L.  lUidigier,  Bishop  of  Linz  (+  la84),  was  condemned  to  imprisonment  for  his 
pastoral  letter  of  Sept.  7,  1863  ;  and  other  ecclesiastics  who  defended  the  rights  of 
the  Church  shared  the  same  fate. 

2  Archives  for  Catholic  Canon  Law,  xx.  157  sqq.  The  laws  referred  to  civil  mar- 
riage, to  the  relation  the  Church  bore  to  the  school,  and  to  the  mutual  relations  of  the 
citizens  of  all  religious  creeds  to  one  another. 

^  Archives  for  Catholic  Canon  Law,  xxii.  159. 

*  At  the  head  of  the  defenders  of  Church  rights  in  Hungary,  stands  the  Prince- 


THE    CATHOLIC    CHURCH   IN    GKRMA.W.  359 

forth  an  energetic  protest  of  the  bishops ;  while  tlie  Hungarian 
ministry  looked  kindly  on  the  Liberals,  without,  however,  being 
able  to  grant  all  their  demands.^ 

The  Prussian  Constitution  of  Dec.  5,  1848,  as  also  that  of  Jan. 
31.  1850,  guaranteed  the  freedom  and  independence  of  the  Catholic 
Church  ;  ^  there  the  bishops  carried  into  effect  the  canonical  precepts 
in  the  government  of  their  dioceses,  invited  religious  congregations 
and  orders,  etc.,  without  being  greatly  impeded  by  the  Government. 
Not  that  the  Church  was  as  yet  in  the  full  possession  of  all  her 
rights,  or  freed  from  all  oppression.  With  regard  to  school  affairs, 
Von  Ladenberg,  the  Minister  of  Worship,  did  not  fullil  the  just 
claims  of  Catholics,  nor  were  they  treated  on  equal  terms  in  refer- 
ence to  civil  rights.  Still,  on  the  whole,  the  affairs  of  the  Church 
were  tolerable  up  to  the  year  1870. 

After  the  defeat  of  Napoleon  III.,  however,  Prince  Bismarck  hoped 
that  through  the  aid  of  the  so-called  Liberals  and  of  the  "  Old 
Catholics,"  he  should  be  able  to  carry  out  the  old  Prussian  Church 
polity  ;  therefore,  without  having  received  any  provocation  on  the 
part  of  the  Catholics,  he  inaugurated  the  contest  against  the  Church 
which  goes  by  the  name  of  "  Cultur-kampf ;  ^  that  is,  the  war  of 
culture,  or  the  struggle  for  civilization  and  enlightenment. 

Dr.  Falk,  son  of  a  Protestant  preacher,  the  Minister  of  Worship,  was  a 
special  tool  in  Bismarck's  hands.  On  July  8,  1871,.  the  Catholic  department  in 
the  Ministry  of  Worship  was  abolished.  Then  followed,  by  the  unanimous 
vote  of  the  liberal  Protestants,  who  formed  the  majority  of  both  houses,  the 
changing  of  those  constitutional  paragraphs  which  were  fevorable  to  the  Church 
and  the  enactment  of  the  four  so-called  May-laws  (1873),  which  in  many 
respects  violate  the  natural  and  well-won  rights  of  the  Catholic  Church,*  and, 
being  contradictory  to  her  divinely  ordained  constitution,  strike  at  dogma  and 
aim  at  schism.^ 

Primate  Cardinal  John  Simor  of  Gran.  His  treatises  are  in  Roskovdinj,  Rom.  pon- 
tifex,  vii.  1128  sqq. 

1  Great  dangers  arise  in  Austria  from  pauslavism,  freemasonry,  and  the  Jewish 
press. 

-  Art.  12-19.  Art.  15  provides  tliat  the  members  of  the  Evangelical  and  of  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church,  as  well  as  those  of  other  religious  societies,  .shall  direct  and 
administer  their  own  affairs,  independently;  and  shall  remain  in  possession  and  en- 
joyment of  all  the  institutions,  foundations,  and  funds  set  ajiart  for  each  of  them 
separately  for  purposes  of  worship,  education,  and  charity. 

*  For  the  German  literature  of  the  period  and  details  of  events,  see  Briick's  His- 
tory, p.  818  sqq.     Majunke,  History  of  the  Culturkampf. 

*  See  Verrag,  Archives,  xxx.  123  sqq. 

^  In  the  law  on  disciplinary  power  it  is  decreed  (§1):  "Ecclesiastical  disciplinary 


360  HISTORY  OF   THE   CATHOLIC   CHURCE. 

The  autograph  letter  written  on  Aug.  7,  1873,  by  Pius  IX.  to  tlie  Emperor 
William,  was  auswered  ou  September  3,  by  the  latter  bringing  forward  serious 
complaints  against  the  bishops  and  Catholics,  whom  he  charged  with  resisting 
the  May-laws,  and  designated  as  rebels  and  enemies  of  the  empire.  The  papal 
encyclical  of  November  21  refutes  these  charges,  and  enumerates  the  griev- 
ances of  the  Catholics  caused  by  the  Prussian  Government.  This  gave  but  a 
new  impulse  to  the  C'ultur-kampf.^  On  May  20  and  21,  1874,  the  May-laws 
were  rendered  more  stringent.  On  April  22,  1875,  the  discontinuance  of  the  ob- 
ligatory payment  made  by  the  State  to  the  Catholic  Church  was  resolved  on. 
On  May  31  the  suppression  of  religious  orders  and  of  associati<ms  similar  to 
religious  orders  was  enacted.  The  laws  of  June  20,  1875,  and  of  June  7, 
1876,  encroach  upon  the  administration  and  use  of  Church  property.  The 
sch(jol-law  severs  the  school  from  the  Church.  The  State  even  claims  the 
direction  of  religious  instruction.  Heavy  fines,^  imprisonment,  exile,  and 
deposition  were  used  to  enforce  the  observance  of  these  laws  among  the 
clergy.  The  severity  of  the  laws  themselves  was  in  many  places  surpassed 
by  the  harshness  with  which  they  were  executed.  Even  the  administration 
of  the  sacraments  to  the  sick,  in  those  parishes  which  had  been  deprived  of 
their  pastors  in  consequence  of  their  resistance  to  the  May-laws,  was  pun- 
ished. At  the  present  time  far  more  than  one  thousand  parishes  are  thus 
orphaned.  The  faithful  are  without  divine  service,  and  without  the  eccle- 
siastical means  of  grace.  In  other  places  excommunicated  men,  who  are 
called  State  pastors,  are  appointed  by  the  Grovernment.  Such  of  the  clergy 
as  fall  away  to  the  sect  of  the  "'Old.  Catholics"  remain  in  the  enjoyment 
of  their  benefices.  To  the  "Old  Catholics"  the  joint  use  of  the  Catholic 
Church  is  granted.  The  Inshops'  houses,  in  which  the  young  students  aspir- 
ing to  future  priesthood  lived  in  common,  theological  institutions  of  learning, 
and  priests'  seminaries  are  forcibly  closed  by  order  of  the  Government.  Pro- 
fessors belonging  to  the  "Old  Catholics"  are  appointed  to  the  Catholico- 
theological  Faculty  at  Bonn. 

But  all  these  raeasures  could  not  debase  the  Catholic  Church  in 
Germany  into  becoming  a  politico-national  church  ;  neither  did  the 
circular  letter  issued  by  Bismarck,  May  14,  1872,  in  regard  to  the 
(then)  future  papal  election  have  any  practical  consequence.  On 
the  contrary,  the  conflict  gave  to  the  clerics  and  laity  alike  a  glorious 

power  can  only  be  exercised  by  German  ecclesiastical  authority  on  the  niiuisters  of  the 
Church."  (§  10. )  "Appeal  may  be  made  to  the  State  against  any  decision  of  ecclesias- 
tical authority  imposing  disciplinary  punishment."  A  royal  court  of  judicature  for 
ecclesiastical  affairs  is  to  be  erected  (§  32  sqij.).     Its  decision  excludes  appeal  (§  35). 

1  See  the  history  of  this  contest  in  the  works  of  Siegfried  and  Schultr. 

2  The  fines  which  were  imposed  on  bishops  and  priests  amounted  to  hundreds  of 
thousands.     Single  bishops  have  been  condemned  to  pay  fifty  thousand  marks  and 


THE   CATHOLIC  CHURCH   IN  GERMANY.  361 

opportunity  to  attest  their  fidelity  to  the  Church  and  their  readiness 
to  offer  up  sacrifices  in  her  belialf. 

Pius  IX.  died  in  1878,  and  was  succeeded  by  Leo  XIII.,  who,  like 
his  predecessor,  offered  peace.  The  Prussian  Government  also,  in 
view  of  the  fruitless  effects  of  its  acts,  showed  signs  of  returning 
to  a  better  disposition,  without  however  giving  up  its  false  system. 
Falk  received  his  dismissal :  he  was  succeeded  by  Puttkamer. 
After  some  fruitless  conferences  between  Bismarck  and  the  nuncio 
Masella  in  Kissingen  (1879),  some  negotiations  took  place  in  Vienna 
(1880),  the  principal  object  of  which  was  to  enact  the  so-called 
"  duty  of  report,"  which  means  imposing  on  bishops  the  duty  of 
making  known  to  State  authorities  the  names  of  candidates  to 
the  priesthood  for  their  approval  or  prohibition.  (Law  of  May  11, 
1873,  §  15.)  Leo  XIII.  was  not  altogether  averse  to  tolerate  this 
law  under  certain  conditions,  as  is  shown  by  his  letter  to  the 
Archbishop  of  Cologne  of  Feb.  24,  1880,  in  this  expression :  "  Xon 
hujus  concordiae  maturandae  causa  jmssiiros,  ut  Borussico  gubernio 
ante  canonicam  institutionem  nomina  exhibeantur  sacerdotum  illo- 
runi,  quos  Ordinarii  Dioecesium  ad  gerendani  auimarum  curam  in 
partem  suae  sollicitudinis  vocant."  But  the  conduct  of  the  Gov- 
ernment was  such  that  a  peaceable  understanding  on  this  point  was 
out  of  the  question.  A  slight  change  for  the  better  was  effected 
by  the  law  of  July  14,  1880.  Under  jMinister  Gossler  the  vacant 
episcopal  sees  were  filled,  the  law  was  abolished  by  which  the  State 
withheld  the  payment  of  the  clergy  ;  in  1883  the  exiled  Bishop  of 
Limburg,  and  in  1884  that  of  Munster,  returned  to  their  sees.  The 
diplomatic  relations  between  Prussia  and  the  Apostolic  See,  also, 
which  had  been  broken  off  in  1872,  were  in  1882  renewed.  As  for 
the  rest  the  Government  adhered  closely  to  the  ]\Iay-laws ;  and 
neither  the  correspondence  between  the  Pope  and  the  emperor, 
nor  the  interchange  of  notes  between  the  Cardinal  Secretary  of 
State  and  Von  Schlozer,  the  Prussian  ambassador,  nor  the  visit  of 
the  Crown  Prince  to  the  Vatican  in  1883,  effected  any  change  in 
their  Church  policy.  The  laws  of  May  31,  1882,  and  of  July  11, 
1883,  served,  however,  to  provide  for  the  most  urgent  needs  of  the 
souls  of  the  faithful.  Unhappily,  the  Government  still  denied  to 
the  students  of  the  Collegium  Germanicum  and  to  the  theologians 
trained  at  Innsbruck  dispensation  from  being  subjected  to  the 
official  State  examination.  It  also  made  difficulties  respecting 
the  abolition  of  the  law  of  Expatriation.  In  the  interest  of  Church 
and  State  the  long  cherished  desire  of  reconciliation  is  commencing 


362  HISTORY  OF   THE   CATHOLIC  CHURCH. 

to  be  realized  in  consequence  of  the  good  understanding  at  which  tlie 
Holy  See  and  the  Prussian  Government  are  finally  arriving  (1886). 

The  Bavarian  bishops  ^  assembled  in  Freising  from  Oct.  1  to  Oct. 
20,  1850,  in  their  memorial  to  King  Maximilian  II.,  desired  the 
abolition  of  such  ordinances  as  were  contrary  to  the  concordat  and 
one-sided  of  themselves.  The  royal  reply  to  this  on  March  30  and 
April  8,  1852,  contained  but  insignificant  concessions  ;  on  which 
account  the  bishops  saw  fit,  on  May  15, 1853,  to  make  new  represen- 
tations to  the  State  authorities.  The  ministerial  rescript  of  Oct.  9, 
1854,  granted  some  of  their  demands,  but  did  not  yield  in  the  most 
important  point, —  that  relating  to  the  theological  institutions  of 
learning.'^  During  the  whole  reign  of  Maximilian  II.  it  was  in  vain 
for  the  Bavarian  Episcopate  to  expect  the  recognition  of  the  rights 
and  independence  of  the  Catholic  Church.  Under  Louis  II.  (-1-1886) 
its  position  became  no  better.  The  Minister  of  Worship,  M,  Lutz, 
showed  his  disposition  to  the  Catholic  Church  by  the  ordinance  of 
Nov.  20,  1873,  in  which  the  concessions  made  in  1852  were  recalled. 
The  patriotic-Catholic  majority  in  the  Legislative  Assembly  (Land- 
tag) have  not  yet  succeeded  in  removing  the  obnoxious  minister 
from  office. 

The  bishops  of  the  ecclesiastical  provinces  of  the  Upper  Rhine  ^ 
had  already  presented  their  demands  separately  to  their  respective 
governments  in  1848.  But  as  these  were  not  heeded,  they,  in  March, 
1851,  addressed  their  first  united  memorial  to  the  governments  indi- 
vidually, desiring  the  rights  which  had  been  so  long  withheld.  It 
was  on  March  1,  1853,  that  they  first  received  an  answer,  which 
proved  to  be  very  unsatisfactory.  The  bishops  then,  on  June  18 
of  the  same  year,  sent  them  a  second  memorial,  detailing  the 
grounds  on  which  they  demanded  their  rights,  and  adding  that  in 
case  these  met  with  a  refusal  they  would  be  compelled  to  proceed 
to  action.  Such  was  in  fact  the  case,  as  the  Government  failed  to 
do  justice. 

The  conflict  began  in  the  Grand  Duchy  of  Baden.  The  aged  and 
venerable  archbishop  of  Freiburg,  Hermann  von  Vicari,  who,  in  1852, 

^  Hennci;  The  Catholic  Church  in  Bavaria.     Vering,  Archives,  vol.  viii. 

^  The  Archbishop  of  Munich,  Count  Charles  von  Reisach  (-f-  1869  as  cardinal),  and 
Dr.  Fr.  Windischman,  his  vicar-general,  drew  upon  themselves  the  displeasure  of  the 
court  by  their  pertinacity  in  the  Catholic  cause. 

3  Respecting  the  literature  and  sources  of  these  controversies,  see  Brilck,  Eccl. 
Provinces  of  Upper  Rhine,  pp.  294-521. 


THE   CATHOLIC   CHURCH  IN   GERMANY.  363 

had  already  incurred  the  ill-will  of  the  ministry,  b}-  refusing  (albeit 
respectfully)  to  have  a  solemn  mass  of  requiem  said  at  the  death  of 
the  G-rand  Duke  Leopold,  was  steadfast  in  maintaining  his  episcopal 
rights,  which  steadfastness  finall}-  led  to  the  arrest  of  the  archbishop 
on  May  22,  1854.  His  constancy  was  repeatedly  commended  by 
I'ope  Pius  IX.  The  conflict  also  broke  out  in  Limburg,  causing 
much  vexation  to  the  Bishop  Peter  Josej^h  Blum,  and  it  was  in  1861 
that  it  was  finally  adjusted  by  a  provisory  agreement.  The  Gov- 
ernment of  the  Grand  Duchy  of  Hesse  had,  in  1854,  concluded  a 
preliminary  convention  with  William  Emmanuel,  Baron  of  Ketteler, 
Bishop  of  Mentz,  by  which  the  evils  of  a  contest  between  Church 
and  State  were  diverted  from  the  country.  Christopher  Florentius 
Kott  (+  1874),  Bishop  of  Fulda,  was  enabled  the  more  easil}'  to 
come  to  terms  with  the  Government  of  the  Electorate  of  Hesse,  as 
he  was  already  in  the  undisturbed  possession  and  exercise  of  most 
of  the  rights  reclaimed  by  the  episcopal  memorial.  Wiirtemberg 
concluded  with  Rome  itself  a  convention  on  April  8,  1857,  which 
convention  contains  great  concessions  on  the  part  of  the  Pope. 
Baden  also  concluded  an  agreement  with  Rome  on  June  28,  1859, 
and  one  which  brings  strongly  to  light  the  placable  spirit  that 
animates  the  Church.^ 

Nevertheless,  the  attacks  on  both  conventions  began  in  che  Chambers  of 
Carlsrulie  and  Stuttgart  after  the  defeat  of  Austria  in  Italy  (1859).  The  gov- 
ernments yielded;  the  treaties  which  had  received  the  sanction  of  the  word  of 
the  princes,  solemnly  given,  were  torn  to  pieces,  and  a  new  law  concerning 
the  Church  was  proposed  to  the  States,  and  by  them  adopted.  After  this,  the 
contest  subsided  in  Wiirtemberg  under  Bishop  Lipp  (-{-  1869)  and  under  his 
successor,  Charles  von  Hefele,  wliile  it  l)roke  out  all  the  UK)re  vehemently  in 
Baden.  The  Cliurch  law  was  followed  by  a  series  of  school  hiws,  the  last  of 
which  series  is  the  introduction  of  obligatory  public  schools.  After  the  seces- 
sion of  Lamey,  Jolly  became  president  of  the  ministry  in  1866.  Under  him 
the  Government  and  the  Liberal  Chambers  vied  with  each  other  in  the  per- 
secution of  the  Churcli.  Tlic  unjust  interference  of  the  Government  in  the 
election  of  a  successor  to  Archliishop  Hermann  von  Vicari  (-|-  1868)  hindered 
the  filling  of  this  see  of  Freiburg.  Tlie  laws  on  the  public  care  of  the  poor, 
on  the  legal  rights  and  the  administration  of  the  foundations,  secularized  the 
Catholic  institutions.  The  law  of  April  2,  1872,  forbids  "religious"  to  hold 
missions  or  assist  in  the  care  of  souls.  The  new  Church-law  of  1874  surpasses 
in  severity  the  May-laws  of  Prussia.  On  Sept.  21,  1876,  Jolly  was  dismissed. 
By  the  law  of  March  5,   1880,  the  State  examination  of  candidates  for  the 

1  See  Nii-isi,  Coiiventiones,  p.  321  si|ii. 


364  HISTORY  OF   THE    CATHOLIC    CHURCH. 

priesthood,  which  had  been  enacted  in  1867  and  reaffirmed  in  1872,  was  set 
aside.  On  May  2,  1882,  the  archbishop's  see  was  again  filled.  The  hostili- 
ties which  the  Convention  of  Mentz-Dannstadt  in  1854  met  with  in  the  two 
Chambers  of  the  States  in  Darmstadt  finally  induced  the  Grand-ducal  Govern- 
ment to  bring  forward  a  new  law  for  the  Church,  which,  however,  was  not 
accepted  in  the  Upper  Chamber.  As,  however,  the  opponents  of  the  ministry 
used  the  convention  as  a  weapon  of  agitation  against  the  State  government, 
the  Bishop  of  Mentz  gave  it  up  on  Sept.  20,  1866. 

The  "  Culture-vvarfai'e "  (Cultur-kampf)  was  also  begun  in  the  Grand 
Duchy  of  Hesse  in  1872  under  Hofuiaun's  ministry;  the  first  fruit  of  it  was 
the  School  Law  of  1874,  by  whicli  the  rights  and  jjroperty  of  Catholics  are 
greatly  interfered  with,  and  religious  schools  more  and  more  destroyed.  On 
A[)ril  23,  1875,  the  five  new  Church-laws  received  the  signature  of  the  grand 
(liike.^  After  the  death  oi  Bishop  von  Ketteler  in  1877,  the  episcopal  see  of 
Montz  remained  vacant  until  1886,  when  Dr.  Paul  Hatfner,  with  the  consent 
of  the  government,  was  elected  bishop.  The  annexation  of  Nassau  and  Electo- 
ral Hesse  to  Prussia  also  involved  the  dioceses  of  Limburg  and  Fulda  in  this 
Ixmeful  contest. 

The  ecclesiastical  affairs  of  the  remaining  States  of  the  German 
Alliance  underwent  no  change  fi-om  the  revolutionary  year  1848. 
In  Mecklenburg  and  Holstein  the  Catholics  are  treated  almost  as 
Helots ;  those  of  Saxony  have  much  to  suffer  from  the  Protestant 
intolerance  of  the  Government,  although  the  royal  family  is  Catho- 
lic. Hanover,  by  the  endowment  of  the  bishopric  of  Osnabriick, 
made  a  pleasant  exception;  and  yet  both  here  and  in  Hildesheim 
the  (Cultur-kampf)  contest  broke  out  in  consequence  of  the  annex- 
ation to  Prussia  in  1866. 

After  the  termination  of  the  French  war  (1870),  the  German 
Alliance,  which  had  been  already  dissolved  in  1866,  was  replaced  by 
the  German  Empire.  Prussian  preponderance  soon  manifested  it- 
self in  a  manner  hostile  to  the  Church.  The  majority  of  the  diet, 
led  by  the  Imperial  Chancellor  Prince  Bismarck,  accepted  the  para- 
graph respecting  the  pulpit,  called  the  "  pulpit  paragraph."  ^  They 
decreed  the  expulsion  of  the  Jesuits,  and  of  the  congregations  that 
were  affiliated  to  them,  aided  the  Cultur-kampf  by  banishing  the 
Catholic  clergy,  forced  the  candidates  of  theology  and  even  priests 
to  take  military  service,  and  enacted  that  civil  marriage  was  hence- 
forth obligatory.  The  conflict  was  also  transplanted  to  the  conquered 
provinces  of  Alsace  and  Lorraine. 

1  Very  recently  the  Hessian  Government  has  consented  to  enter  into  negotiations 
with  the  Holy  See. 

2  This  "  pulpit  paragraph  "  is  in  a  bill  brought  in  and  passed,  which  gave  the  State 
authorities  the  riglit  to  watch  over  what  is  said  in  the  pulpit. 


rilE  llESTORAriON.  365 

The  bishops  of  Germany  repeatedly  assembled  together  at  the 
tomb  of  St.  Boniface  in  Fulda,  in  order  to  take  counsel  together 
as  to  how  to  avert  the  threatened  dangers  to  the  Church.  The 
well-founded  representations  and  protests  addressed  to  their  respec- 
tive governments  were  fruitless,  although  the  ruin  to  morality  and 
to  social  order  caused  by  this  conflict  is  undeniable,  and  is  not  even 
denied  by  the  statesmen  who  promulgate  the  laws. 

§  223.    The  Restoratioyi.  —  France  under  the  Bourbons.  —  Louis 
Philippe.  —  Emperor  Napoleon  III.  — The  Republic. 

After  the  fall  of  Napoleon  the  throne  of  France  came  again 
into  the  possession  of  the  Bourbons,  whose  position  was  rendered 
very  difficult  by  the  numerous  political  and  religious  parties  of  the 
country.  Louis  XVIII.  (1814-1824)  i)roclaimed  the  Catholic  religion 
to  be  the  religion  of  the  State,  without  prejudice,  however,  to  the 
rights  of  those  of  another  creed.  He  recognized  some  religious 
communities  legally,  and  had  the  abbey  of  St.  Denis  rebuilt  and 
endowed.  In  order  to  improve  the  financial  condition  of  the  clergy, 
the  Chambers,  on  the  motion  of  Chateaubriand,  permitted  the  Church 
to  accept  presents  and  legacies  of  real  estate,  and  the  king  contrib- 
uted, in  April,  1817,  the  sum  of  3,900,000  francs  to  the  same  purpose. 
The  dissensions  which  had  been  occasioned  by  the  late  concordat 
caused  the  court  to  send  in  the  first  place  M.  de  Persigny  and 
afterward  Count  Blacas  to  negotiate  concerning  a  new  concordat 
with  the  Holy  See.  This  was  happily  completed  on  June  11,  1817 ; 
and  the  concordat  was  a  renewal  of  the  one  formerly  agreed  upon 
between  Leo  X.  and  Francis  I. 

The  opposition  of  the  clergy  to  the  charter  gave  way  before  the 
royal  explanation  that  the  oath  referred  merely  to  civic  obligations. 
Those  bishops,  also,  of  the  olden  sees  who  had  hitherto  refused  to 
resign  their  bishoprics  now  yielded  to  the  demand  of  the  Pope.  Yet 
the  carrying  out  of  the  concordat  was  wrecked  by  the  opposition  of 
the  Chambers.  It  was  not  till  the  year  1822  that  a  provisional 
treaty  was  concluded  between  the  king  and  the  Pope.  Tliis  treaty 
fixed  the  number  of  archbishops  at  fourteen,  and  of  bishops  at 
sixty-six. 

Although  Louis  XVIII.  manifested  no  very  ardent  zeal  for  the 
welfare  of  the  Church,  and  though  the  revolutionary  and  unchristian 
ideas  had  many  representatives  and  defenders  in  France,  yet  relig- 
ious life  continued  to  grow  stronger  and  stronger.   Numerous  sodali- 


366  HISTORY  OF   THE   CATHOLIC   CHURCH. 

ties  labored  for  the  spread  of  the  faith,  and  the  cherishing  of  a 
genuine  Christian  disposition.  The  instruction  of  youth  was  again 
committed  to  the  charge  of  the  Brothers  of  the  Christian  Schools 
and  to  the  Ursulines.  Prominent  and  illustrious  learned  men  like 
Comte  de  Maistre  (+1821),  Bonald  (+  1840),  Erayssinous  (+  1841), 
the  renowned  pulpit  orator  Boulogne  (+  1825),  and  others,  composed 
brilliant  apologies  for  the  Church  and  her  arrangements. 

Charles  X.  (1824-1830)  was  animated  with  a  very  different  spirit 
for  the  Church  from  that  of  his  brother ;  but  he  met  with  far  greater 
opposition  from  the  so-called  Liberals,  whose  object  it  was  to  upset 
the  Bourbons.  This  had  already  been  shown  when  the  endeavor 
was  made  to  pass  the  law  on  Sacrilege  (1825),  and  still  more  at  the 
proposed  new  law  of  the  Press  (1826),  which  was  intended  to 
restrain  the  revolutionary  and  anti-religious  press.  The  enemies  of 
the  throne  disseminated  more  eagerly  than  ever  the  writings  of 
Voltaire  and  others.  JMontlosier  excited  a  violent  storm  against  the 
Jesuits,  who  conducted  several  small  seminaries  and  colleges.  The 
revolutionary  excitement  was  daily  on  the  increase.  Louis  Philippe 
of  Orleans,  the  aged  Lafayette,  and  others  stirred  up  the  fire.  To 
satisfy  the  malcontents,  among  whom  was  Chateaubriand,  the  king 
dismissed  the  ministry  of  Villele,  and  accepted  that  of  Martignac, 
which  was  forced  upon  him.  On  June  16,  1828,  the  Jesuit  schools 
were  surrendered  as  an  offering  to  the  Opposition.  But  greater 
sacrifices  yet  were  demanded ;  and  these  Charles  X.  absolutely  re- 
fused to  grant,  on  which  account  he,  on  August  8,  dismissed  the 
"  Ministry  of  Concessions."  In  its  place  came  Polignac,  with  what 
has  been  termed  the  "  Impossible  Ministry."  Against  this  the 
Liberal  party,  supported  by  the  revolutionary  press,  began  a  war- 
fare which  also  found  its  way  into  the  Chamber  of  Deputies.  All 
attempts  at  reconciliation  failed.  The  dissolution  of  the  Chambers, 
on  INIay  16,  1830,  only  strengthened  the  Opposition,  of  which  the 
Orleanists  were  the  leading  spirits.  The  success  of  the  French  arms 
in  Algiers  from  June  14  to  July  6  had  no  effect  in  restoring  the 
good  understanding  between  the  king  and  the  Opposition.  The 
Ordinances  of  July  26,  1830,  brought  the  revolution  to  an  outbreak. 
Charles  was  driven  from  the  throne,  and  Louis  Philippe  of  Orleans 
was  called  upon  to  fill  it  as  "  King  of  the  French." 

The  July  Ee volution  had  an  anti-ecclesiastical  character,  which 
showed  itself  in  the  very  first  years  of  the  reign  of  the  ''citizen 
king."  The  Catholic  religion  was  no  longer  designated  as  the  religion 
of  the  State  in  the  new  charter,  and  the  church  of  St.  Genevieve  was 


FRANCE    UNUElt    THE   BOURBONS.  367 

again  transfoniied  into  a  Tantlieon,  as  it  had  been  under  the  Eevo- 
lution.  Under  the  Bourbons  it  had  been  again  given  back  to  the 
worship  of  God.  Now  the  Government  allowed  the  atrocities  com- 
mitted in  the  church  of  St.  Germain  I'Auxerrois  (Feb.  14,  1831)  and 
the  pillage  and  destruction  of  the  archbishop's  palace  by  the  popu- 
lace to  pass  without  notice.  The  first  nominations  to  bishoprics  did 
not  obtain  the  consent  of  the  Apostolic  See,  but  by  degrees  the 
relation  between  the  court  and  the  Church  assumed  a  more  friondly 
character.  The  atheistic-communistic  sect  of  the  Saint-Simonians, 
which  again  rose  to  the  surface  in  1830,  and  the  "  French  Catholic 
Church "  established  by  the  Abbe  Chatel  were  of  brief  existence ; 
yet  these  and  other  such  appearances  had  no  little  influence  in 
causing  the  Government  to  draw  nearer  to  the  Church. 

As  defenders  of  the  Catholic  religion  against  the  oppressions  of 
the  Government  and  the  attacks  of  modern  unbelief,  the  Abbe  de 
Larnennais,  Gerbet,  Lacordaire,  and  Count  Montalembert  came  for- 
ward and  founded  the  periodical  called  "  L'Avenir  "  (The  Future), 
October,  1830.  The  erring  principles  on  which  it  rested,  especially 
the  recommendation  of  severing  the  Church  from  the  State  and  the 
like,  called  forth  vehement  resistance,  and  caused  the  interference  of 
Pope  Gregory  XVI.  The  editors  submitted  in  1832,  and  the  peri- 
odical was  discontinued.  De  Lamennais  himself,  whose  errors  were 
censured  by  the  Pope,  signed,  after  considerable  resistance,  the  act 
of  submission  laid  before  him  on  Dec.  11,  1833 ;  yet  in  1834  he 
published  his  political  and  religious-radical  work,  "Paroles  d'un 
Croyant  "  (Words  of  a  Believer),  by  which  he  severed  himself  from 
the  Church  without  ever  again  becoming  reconciled  to  it  (+  1854). 

Genuine  ecclesiastical  principles  began  to  prevail  more  among  the 
clergy ;  Galilean  and  Jansenist  views  found  only  few  to  defend 
them.  The  attempt  on  the  part  of  the  Government  to  restore 
Gallicanism  to  its  pristine  shape  in  the  seminaries  by  the  intro- 
duction of  the  French  Canon  Law  by  the  General  Proctor  Dupin 
was  frustrated  by  the  firmness  of  the  bishops,  particularly  by  that 
of  Cardinal  Bonald,  Archbishop  of  Lyons.  A  transient  excitement 
was  caused  by  the  disputes  concerning  the  place  of  the  Succursal 
priests,  or  Desservants. 

The  contention  respecting  the  freedom  of  instruction  was  carried 
on  with  great  bitterness.  The  opposition  to  the  monopoly  of  in- 
struction assumed  by  the  State,  particularly  that  of  the  infidel 
University  of  Paris,  under  which  all  the  schools  were  placed,  arose 
from  the  Catholic  laity.     The  episcopate  now  joined  them.      The 


368  HISTORY   OF   THE   CATHOLIC   CHURCH. 

Law  of  Instruction  laid  before  the  Chambers  in  1844  called  forth  a 
violent  opposition  from  the  Catholic  side,  especially  from  the  bishops, 
who  were  by  no  means  dismayed  at  the  threats  of  the  Minister  of 
Worship,  Martin.  At  the  debate  in  the  Chamber  of  the  Peers, 
Montalembert  distinguished  himself  by  his  brilliant  eloquence,  in 
spite  of  which  the  Peers,  on  May  24,  passed  the  proposition  of 
Government  by  eighty-five  against  fifty-one  votes.  On  June  4  the 
Law  of  Instruction  was  brought  before  the  Second  Chamber.  The 
reporter  was  the  unreliable  and  Church-hating  Thiers.  In  order  to 
gain  the  favor  of  the  Liberals,  the  Government  caused  five  novitiates 
of  the  Jesuits  to  be  closed ;  but  these  Liberals  required  the  further 
suppression  of  all  religious  orders,  against  which,  on  May  2,  1845, 
Thiers  pronounced  his  philippics.  On  June  12  Montalembert  under- 
took their  defence.  The  French  bishops  also  took  the  part  of  the 
religious  orders.  The  Government  entered  into  negotiations  with 
Eome  for  the  removal  of  the  Jesuits  from  France.  The  Pope  did 
not  accede  to  this  desire  ;  but  on  the  other  hand,  the  general  of  the 
order  dissolved  the  colleges,  the  novitiates,  etc.,  and  commanded  the 
members  to  live  in  France  as  secular  clergymen. 

The  religious  orders  exercised  a  great  influence  on  the  eccle- 
siastical life  in  France,  and  even  the  Government  acknowledged 
the  beneficial  effects  of  their  labors.  Learned  and  spiritual  men 
from  the  clerical  body,  as  also  from  the  ranks  of  the  laity,  came 
forward  as  accomplished  and  skilful  apologists  for  the  Church,  in 
refutation  of  the  revolutionary  and  infidel  press.  The  French  epis- 
copate especially  distinguished  itself  by  its  religious  fidelity  and 
zeal  towards  the  Apostolic  See. 

The  throne  of  July  was  overturned  by  the  Revolution  of  1848 ; 
and  Louis  Napoleon,  first  as  president  of  the  republic,  then  after 
the  coiqj-d' etat  of  Dec.  2,  1852,  as  emperor,  was  placed  at  the  head 
of  France.  Between  him  and  the  Church  there  existed  at  first  a 
good  understanding.  The  law  of  March  15,  1850,  proclaimed  free- 
dom of  instruction ;  another  increased  the  incomes  of  the  clergy 
from  the  State  funds.  The  religious  orders  and  confraternities  re- 
joiced in  special  favor  from  the  side  of  the  Government.  Bishops 
enjoyed  a  greater  freedom  in  the  governing  of  their  dioceses,  more 
especially  in  being  able  to  convoke  synods,  etc.  The  foundation 
and  endowment  of  new  bishoprics  and  other  ecclesiastical  institutions 
gave  a  good  impression  of  the  benevolent  intentions  of  the  French 
Emperor  towards  the  Church,  although  he  did  not  cancel  the  Organic 
Articles  of  1802  or  other  laws  impeding  the  liberty  of  the  Church. 


THE  REPUBLIC.  369 

After  the  attempt  of  Orsini  to  assassinate  the  emperor  on  Jan. 
14,  1858,  a  change  took  place  in  ecclesiastical  relations.  The  war 
against  Austria  in  1859,  the  conduct  of  the  Parisian  Cabinet  when 
the  Pope  was  robbed  of  some  of  his  possessions  by  King  Victor 
Emmanuel,  the  September  Convention  of  1864,  as  well  as  the  re- 
sistance offered  by  the  Government  to  the  papal  encyclical  and  the 
syllabus,  the  suppression  of  the  St.  Vincent's  Societies,  and  the  new 
nominations  for  bishoprics,  sufficiently  disclosed  the  alteration  that 
had  taken  place  in  the  emperor's  mind,  though  the  real  motives 
that  led  to  it  are  rather  matters  of  supposition  than  such  as  may  be 
given  with  any  certainty. 

When  in  1867  the  emperor  sent  a  corps  of  military  to  the  Pope 
to  assist  him  against  the  Garibaldians,  he  was  principally  induced 
so  to  do  by  the  disposition  of  the  French  people,  which  found  ex- 
pression in  the  Chambers.  The  position  taken  by  the  French  Court 
in  regard  to  the  Council  of  the  Vatican  gave  the  Catholics  just 
ground  of  complaint;  and  the  bad  example  it  gave  in  reference  to 
morals  tended  to  promote  the  prevailing  frivolity  and  licentiousness. 
After  the  unfortunate  war  with  Prussia  in  1870,  Napoleon  III. 
(+  1873)  was  hurled  from  his  throne,  and  again  the  republic  was 
proclaimed.^  Since  the  year  1879  the  hostile  party  of  Freemasons 
have  been  endeavoring  to  carry  out  the  plans  of  the  Jacobins  of 
1790,  such  as  the  law  concerning  the  higher  instruction,  enmity  to 
Catholic  universities,  sending  away  the  religious  orders  from  the 
public  schools  and  from  tlie  hospitals  for  the  sick,  closing  the 
Jesuits'  schools,  lowering  the  salaries  in  the  worship-budget,  mak- 
ing attendance  obligatory  at  school  instruction,  with  suppression 
of  religious  instruction,  the  introduction  of  irreligious  school-books, 
enlisting  the  clergy  in  the  military  ranks,  renewal  of  divorce  laws, 
and  the  like  ;  these  sufficiently  attest  the  spirit  that  animates  the 
rulers.'^ 

1  Thiers  (+  1877)  was  the  first  president  after  Louis  Napoleon's  fall;  and  in  May, 
1873,  MacJIahon  became  president  of  the  republic.  The  domination  of  the  Com- 
mune in  Paris  (1871),  to  which  Ai'chhishop  Darboy  and  several  secular  and  religious 
clergymen  fell  victims,  was  suppressed  by  an  armed  force.  The  recognition  of  the 
legitimate  king,  the  Comte  de  Chambord,  Henry  V.  (-\-  1883),  was  frustrated  by  the 
equivocal  conduct  of  the  Orleanists.  After  MacMahon's  resignation  in  1879,  Grevy 
became  president.  Gambetta  (+  1882),  Ferry,  Bert,  and  others  were  among  the  chief 
enemies  of  the  Church. 

2  See  Vering's  Archives  for  Ecclesiastical  Records,  vols,  xliv.,  xlvii.,  and  xlix. 

VOL.  ri.  24 


370  HISTORY   OF   THE   CATHOLIC   CHURCH. 


§  224.    The  Catholic  Church  in  Spain  and  Portugal. 

The  Galilean,  Jausenist,  and  philosophical  prineiples  imported 
into  Spain  after  the  accession  of  the  Bourbons  of  France  to  the 
throne  of  this  kingdom,  received  an  ever-widening  circulation 
through  the  activity  of  the  Freemasons.^  Under  Charles  III.  and 
still  more  under  Charles  IV.,  in  whose  name  ruled  Godoy,  an  un- 
believing and  immoral  man  who  had  won  the  favor  of  the  queen, 
these  ideas  had  already  penetrated  into  the  social,  political,  and  reli- 
gious life  of  the  nation.  Even  a  portion  of  the  higher  clergy,  nay,  the 
Inquisition  itself,  was  not  always  free  from  these  pernicious,  these 
false  principles.  The  Government  sustained  the  efforts  made, 
usurped  the  rights  of  the  Church,  and  seized  on  its  possessions ;  it 
banished  those  bishops  who  were  faithful  to  their  trust,  and  under 
the  minister  Urquijo  (1798)  it  even  entertained  the  project  of  taking 
into  its  own  hands  the  supreme  guidance  of  the  Spanish  Church. 

After  the  enforced  abdication  of  Charles  IV.  in  Bayonne  (1808), 
the  Church  in  Spain  suffered  even  greater  oppressions  under  Joseph 
Bonaparte,  who  had  been  placed  on  the  throne  by  his  brother  the 
Emperor  Napoleon  I.  The  measures  taken  by  this  vassal  of  France 
met  with  no  sympathy  in  the  land  over  which  he  came  to  rule.  Dis- 
content increased,  as  these  measures  proved  to  be  inimical  to  the 
Church.  Catholic  Spaniards  flew  to  arms  in  defence  of  their  religion 
and  their  freedom  ;  and  after  many  heroic  straggles,  they,  Avith  the 
help  of  England,  drove  the  French  intruders  from  their  soil  in  1813, 
and  in  1814  raised  Ferdinand  VII.  to  the  throne  of  his  ancestors. 

On  May  4  the  king  annulled  the  constitution  introduced  in  1812 
by  the  liberal  Cortes  of  Cadiz,  and  restored  ecclesiastical  institu- 
tions and  the  Inquisition  to  the  state  in  which  they  were  before 
Joseph  Bonaparte  interfered  with  them.  On  May  29,  1815,  he 
permitted  the  Jesuits  to  settle  in  Spain;  but  wanting  strength 
of  character  and  true  piety,  he  soon  fell  under  the  influence  of 
self-seeking  and  unbelieving  chamberlains,  and  then  he  violated 
anew  the  rights  of  the  Church,  and  sought  to  re-establish  the 
despotism  of  the  olden  time.  The  many  discontents  that  now 
prevailed  were  made  use  of  by  the  Liberals  to  further  their  revolu- 
tionary plans  ;  and  after  marny  fruitless  conspiracies,  a  new  mili- 
tary  revolution  in   1820   brought  back   the  Constitution  of   1812, 

1  See  Briick,  The  Secret  Societies  in  Spain,  etc.     Mentz,  1881. 


CATHOLIC  CHURCH  IN  SPAIN  AND  POllTUUAL.      371 

and  replaced  tlie   ruling  power  in   the  hands  of  the  Liberal-Free- 
masonic  party. 

The  persecutions  of  the  Church  were  now  renewed.  The  Liberal 
Government,  in  unison  with  the  majority  of  the  Cortes,  abolished  the 
Inquisition,  prescribed  the  oath  to  the  constitution  for  the  clergj^,  drove 
away  the  Jesuits,  suppressed  the  cloisters,  did  aAvay  with  the  tithes, 
confiscated  the  property  of  the  Church  and  squandered  it  in  great 
haste,  forbade  that  any  money  should  be  sent  to  Rome,  and  inter- 
dicted all  intercourse  with  the  Holy  See ;  they  commanded  the 
bishops-elect,  who  had  not  yet  been  confirmed  by  the  Pope,  to  rule 
their  sees  as  "  gobernadores  "  (governors),  and  in  the  "  Arreglo  del 
Clero  "  (Rule  for  the  Clergy)  renewed  the  French  civil  Constitution 
of  1790. 

The  refusal  of  the  Apostolic  See  to  receive  the  Jansenist  and 
Gallican  L.  of  Villanueva  as  ambassador  occasioned  the  insulting 
dismissal  of  the  papal  nuncio  Giustiniani,  Archbishop  of  Tyre,  on 
May  22,  1823.  Those  of  the  clergy  who  would  not  accept  the  con- 
stitution were  punished  with  imprisonment,  banishment,  and  death. 
Yet  but  few  of  them  took  the  oath  imposed  on  them.  To  these 
few,  however,  belonged  Cardinal  de  Bourbon,  Archbishop  of  Toledo 
(+  1823),  who  always  sided  with  the  strongest  party.  The  combat 
against  the  Church  becaane  more  and  more  bitter. 

In  1823  the  marching  in  of  a  French  army  restored  tranquillity. 
The  vainglorious,  swaggering  Cortes  sought  refuge  in  flight.  Fer- 
dinand VII.  revoked  the  decrees  hostile  to  the  Church  which  had 
been  extorted  from  him.  The  displeasure  which  the  court  ex- 
perienced on  account  of  the  filling  up  of  the  bishoprics  of  South 
America  by  the  Pope  was  but  slight  and  transient ;  it  scarcely 
disturbed  the  good  understanding  between  Rome  and  Madrid. 
Secular  priests  and  religious  were  now  all  seeking  to  heal  the 
wounds  which  the  revolution  had  inflicted  alike  on  the  bodily  and 
spiritual  welfare  of  the  kingdom. 

The  alteration  made  in  the  right  line  of  succession  by  Ferdinand 
plunged  Spain  anew  into  confusion.  The  provinces  of  the  Basques 
and  of  Aragon  rose,  after  the  death  of  the  king  in  1833,  in  favor  of 
the  rightful  heir,  Don  Carlos  (V.).  The  Conservatives  were  for 
him,  while  the  royal  widowed  Queen  Christina,  with  the  help  of  the 
Liberals,  wanted  her  three-year  old  daughter  Isabella  acknowledged 
as  queen.  A  series  of  new  sufferings  now  began  for  the  Church, 
whose  supreme  head  did  not  acknowledge  Isabella  during  the  civil 
war,  and  by  whom  the  bishops  nominated  by  her  government  were 


372  HISTORY  OF  THE   CATHOLIC   CHURCH. 

not  confirmed.  At  as  early  a  date  as  1834  a  Junta  was  formed, 
consisting  of  prelates  and  the  laity,  to  consult  concerning  the  new 
ecclesiastical  division  of  Spain  and  concerning  the  endowments  of 
the  clergy.  In  the  year  following  began  the  storming  of  monas- 
teries, which  ended  by  the  suppression  of  the  orders  of  monks  and 
knights,  and  of  the  greater  part  of  the  nuns'  cloisters,  with  confis- 
cation of  their  property  by  the  minister  Mendizabal.  In  1837  the 
confiscation  of  Church  property  by  the  Cortes  followed.  These  also 
undertook,  by  means  of  a  Jansenistic-liberal  clerical  commission,  to 
edit  a  new  civil  constitution  for  the  clergy ;  but  this,  though  pro- 
posed and  accepted,  was  never  carried  into  effect. 

Pope  Gregory  XVI.  in  his  first  allocution  (1836)  protested  against 
these  oppressions  of  the  Church.  The  Government  then  appeared  to 
amend  somewhat.  Villalba  was  sent  to  Rome,  in  order  to  conclude 
an  agreement  with  the  Holy  See.  But  soon  after  the  September 
Revolution  in  1840,  a  new  Church  persecution  began  under  the 
"  regent  "  Espartero  of  which  the  minister  Alonzo  was  the  moving 
spirit.  On  March  1,  1841,  Gregory  XVI.  held  his  second  allocution 
on  the  persecutions  of  the  Church  in  Spain.  The  ministry  declared 
it  to  be  an  outrageous  attack  on  the  highest  authority  in  the  nation, 
forbade  its  dissemination,  and  also  forbade  papal  writings  and  papers 
from  being  taken  by  the  people  ;  it  revenged  itself  by  confiscating 
what  there  was  left  of  Church  property  ;  and  on  Jan.  20,  1842,  pro- 
posed to  the  Cortes  the  plan  of  a  law,  the  object  of  which  was  the 
rending  of  Spain  from  the  Apostolic  See. 

The  Pope  replied  to  the  sketch  of  this  plan  in  his  Encyclical  of 
Eeb.  22.  1842,  in  which  he  depicts  the  mournful  condition  of  the 
Church  in  Spain,  points  to  the  hostile  endeavors  of  the  Government 
to  overthrow  the  Church,  and  calls  on  all  Christendom  to  unite  in 
prayer  for  the  unfortunate  kingdom  of  Spain.  The  suppression  of 
the  papal  document  in  Spain  only  tended  to  spread  it  further.  The 
clergy  and  the  people  manifested  in  this  struggle  great  fidelity  to 
the  persecuted  Church,  the  defence  of  which  was  undertaken  by  the 
priest  James  Balmes  (+  1848),  by  Donoso  Cortes  (+  1851),  by  sev- 
eral periodicals  and  daily  papers,  and  was  carried  on  with  courage 
and  skill. 

After  the  fall  of  Espartero  (1843)  the  exiled  bishops  were  recalled 
by  Gonzales  Bravo  and  Narvaes,  Duke  of  Valencia,  the  sale  of 
Church  property  was  discontinued,  and  negotiations  with  Rome 
were  entered  into.  The  concordat  drawn  up  on  April  27,  1845,  did 
not  obtain  the  royal  approbation.     In  the  year  1848  Narvaes  took 


CATHOLIC  CHURCH  IN  SPAIN  AND  POUri'GAL.       373 

energetic  measures  to  relieve  the  oppressed  Pope.  On  March  16, 
1851,  an  understanding  was  at  length  effected  between  Pope  Pius 
IX.  and  Queen  Isabella.  The  revolution  of  the  Progressionists  in 
1854,  which  gave  the  rudder  once  more  into  the  hands  of  Espartero, 
again  nullified  this  understanding,  and  brought  new  persecutions  on 
the  Church.  The  Pope  then  protested  in  vain  against  new  robberies 
of  the  Church  and  the  suppression  of  the  ecclesiastical  institutions 
of  learning.  But  in  1856  Narvaez  was  restored  to  the  head  of  the 
Government,  and  with  him  the  concordat  came  again  into  force. 
The  Spoliations  of  1854-1855  led  to  negotiations  with  Kome,  —  the 
fruit  of  which  was  the  Convention  of  Aug.  25,  1859.  The  driving 
away  of  Queen  Isabella  in  October,  1868,  was  followed  by  new 
oppressions  of  the  Church. 

When  Isabella  was  driven  away  in  1868,  the  Church  during  the  short 
reign  of  the  Piedmoutese  Prince  Amadeus,  and  during  the  republic 
under  the  president  Serrano,  was  exposed  to  new  persecutions,  Avhieh 
did  not  altogether  cease  when  Alphonsus  XII.,  the  son  of  Isabella, 
ascended  the  throne  of  Spain.  Article  11  of  the  Constitution  of 
1876,  which  promised  freedom  of  worship,  was  with  much  vigor  but 
without  result  brought  forward  by  the  anti-Catholics  against  the 
Church.  The  representatives  of  the  philosophy  of  Hegel  and  Kraus 
had  no  more  success.  In  modern  times  the  Socialist  movement  in 
Spain  has  attained  great  significance. 

The  latest  history  of  the  Catholic  Church  in  Portugal  offers  much 
that  is  deplorable.  The  depression  occasioned  by  the  French  occu- 
pation of  the  country  was  by  no  means  removed  by  the  return  of 
the  royal  family  from  Brazil.  The  condition  of  the  Chiirch  became 
much  worse  after  the  Revolution  of  1820,  which  brought  a  Liberal 
constitution  to  the  nation.  The  abrogation  of  this  by  the  Infant 
Dom  IVIiguel  (May  27,  1823)  and  the  restoration  of  order  worked 
well  indeed  for  the  Church ;  but  it  was  all  the  more  persecuted 
after  the  death  of  King  John  VI.  (1826).  His  eldest  son,  Dom 
Pedro,  who  meanwhile  had  accepted  the  imperial  crown  of  Brazil, 
wished  the  J^ortuguese  crown  for  his  daughter  Maria  da  Gloria, 
against  whom  Dom  jMiguel  opposed  his  right  to  the  throne.  The 
Cortes  proclaimed  him  king  (1828)  according  to  Portuguese  he- 
reditary right,  and  the  clergy  as  well  as  the  people  did  him  hom- 
age. The  Church  was  then  restored  to  her  possessions  and  her 
rights. 

But  in  1834  Dom  Pedro,  with  the  help  of  the  English  and  French 
governments,  drove  his  brother  from  his  throne,  and  the  work  of 


374  HISTORY  OF   THE    CATHOLIC   CHURCH. 

plundering  and  upsetting  the  Church  recommenced.  The  bishops 
and  prelates  appointed  by  Dom  Miguel  were  deposed,  the  papal 
nuncio  was  sent  away,  and  all  clerical  patronage  abolished.  Liberal 
clergymen,  who  not  infrequently  belonged  to  the  Freemasons,  re- 
placed those  of  Dom  Miguel,  who  had  been  driven  away.  Monas- 
teries were  not  allowed  to  receive  novices.  Their  abolition  soon 
followed,  with  confiscation  of  all  their  property.  Even  after  the 
death  of  the  Church  robber  in  September,  1834,  against  whom 
Gregory  XVI.,  on  Sept.  30,  1833,  and  again  on  Aug.  1,  1834,  had 
pronounced  two  allocutions,  the  oppression  of  the  Church  still  con- 
tinued. The  queen  Maria  indeed  desired  reconciliation  with  the 
Apostolic  See ;  but  the  negotiations  of  Monsignore  Cappacini  with 
the  Court  of  Lisbon  led  to  no  result,  though  some  few  bishoprics 
were  filled.  In  the  year  1857  the  Holy  See  concluded  an  agree- 
ment with  Dom  Pedro  V.  concerning  the  filling  up  of  the  Indian 
sees,  while  in  the  motherland  the  Church  is  groaning  to  this  very 
hour  under  the  yoke  of  the  followers  of  Pombal.  The  great  want  of 
priests  is  sorely  felt.  On  July  3,  1862,  Pius  addressed  an  admoni- 
tory letter  to  the  bishops.  Even  in  modern  times  the  Government 
has,  by  the  promotion  of  Liberal  clergymen,  given  ground  of  com- 
plaint to  the  Holy  See;  though  even  in  this  kingdom  defenders  of 
the  Church  in  word  and  in  writing  are  not  wanting. 

§  225.    The  Catliolic  Church  in  the  Italian  States. 

The  concordat  for  the  Italian  Eepublic  in  1803  was  somewhat 
more  favorable  for  the  Church  than  that  of  France ;  but  it  was  often 
violated  by  Napoleon.  After  the  restoration,  Victor  Emmanuel, 
King  of  Sardinia,  concluded  an  agreement  with  the  Pope  in  1817, 
in  which  a  new  division  of  dioceses  was  to  take  place.  A  new  con- 
vention between  Leo  XII.  and  King  Charles  Felix  (1828)  arranged 
the  circumstances  respecting  the  property  of  the  Church.  After  the 
death  of  the  king  the  crown  came  to  the  collateral  line,  Carignan. 
Under  Charles  Albert  the  best  understanding  existed  between 
Church  and  State,  which  was  of  most  advantageous  operation  for 
the  development  of  religious  life.  Unfortunately,  this  excellent  king 
lent  a  ready  ear  to  the  voice  of  revolution,  by  the  help  of  which  he 
was  to  become  king  of  '•'  United  Italy."  Radetzky's  victory  near 
Novera  compelled  him  to  abdicate. 

His  son  Victor  Emmanuel  II.  (-}- 1878)  joined  the  friends  of 
"  United  Italy,"  and  took  up  a  hostile  position  towards  the  Church. 


CATHOLIC    CHURCH   IN    THE    ITALIAN   STATES.      375 

On  Aug.  25, 1848,  the  Jesuits  were  banished.  On  October  4  an  anti- 
Church  system  of  instruction  was  enacted.  In  1850  the  Privilegium 
fori,  tithes,  and  Church  Asylum  were  abolished.  Archbishop  Fran- 
soni  (+  1862)  of  Turin  had  to  suffer  for  his  defence  of  Church 
rights  by  imprisonment  and  exile ;  and  then  the  pillage  and  oppres- 
sion of  the  Church  began,  while  to  the  non-Catholics  full  liberty 
was  accorded.  The  "  Cloister  Law "  of  1855  ordered  the  suppres- 
sion of  those  religious  congregations  which  were  not  employed  in 
giving  instruction  and  in  the  care  of  the  sick.  The  protest  of  the 
Holy  See  against  these  violations  of  right  was  disregarded.  The 
soul  of  these  hostilities  to  the  Church  was  Count  Cavour  (+ 1861), 
who  shrunk  from  no  means  which  were  likely  to  promote  his  object. 
His  plans  found  support  and  approval  in  the  secret  societies,  whose 
tool  the  king  became.  After  the  annexation  of  other  Italian  States 
,  to  Piedmont  in  1859,  the  opjDressions  and  depredations  of  the 
Church  were  extended  to  them  also,  and  still  continue  their  action, 
while  new  ones  have  been  added. 

In  the  Lombardo- Venetian  kingdom,  which  at  the  Peace  of  Vienna 
had  been  transferred  to  Austria,  a  modified  Josephian  States-church- 
ism  prevailed,  without  the  Government  being  absolutely  hostile  to 
the  Church.  Better  times  seemed  to  be  in  prospect  in  the  year 
1855 ;  but  the  incorporation  of  Lombardy  in  1859  and  of  Venice 
in  1866  with  Piedmont,  brought  with  it  a  severe  persecution  of  the 
Church,  the  abolition  of  her  religious  institutions,  and  the  confis- 
cation of  her  possessions.  The  same  thing  happened  in  the  Grand 
Duchy  of  Tuscany  in  1859.  The  numerous  benevolent  institutions 
were  spared  as  little  there  as  in  other  parts  of  the  new  kingdom  of 
Italy.  By  the  Concordat  of  1815,  seventy-two  monasteries  had 
been  restored,  and  the  Agreement  of  1851  had  done  away  with  the 
restrictions  laid  before  that  time  upon  the  Church.  Parma,  Modena, 
Lucca,  etc.,  fell  a  prey  to  "United  Italy,"  whose  dominion  fell 
heavily  on  the  Church. 

Under  the  government  of  the  French  vassals,  Joseph  Bonaparte 
and  Joachim  Murat,  the  Church  in  Naples  had  been  plundered  and 
oppressed.  After  the  return  of  Ferdinand  I.  from  the  island  of 
Sicily,  a  concordat  was  agreed  upon  in  1818,  which  stipulated,  among 
other  things,  that  the  cloisters  should  be  restored,  the  inviolability 
of  the  possessions  of  the  Church  acknowledged,  and  the  free  inter- 
course of  the  bishops  with  the  Holy  See  permitted.  The  revolt  of 
the  Carbonari  (1820),  who  introduced  the  Spanish  Constitution,  was 
suppressed   by   the   Austrians.     The  anti-ecclesiastical  laws  which 


376  HISTORY  OF   THE   CATHOLIC   CHURCH. 

had  beeu  passed  during  the  Revolution  were  again  abolished.  To 
Ferdinand  I.  (+ 1825)  succeeded  Francis  I.,  and  after  his  early 
death  (+  1830)  the  youthful  Ferdinand  II.  ascended  the  throne. 
Like  his  predecessors,  this  powerful  and  energetic  king  was  per- 
sonally pious,  and  was  a  regent  filled  with  good-will  towards  the 
Church  \  but  he  could  neither  prevail  on  himself  to  renounce  his 
ecclesiastical  pretensions  on  the  island  of  Sicily  nor  to  permit  the 
Church  to  exercise  an  independent  authority  on  the  mainland. 
By  extraordinary  negotiations  the  Apostolic  See  at  length  succeeded 
in  wringing  from  him  a  greater  freedom  for  the  clergy,  and  in 
inducing  the  abrogation  of  several  oppressive  laws.  Yet,  on  the 
whole,  State-churchism  held  the  sway.  So  long  as  Ferdinand  II. 
lived  (-f  1859),  the  secret  societies  in  Naples  were  not  able  to  accom- 
plish their  plans  against  Church  and  State.  They  succeeded  better 
under  Francis  II.,  whom  treason  and  violence  hurled  from  the 
throne  in  1860,  on  which  Victor  Emmanuel  was  raised  by  the 
leaders  of  the  Revolution. 

The  annexatiou  of  the  States  of  the  Church  in  1859,  1860,  and  1870,  by 
the  King  of  "  United  Italy,"  was  also  followed  by  the  introduction  of  the 
revolutionary  anti-ecclesiastical  laws,  the  robbery  of  tlie  Church,  the  spoli- 
ation of  her  institutions  of  learning  with  those  for  benevolent  purposes. 

§  226.   Ecclesiastical  Affairs  in  Switzerland. 

The  establishment  of  the  "indivisible  Helvetic  Republic"  in  1798 
destroyed  corporate  existence  in  Switzerland,  and  opened  the  way 
to  the  plundering  and  persecution  of  the  Catholic  Church.  Napo- 
leon I.'s  Act  of  Mediation,  1803,  which  changed  Switzerland  into  a 
Federative  State,  restored  to  the  Church  indeed  the  possessions  of 
which  she  had  been  robbed,  and  guaranteed  the  standing  of  the 
religious  corporations  ;  but  by  throwing  together,  as  if  at  haphazard, 
many  heterogeneous  elements,  and  by  its  method  of  deciding  Church 
matters  by  the  majority  of  votes,  it  gave  rise  to  many  religious 
contentions.  At  the  restoration  of  1815-1830  diocesan  order  was 
re-established.  By  the  Convention  of  March  26,  1828,  the  new 
bishopric  of  Basle  was  foiinded.  The  difficulty  respecting  the 
abbey  of  St.  Gall  had  been  adjusted  by  Pius  VII.,  July  8,  1823,  by 
creating  it  a  bishop's  see,  —  Coire  and  St.  Gall.  Geneva  was,  by  the 
brief  "  Inter  multiplices  "  of  Sept.  20, 1819,  subjected  to  the  diocese 
of  Lausanne  ;   no  metropolitan  bond  of  union   existed ;    the  papal 


ECCLESIASTICAL   AFFAIRS   IN  SWITZERLAND.      'Ml 

nuncio  in  Lucerne  decided  the  more  momentous  matters  one  after 
the  other.  As  a  whole,  tranquillity  ruled  in  the  land.  The  pos- 
sessions and  privileges  of  the  Church  were  guaranteed  by  the  cove- 
nants of  the  constitution.  The  religious  character  of  the  lower 
and  higher  institutes  of  learning  was  protected. 

But  as  early  as  the  year  1830  the  adverse  press  opened  a  warfare 
against  the  Church  by  inundating  the  world  with  a  regular  flood  of 
daily  papers,  pamphlets,  calendars,  and  the  like,  in  which  they  gave 
historical  treatises  (so-called)  which  teemed  with  calumnies  and 
insults  respecting  the  Pope,  his  nuncio,  the  clergy.  Catholic  teach- 
ing and  ceremonial.  In  order  to  oppose  this  unworthy  practice, 
some  Catholic  men  in  1832  founded  the  paper  called  the  "  Eccle- 
siastical Journal  of  Switzerland  ;  "  while  Professor  Fischer,  a 
nominal  Catholic,  edited  the  "  Religious  Gazette  for  Germany  and 
Switzerland,"  in  which  he  outdid  the  Radicals  themselves  in 
audacity  and  intemperate  language  towards  the  Church. 

From  calumny  the  next  step  was  to  action.  In  most  of  the 
cantons  the  bishops  were  hampered  and  hindered  in  the  exercise 
of  their  office  by  the  secular  power.  This  was  particularly  the  case 
in  the  diocese  of  Basle.  A  conference  consisting  of  members  of 
several  cantons  indorsed  the  Fourteen  Articles  of  Baden,  which 
subordinated  the  Church  to  the  State.  Pope  Gregory  XVI.  con- 
demned these  on  May  17,  1835 ;  but  there  were  cantons  which  still 
sought  to  enforce  them. 

The  cloisters  were  a  special  stumbling-block  for  the  Radicals,  who 
were  lying  in  wait  to  appropriate  their  possessions,  while  they  calum- 
niated and  persecuted  every  clergyman  who  was  faithful  to  his  duty. 
On  Jan.  21,  1841,  the  Government  of  Aargau  suppressed  all  the 
convents  of  the  canton.  The  universal  dissatisfaction  caused  by 
this,  together  with  the  protestation  of  the  nuncio  and  of  the 
Austrian  ambassador,  occasioned  the  annulling  of  the  decree  by 
the  Diet  of  March  15,  1841 ;  but  it  was  1843  before  the  nuns  who 
had  been  driven  forth  were  able  again  to  take  possession  of  their 
cloisters. 

At  the  urgent  recommendation  of  the  noble-minded  councilman 
Joseph  Leu  of  Ebersol,  the  Jesuits,  who  had  established  themselves 
in  Freiburg  in  1818  and  in  Schwyz  in  1836,  where  in  both  places 
they  possessed  flourishing  colleges,  were,  by  a  decree  of  Oct.  24, 
1844,  also  invited  to  Lucerne.  This  excited  the  indignation  of  the 
Radicals,  who  organized  a  volunteer  army  for  the  overthrow  of  the 
"domination  of  the  Jesuits"    in  Lucerne,  and   especially  against 


378  HISTORY  OF   THE    CATHOLIC   CHURCH. 

the  councilman  and  Siegwart-Miiller.  After  this  attempt  had  failed 
they  rid  themselves  of  their  opponent,  Joseph  Leu,  by  a  hired 
assassin,  and  in  November,  1847,  with  the  help  of  the  reformed 
cantons  commenced  a  warfare  against  the  Catholic  Sonderbund 
(Separate  Alliance),  which  ended  by  giving  the  victory  to  radi- 
calism. 

The  oppression  and  spoliation  of  the  Church  which  followed  from 
this  time  formed  but  a  prelude  to  greater  sufferings.  The  Consti- 
tution of  the  Confederacy  of  Sept.  12,  1848,  no  longer  guaranteed 
the  possession  and  maintenance  of  the  cloisters.  The  freedom  of 
worship  then  proclaimed  was  not  of  avail  to  Catholics.  The  revised 
constitution  of  May  29,  1874,  contains  many  articles  which  violate 
the  rights  and  possessions  of  the  Church. 

Since  1848  the  Protestant  and  mixed  cantons  have  vied  with 
each  other  in  despoiling  and  persecuting  the  Catholic  Church.  In 
October,  1848,  Marilley,  Bishop  of  Lausanne  and  Geneva,  was  im- 
prisoned by  the  Radical  Government  of  Freiburg,  deposed  and 
thereupon  exiled.  It  was  not  till  1856  that  he  was  enabled  to 
return.  Calvinistic  Geneva  has  lately  shown  the  hatred  she  bears 
to  Catholics  by  driving  away  religious  teaching  communities  (Feb.  3 
and  June  29, 1872)  ;  by  the  banishment  of  the  apostolic  vicar,  Bishop 
Mermillod  (Feb.  17,  1873).  through  the  hands  of  the  police ;  by  a 
new  law  of  worship  (March  23,  1873)  ;  and  by  appointing  an  oath  to 
be  taken  which  involved  a  virtual  apostasy,  by  which  recusant 
priests  lost  their  places,  which  were  in  that  case  given  over  to 
apostates.^  In  St.  Gall  the  Radicals  and  Protestants  fought  against 
the  faithful  Catholics.  The  Law  of  the  Confessions  of  Faith  of 
June  16,  1855,  worked  destructively  in  the  inmost  existence  of  the 
Church.  A  change  for  the  better  took  place  in  1860  ;  but  since  1873 
radicalism  maintains  the  chief  authority,  which  is  very  sensibly  felt 
by  Catholics.  The  excellent  memorials  of  the  bishop,  Dr.  Greith  of 
St.  Gall  (+  1882),  have  met  with  no  attention  from  the  Government. 
The  see  of  Basle  is  the  one  most  fiercely  beset  by  the  vexations  of 
the  Radicals. 

State-churchism  developed  itself  in  a  very  haughty  guise  in 
Solothurn,  Thurgau,  and  Aargau.  On  April  2,  1870,  the  so-called 
Diocesan  Conference,  consisting  of  the  deputies  from  seven  cantons, 
suppressed  the  Priests'  Seminary  of  Solothurn,  which  had  been 
established  in  the  year  1858,  and  on  November  19  forbade  the  priests 

1  Among  them  was  the  Abbe  Loyson  (the  ex-Carmelite  Pere  Hyacinthe),  who  had 
already  married. 


ECCLESIASTICAL    AFFAIRS    IX   SW'ITZ FRLA  XI).      379 

to  teach  the  doctrine  of  infallibility.  The  master-stroke  was  dealt  on 
Jan.  29,  1873.  The  Diocesan  Conference  had  set  a  peremptory  term 
of  respite  in  November,  1872,  after  which  the  Bishop  of  Basle, 
E.  Lachat  (+  Nov.  1,  1886)  was  to  answer  for  advocating  papal  in- 
fallibility and  for  excommunicating  the  "  Old  Catholic "  priests 
Egli  and  Gschwind.  As  the  bishop  refused  to  comply  with  this 
demand,  he  was  deposed  on  Jan.  29,  1873;  and  on  April  17  he,  the 
supreme  ecclesiastical  pastor,  was  exiled  from  Solothurn.  On  Dec. 
23,  1874,  the  cathedral  chapter  was  suppressed,  and  the  liquidation 
of  the  property  of  the  bishopric  decreed.  The  governments  of 
Zug  and  Lucerne  protested  against  this  infringement  of  rights.  In 
Berne  the  Government  drove  away  (1874)  eighty-four  Catholic  parish 
priests  in  the  Jura,  because  they  would  not  break  the  oath  of  fidelity 
they  had  sworn  to  their  bishop,  and  bestowed  their  church  bene- 
fices on  apostates,  who  in  their  conduct  were  notorious  for  bad 
morals.  The  Catholic  parish-church  of  Berne  was  given  up  to  the 
"  Old  Catholics."  In  order  to  sustain  the  schism,  the  Government 
in  November,  1874,  erected  an  "  Old  Catholic  Faculty "  in  Berne. 
The  Church-constitutional  Law  of  Jan.  18,  1874,  destroys  positive 
Christianity.  The  Government  of  the  canton  of  Zurich,  in  1862, 
siippressed  the  ancient  monastery  of  Rheinau,  and  in  1873  delivered 
over  the  parish  church  of  the  city  to  the  "Old  Catholics,"  the 
preachers  of  which  sect  traverse  Switzerland  in  all  directions,  and 
are  made  use  of  by  the  Radicals  for  attacking  the  Church.  In  the 
wholly  Catholic  canton  of  Tessin,  the  Radical  Government  abolished, 
on  June  22,  1859,  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Bishop  of  Como  and  Milan, 
and  made  over  the  installation  or  deposition  of  the  pastors  of  souls 
to  the  caprice  of  each  separate  congregation,  while  it  placed  Catholic 
worship  under  the  supervision  of  the  police.  The  Catholic  institu- 
tions of  learning  were  suppressed.  In  1875  the  elections  of  the 
great  council  brought  with  them  the  fall  of  the  Government,  and  a 
better  time  awaited  the  Church,  that  has  been  so  shamefully  perse- 
cuted in  this  canton. 

The  pain  occasioned  by  a  persecution  so  wanton  and  so  un- 
righteous is  somewhat  lightened  when  "we  contemplate  the  fidelity 
of  the  Catholic  clergy  and  people,  and  the  firmness  displayed  by  the 
episcopate.  The  bishops  of  this  country  have  repeatedly  addressed 
well-founded  memorials  to  the  Federal  Council ;  and  the  papal  nuncio 
has  often  uttered  his  protest  against  their  proceedings.  The  Holy 
Father  encouraged  the  clergy  and  people  in  Switzerland  by  allo- 
cutions and  briefs.     In  his  Encyclical  of  Nov.  21,  1873,  Pius  IX. 


380  HISTORY  OF   THE    CATHOLIC   CHURCH. 

condemned  the  proceedings  of  the  Federal  Council,  on  which  this 
council  in  1874  commanded  the  papal  nuncio  to  leave.  Thereupon 
all  diplomatic  relations  between  Switzerland  and  the  Vatican  ceased  ; 
but  the  solicitude  of  Pius  IX.  and  of  his  successor,  Leo  XIII.,  in 
behalf  of  Catholic  Switzerland  was  by  no  means  lessened.  Catholic 
Switzerland,  which  is  constantly  exposed  to  severe  oppressions,  as 
is  proved  by  the  Government  of  Geneva  in  the  conduct  they  pur- 
sued towards  Bishop  Mermillod,  by  the  efforts  made  by  the  Liberals 
to  impose  an  irreligious  school  for  the  people  on  the  cantons,  —  an 
effort  frustrated  as  yet  by  the  Swiss  people,  —  is  still  an  object 
of  the  Pontiff's  care.  The  negotiations  in  reference  to  the  see  of 
Basle  and  the  creation  of  a  bishop's  see  for  Tessin  led  to  success. 
On  the  other  hand,  diplomatic  relations  with  the  Holy  See,  not- 
withstanding the  steps  taken  by  Leo  XIII.,  have  not  yet  been 
re-established. 

§  227.    The  Condition  of  the  Catholic  Church  in  the  Netherlands. 

The  Constitution  of  the  Batavian  Republic  had  in  1798  pro- 
claimed the  equality  of  all  confessions  of  faith  ;  nevertheless  the 
Catholics  were  continually  exposed  to  the  oppressions  of  the  Cal- 
vinists,  who  closed  all  offices  to  them,  did  not  give  them  back  their 
churches,  and  by  their  School-law  of  April  3,  1806,  deeply  injured 
them  ill  their  rights.  This  condition  of  the  Church  was  only  tran- 
siently improved  under  King  Louis  Bonaparte  ;  while  the  incor- 
poration of  Holland  into  the  empire  (1810)  brought  her  new 
sufferings.  The  clergy  w^ere  the  first  to  feel  the  anger  of  Napoleon, 
whose  demands  they  could  not  obey.  With  the  accession  of  Wil- 
liam I.  of  Orange  to  the  throne  of  the  United  Netherlands  (Holland 
and  Belgium),  the  Calvinistic-Orange  party  came  into  power ;  and 
they  sought  to  reduce  the  Catholics  to  the  lot  of  helots,  although 
they  formed  in  fact  two  thirds  of  the  population.  Those  bishops 
who  refused  to  swear  to  the  new  constitution,  which  was  hostile  to 
the  Church,  were  persecuted ;  the  Organic  Articles  of  1801  were 
acknowledged  as  laws;  and  a  church-council  was  established  in 
Brussels,  the  director  of  which  was  the  anti-Catholic  minister 
Goubau.  Van  Maanen,  the  minister,  who  held  like  sentiments, 
vigorously  supported  him.  In  order  to  uncatholicize  instruction 
for  the  young,  the  Government,  on  Sept.  25,  1816,  established  three 
universities,  in  which  the  offices  were  for  the  most  part  filled  with 
Protestants.     The  most  influential  offices  of  the  State  were  held  by 


THE  CATHOLIC  CHURCH  IN  THE  NETHERLANDS.    381 

the  Protestant  Dutchmen.  The  representations  of  the  bishops 
(1817)  were  not  heeded.  The  Bishop  of  Ghent,  Maurice  of  Broglie, 
was  arraigned  before  the  seat  of  justice,  sentenced  to  deportation ; 
and  his  picture  was  hung  between  two  thieves  on  the  pillory.  The 
candidates  for  holy  orders  had  to  take  military  service  ;  the  suc- 
cursal  parish  priests  were  no  longer  paid  from  the  State  funds ; 
and  on  jNIarch  8  and  11,  1818,  the  convents  were  prohibited  from 
receiving  novices.  The  priests  who  continued  faithful  were  im- 
prisoned or  deposed,  and  on  the  few  unfaithful  priests  honors  and 
dignities  accumulated. 

The  memorial  of  the  exiled  bishop  of  Ghent  to  the  Congress  of 
Aix-la-Chapelle  brought  no  relief  to  the  Catholics.  Even  his  death 
in  1821  did  not  alter  matters.  The  "  Catholic  Society  in  Belgium," 
which,  like  the  "  Catholic  Sodality  for  the  Reading  of  Good  Books 
in  Holland,"  had  for  its  object  the  dissemination  of  instructive  and 
edifying  books,  was,  on  Aug.  23, 1823,  suppressed  by  royal  command; 
and  on  June  14,  1825,  the  abolition  of  the  episcopal  seminaries  and 
the  establishment  of  philosophical  colleges  was  decreed.  The 
Bishop  of  Namur  and  the  administrators  of  the  sees  of  the  other 
dioceses  protested  against  the  new  Josephist  seminaries,  and  the 
clergy  refused  to  take  professors'  chairs  therein.  In  order  to 
overcome  their  opposition,  the  Government,  mainly  influenced  by 
Goubau,  forbade  any  new  pupils  being  received  into  the  bishop's 
seminaries,  gave  the  theologians  the  choice  of  entering  the' mili- 
tary service  or  of  attending  the  philosophical  colleges,  and  ex- 
cluded from  every  office  such  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  Netherlands 
as  should  complete  their  philosophical  studies  in  foreign  lands. 
On  Oct.  1,  1825,  all  the  little  seminaries  and  other  Catholic  in- 
stitutions of  learning  were  closed  by  the  police,  and  their  pos- 
sessions confiscated.  This  was  followed,  on  Oct.  17,  1825,  by 
the  opening  of  the  Philosophical  College  of  Louvain,  for  which, 
with  some  trouble,  a  few  professors  had  been  found.  The  Catho- 
lic Belgians,  however,  held  this  institution  in  abhorrence,  and  clung 
all  the  more  firmly  to  their  faith,  when  they  saw  its  defenders  per- 
secuted by  the  Government;  while  Freemasons  and  schismatics  were 
favored. 

The  opposition  of  the  States  in  Brussels  brought  the  Government 
to  reflection,  and  was  the  cause  of  its  concluding  in  1827  a  con- 
vention with  the  Holy  See,  which,  however,  it  had  no  intention  of 
carrying  out.  The  Catholics  of  Belgium  did  not  receive  any  lighten- 
ing of   their  burdens  before  the  year  1829.     The  Government  at 


382  HISTORY   OF   THE    CATHOLIC    CHURCH. 

length  handed  the  papal  briefs  confirming  their  appointment  to  the 
bishops-elect  of  Liege,  Ghent,  and  Tournay,  and  the  ordinances  of 
1825  were  rendered  null  by  those  of  October,  Goubau  and  his 
like-minded  secretary-general.  Van  Ghert,  were  dismissed.  The 
bishops  could  now  reopen  their  seminaries  ;  and  even  those  theolo- 
gians who  had  pursued  their  studies  in  foreign  lands  were  permitted 
entrance  to  them. 

The  September  Kevolution  tore  Belgium  from  Holland  in  1830. 
The  Constitution  of  1831  guaranteed  freedom  of  worship,  freedom  of 
instruction,  and  the  right  of  association.  The  bishops  now  founded 
higher  institutes  of  learning,  with  which  the  "  Athenaeums  "  of  the 
city  could  not  compete.  The  members  of  religious  orders  for  the 
most  part  imparted  instruction  to  the  people.  The  chief  spiritual 
pastors  founded  teachers'  seminaries  for  the  instruction  of  candi- 
dates in  the  teaching  department,  while  the  boarding-schools  of 
the  Jesuits  busied  themselves  with  the  education  of  the  childi*en 
of  the  higher  classes.  On  June  14,  1834,  the  bishops  founded  the 
free  Catholic  University  of  Louvain,  whose  first  rector  was  the  most 
worthy  De  Ram  (+  1865). 

The  most  violent  enemies  of  the  Church  in  Belgium  are  the 
Liberals,  who  make  common  cause  with  the  Freemasons  and  the 
so-called  "  Solidaires."  Their  ultimate  object  is  the  destruction  of 
Christianity. 

In  order  to  effect  the  ruin  of  the  faith  and  morals  of  the  young 
students,  they  founded  in  1834  the  atheistic  University  at  Brus- 
sels, results  of  which  were  shown  in  a  horrible  way  in  the  Student- 
Congress  at  Liege  in  1866.  When  Bishop  Van  Bommel  of  Liege  in 
1837  proclaimed  excommunication  against  the  Freemasons,  the  vile 
press  assailed  the  Church  with  a  flood  of  calumnies.  That  the 
Liberal  enemies  of  the  Church  did  not  shrink  from  any  means, 
however  wicked,  by  which  to  attain  their  ends,  is  seen  by  the  street 
mobs  which  were  raised  to  provoke  disorder  against  the  Benevolent 
Law  of  1857,  and  by  the  scandalous  De  Buck  lawsuit  in  1864. 
The  court  for  the  most  part  took  a  neutral  standpoint  in  these  con- 
flicts ;  but  it  was  to  repel  such  attacks  as  these  that  both  clergy  and 
laymen  undertook  the  defence  of  religion  and  morals  most  cour- 
ageously in  periodicals,  in  the  chambers  of  Parliament,  and  in  the 
daily  press.  The  religious  orders  and  sodalities  developed  a  very 
remarkable  activity,  which  was  fraught  with  rich  blessings.  The 
Catholic  Congress  of  Mechlin  in  1863  was  of  vast  significance  for 
ecclesiastical  life.     In  no  other  land  in  the  world  do  Christianity 


THE  CATHOLIC  CHURCH  IN  THE  NETIIEllLANDS.    383 

and  atheism  confront  each  other  in  so  startling  a  contrast  as  in 
Belgium.  The  court  remains  neutral.  The  Protestant  King  Leo- 
pold T.  was  indifferent  to  all  religion.  His  son  Leopold  II.  is  a  sin- 
cere Catholic,  yet  he  has  shown  but  little  tirmness  to  the  enemies 
of  the  Church. 

With  the  ministry  of  Freemasonry,  Frere  Orban  in  1878  in- 
augurated a  time  of  the  most  shameful  violation  of  the  religious 
and  political  freedom  of  Belgian  Catholics.  In  1879  the  irreligious 
State  schools  were  decreed,  and  in  1880  all  diplomatic  relations  with 
the  Holy  See  were  broken  off  in  a  very  disgraceful  manner.  Then 
followed  the  diminution  of  State  contributions  to  the  cost  of  keep- 
ing up  Divine  service,  the  confiscation  of  the  smaller  ecclesiastical 
foundations,  regulations  against  the  admission  of  such  foreign 
clergymen  as  are  actively  engaged  in  the  care  of  souls,  and  lastly 
the  attempt  to  bring  the  property  of  the  monasteries  under  the 
control  of  the  State.  The  king  sanctioned  these  laws ;  the  bishops, 
on  the  contrary,  uttered  a  very  energetic  protest  against  them, 
and  the  Catholic  part  of  the  population  espoused  their  side.  The 
State  schools,  which  swallowed  up  immense  sums,  remained  empty, 
and  the  Catholic  congregations  founded  "  free "  Catholic  schools. 
Pope  Leo  XIII.  remonstrated  in  favor  of  the  oppressed  Church. 
Very  much  to  be  regretted  was  the  conduct  of  Bishop  Dumont  of 
Tournay,  whom  the  Pope  was  obliged  to  depose  on  account  of 
disorder  of  the  brain,  and  who  then  arrayed  himself  against  the 
Apostolic  See,  whereas  he  formeidy  had  been  a  vehement  opponent 
of  the  Liberals.  The  elections  of  1884  brought  a  Catholic  minis- 
try to  the  government,  the  president  of  which  is  Malou ;  already  it 
is  seeking  to  do  away  with  the  Masonic  school-laws,  and  to  renew 
diplomatic  relations  w-ith  the  Holy  See.^ 

Under  William  I.  the  iron  pressure  of  Calvinistic  fanaticism 
weighed  heavily  on  the  Catholics  of  Holland.  After  his  abdication 
the  noble  king  William  II.  entered  into  negotiations  with  Rome 
for  carrying  out  the  concordat  of  1827.  His  plan  was  frustrated  by 
the  opposition  of  the  Calvinistic-Orange  party.  On  the  other  hand, 
the  king  permitted  the  Dutch  convents  to  receive  novices,  and 
allowed  other  orders  to  settle  in  the  kingdom.  He  also  contem- 
plated suppressing- the  shameful  school-law  of  1806,  but  was  deterred 
from  doing  so  by  the  opposition  made  thereto  by  the  enemies  of  the 

1  After  the  death  of  Canlinal  En<,'elbert  Sterekx  {-\- 1867),  V.  A.  Isidore  Dechamps, 
(-f  18S3)  benanie  Archbishop  of  Mechlin  and  Cardinal  in  187.'). 


384  HISTORY   OF   THE   CATHOLIC   CHURCH. 

Church.  The  projected  re-establishment  of  the  ecclesiastical  hie- 
rarchy was  fraught  with  so  many  difficulties  that  it  was  at  first 
necessary  to  rest  satisfied  with  calling  the  bishops  "  Vicars-apostolic 
in  partibus." 

The  Constitution  of  1848  proclaimed  the  liberty  of  faith,  on 
which  Pius  IX.  in  1853  re-established  the  Catholic  hierarchy  in 
Holland.^  This  raised  the  indignation  of  the  fanatical  zealots,  but 
the  storm  passed  over.  The  School-law  of  1857  and  1863  banished 
religious  instruction  from  the  schools  of  the  State.  The  Catholics 
are  therefore  thrown  back  on  the  foundation  of  private  schools. 
In  the  Provincial  Council  at  Herzogenbusch  in  1865  the  bishops 
admonished  the  faithful  to  provide  for  the  Catholic  education  of  the 
young,  and  in  a  pastoral  letter  indited  in  common  on  July  22,  1868, 
they  insisted  on  the  necessity  of  their  attending  to  this  duty.  The 
members  of  the  religious  orders  driven  out  from  Germany  in  1872 
found  an  asylum  in  Holland.'^ 

Bishop  Laurent  of  Cherson  (-f  1884)  was  appointed  Apostolic 
Vicar  for  the  Grand  Duchy  of  Luxembourg  in  1841 ;  but  in  1847 
he  was  again  expelled. 

On  August  17, 1870,  Pius  IX.  raised  Luxembourg  to  a  bishop's  see. 


§  228.  Persecutions  of  the  Catholic  Church  in  Poland  and  Russia. 

After  the  partition  of  Poland  the  Catholic  Church  of  both  rites 
was,  in  those  provinces  which  fell  to  Russia,  exposed  to  the  most 
severe  persecutions.  Catherine  II.  had  already,  in  spite  of  the  most 
solemn  promises,  used  the  most  disgraceful  means  to  draw  the 
united  Ruthenians  into  schism,  and  to  loosen  the  hold  that  kept 
the  Latin  Catholics  bound  to  Rome.  Under  her  immediate  succes- 
sors, Paul  I.  (-H  1801)  and  Alexander  I.  (-f  1825),  the  persecution 
was  not  carried  on  with  the  former  violence,  yet  it  was  not  al- 
together laid  aside.  The  free  intercourse  of  the  bishops  with  the 
Holy  See  was  still  forbidden,  and  by  a  Ukas  of  Nov.  13,  1801,  the 
"  Romish-Catholic  Commission "  was  erected  at  St.  Petersburg  as 
the  highest  court  of  appeal  in  ecclesiastical  matters.  Rome  protested 
against  it.  The  college  has  three  civilian  officers,  —  a  proctor,  a 
secretary,  and  a  director  of  chancery, — in  whose   hands   all   the 

^  Utrecht  became  the  archiepiscopal  see,  with  the  suffragan  sees  of  Haarlem, 
Herzogenbusch,  Breda,  and  Roermonde  (Acta  Pii  IX.,  vol.  i.  p.  416  sqq.). 

*  The  establishment  of  new  diplomatic  relations  with  the  \"atican  is  announced  to 
take  place  soon. 


PERSECUTIONS  IN  RUSSIA.  385 

power  centres ;  they  are  appointed  by  the  emperor.  In  the  year  1862 
the  proctor  was  a  schismatic,  the  secretary  a  Protestant ;  neither 
did  the  chancellor-director  belong  to  the  Catholic  Church.  The 
president  was  the  ambitioiis  and  intriguing  Stanislaus  Siestrzen- 
cewricz,  Archbishop  of  Mohilev,  to  whom  Alexander  I.  (1804)  con- 
fided the  supreme  power  over  all  his  Catholic  subjects. 

Under  Nicholas  I.  the  persecution  of  the  Catholic  Church  of  both 
rites  was  carried  on  more  systematically  and  in  a  more  terrible 
form.  The  Government  first  directed  its  attention  to  the  United 
Greek  Ruthenians,  whom  it  desired  to  wrest  from  Rome.  In  order 
to  accomplish  this  object,  the  Czar  disturbed  the  whole  hierarchy 
of  the  Greek  Ruthenians,  interfered  with  the  interior  organization 
of  the  Basilian  Order,  suppressed  the  greater  number  of  their  mon- 
asteries, and  after  having  abolished  by  main  force  the  theological 
seminaries,  commanded  the  whole  of  the  clergy  to  pursue  their 
studies  in  the  Grecian-Russian  Alexander-Newsky  Seminary  at 
St.  Petersburg.  The  whole  direction  of  ecclesiastical  affairs  lay 
in  the  hands  of  the  "  Greek  United  Commission,"  which  at  first 
formed  a  portion  of  the  schismatic  directing  synod,  and  in  1839 
was  absorbed  into  it.  The  confiscation  of  Church  property  was 
intended  to  make  the  impoverished  clergy  still  more  dependent 
on  the  State.  The  bishops  were  forbidden  intercourse  with  the 
Holy  See,  and  no  papal  agent  was  admitted  to  the  Russian  court. 
In  order  to  further  the  interests  of  the  "  Orthodox  Church,"  the 
Czar  established  schismatic  bishoprics  and  parishes  in  districts  that 
had  been  wholly  Catholic,  and  transferred  Catholic  churches  to 
schismatics,  while  he  oppressed  Catholic  bishoprics  and  parishes, 
and  placed  obstacles  in  the  way  of  building  and  repairing  Catholic 
churches  and  chapels.  Great  numbers  of  the  cloisters  of  the 
Latin  rite  were  suppressed.  All  worship  in  common  between  the 
"  United  "  and  the  Latins  was  forbidden  ;  and  under  heavy  penalties 
the  priests  of  the  latter  rite  were  prohibited  in  1836  from  giving 
the  sacraments  to  "  unknown  persons,"  or  from  exercising  their 
clerical  functions  outside  of  their  own  parishes.  This  was  all 
done  with  the  view  of  drawing  the  United  Ruthenians  into  the 
schism.  Desertion  to  the  "  Orthodox  Church  "  was  favored  in  every 
possible  way,  while  the  going  over  of  a  schismatic  to  "  Latinisni  " 
was  severely  punislied.  Mixed  marriages  also  served  the  Govern- 
ment in  making  proselytes.  By  cunning,  deceit,  and  blows  with 
the  knout,  whole  congregations  were  driven  into  the  schismatic 
churches.  In  1833  the  Government  had  thousands  of  Polish  chil- 
voL.  II.  25 


386  HISTORY  OF   THE   CATHOLIC   CHURCH. 

dren  brought  into  the  interior  of  Eussia,  there  to  receive  a  schis- 
matic education.  At  length,  on  Feb.  12.  1839,  three  of  the  United 
bishops,  with  Joseph  Siemasko  at  their  head,  went  over  to  the 
schism,  which,  added  to  the  means  employed,  of  seduction  and 
force,  led  the  greater  part  of  the  clergy  and  people  to  take  the 
same  step.  Those  of  the  clergy  who  remained  faithful  were  ill- 
treated  and  exiled  to  Siberia.  To  shut  the  mouths  of  the  defenders 
of  the  Catholic  Church,  the  Government  forbade,  under  the  heaviest 
penalties,  that  they  should  preach  sermons  composed  by  themselves, 
or  any  sermons  that  had  not  been  subjected  to  the  censure,  —  that 
they  should  give  religious  instruction,  or  in  any  way  do  aught  to 
confirm  the  laity  in  their  faith.  It  was  not  even  permitted  them 
to  defend  their  religion  by  the  pen,  for  a  Ukas  of  1844  took  the 
printing-press  from  the  Catholics.  An  earlier  Ukas  of  1842  had 
previously  confiscated  all  ecclesiastical  property  "  in  order  to  relieve 
the  clergy  from  the  cares  of  administration  which  were  incompatible 
with  their  office." 

With  regard  to  these  continual  acts  of  violence  of  a  despotic 
Cesarian  papacy,  the  Holy  See  could  keep  silence  no  longer.  In 
1832  Gregory  XVI.,  who  had,  at  the  desire  of  the  emperor,  addressed 
in  1831  and  1832  two  circular  letters  to  the  Polish  bishops,  to  induce 
them  to  bring  the  Polish  insurgents  to  obedience,  aa  early  as  1832 
laid  before  the  Cabinet  of  St.  Peter  the  hardships  to  which  the 
Catholics  of  Eussia  and  of  Poland  were  subjected,  and  implored 
their  help.  The  Holy  Father  did  the  same  in  a  letter  written  by 
his  own  hand  to  Nicholas  I.  (1834).  He  obtained  only  empty 
promises,  while  the  persecutions  of  the  Church  went  forward  more 
grievously  than  ever.  At  length,  in  the  allocutions  of  Nov.  22, 
1839,  and  of  July  22,  1842,  the  Church  protested  loudly  and 
solemnly  against  the  violent  measures  of  the  Eussian  Government, 
issuing  a  papal  document  of  State  in  which  their  crimes  were 
stated  tranquilly  and  according  to  the  manner  in  which  they  were 
committed.  The  statesmen  of  Eussia  and  the  directing  synod  did 
not  even  make  the  attempt  of  contradicting  or  refuting  these 
accusations ;  they  simply  continued  their  disgraceful  system  of 
oppression. 

When,  in  1845,  Nicholas  I.  came  to  Eome,  the  aged,  gray-headed 
Pope  made  such  forcible  representations  to  him  that  the  emperor 
declared  himself  ready  to  fulfil  the  just  demands  of  the  Church. 
At  his  command  Count  Bludoff  negotiated  with  Cardinal  Lam- 
bruschini  and  framed  a  concordat,  which  came  to  a  conclusion  under 


PERSECUTIONS   IS  RrssIA.  387 

Pius  IX.  in  18-47.'  But  it  remained  a  dead  letter,  each  individual 
article  of  which  was  basely  violated;  and  the  persecutors  of  the 
Church  still  followed  the  same  course  as  of  old.  Yet  this  same 
emperor,  who  himself  trod  every  right  of  the  Church  under  foot, 
declared  war  upon  Turkey  under  the  pretext  "  of  protecting  the 
rights  of  the  Orthodox  Church  in  the  East." 

During  this  war  Nicholas  was  summoned  before  a  higher  Judge 
(1855).  His  son  Alexander  II.  seemed  at  first  to  listen  to  the 
voice  of  justice,  but  soon  adopted  the  plan  of  his  father,  to  force  on 
the  Poles  "  the  Orthodox  religion  instead  of  the  Romish  one  ;  "  and 
he  followed  the  same  course  as  his  father  with  unbending  severity. 
It  was  simply  fear  of  the  Parisian  Congress  (1856)  that  caused  the 
Government  to  make  some  concessions  to  the  Apostolic  See,  and  to 
promise  the  fulfilment  of  the  articles  of  the  concordat.  In  No- 
vember, 1856,  this  was  published,  though  in  a  mutilated  form,  in 
the  State  Papers ;  but  it  never  came  to  practical  significance.  The 
righteous  petitions  of  the  Polish  Episcopate  (1861)  were  not  granted, 
neither  did  the  representations  of  the  Metropolitan  of  Mohilev  and 
his  suffragans  find  a  hearing.  The  Polish  revolt,  stirred  up  by  the 
Revolutionary  Committee  of  Paris  in  1863,  made  matters  yet  worse 
for  the  Church.  Poland  and  Lithuania  became  places  of  most 
fearful  desolation.  The  churches  were  desecrated  by  heartless  sol- 
diers, the  priests  were  imprisoned  or  carried  to  other  regions,  and 
in  many  places  the  exercise  of  Catholic  worship  was  rendered  im- 
possible. The  slight  hope  that  was  awakened  by  the  elevation  of 
Felinski  to  the  archbishopric  of  Warsaw  soon  vanished.  The  Rus- 
sian Government  was  willing  to  receive  a  papal  nuncio,  but  for- 
bade free  intercourse  between  him  and  the  bishops.  The  newly 
established  commission  of  worship  and  of  public  instruction  for 
Poland  was  at  variance  with  the  constitution  of  the  Church  and 
the  articles  of  the  concordat,  and  the  new  archbishop  of  Warsaw 
was  forcibly  torn  from  his  flock  and  afterwards  formally  deposed. 
The  efforts  of  the  Government  became  more  and  more  visilily 
intent  on  Russianizing  these  lands,  and  making  them  schismatic. 
The  Pope  uttered  complaints  against  these  oppressions.  The  Gov- 
ernment answered  by  the  suppression  of  convents,  and  used  various 
shameful  means  to  tear  the  last  united  diocese  of  Chelm  from 
Church  unity,  and  oblige  the  Ruthenians  to  assist  at  the  schis- 
matical  divine  service,  receive  the  Lord's  Supper,  etc.  The  repre- 
sentations of  the    Holy  Father  made  no  difference.     The  Russiai* 

1  Nussi,  Couventiones,  p.  273  sqq. 


388  HISTORY  OF  THE   CATHOLIC   CHURCH. 

Consul  even  went  so  far  as  to  insult  the  Pope  in  the  Vatican,  on 
Dec.  22, 1866,  on  which  all  diplomatic  relations  between  the  Holy 
See  and  Russia  were  broken  off.  A  new  States-paper  grve  an 
account  of  the  conduct  on  both  sides  since  the  year  1845,  in  the 
form  of  a  State  document.  On  Aug.  8,  1867,  the  Ukas  was  issued, 
which  cut  off  every  connection  of  the  Catholics  with  Rome ;  and 
somewhat  later  the  suppression  of  the  diocese  of  Podlachia  fol- 
lowed. The  spoliation  and  banishment  of  Catholic  noblemen  whose 
possessions  were  given  over  to  the  schismatics,  and  the  command 
given  to  use  the  Russian  language  in  the  Divine  service  are  to  bring 
the  work  of  perversion  to  completion.^  In  May,  1875,  the  united 
diocese  of  Chelm  was  abolished.  A  Ukas  of  1872  had  already  sup- 
pressed the  last  Basilian  cloister  in  Warsaw.  Under  Alexander  III. 
in  1884  an  understanding  with  the  Holy  See  on  certain  points  was 
aimed  at,  such  as  the  appointment  of  bishops  and  the  like ;  but  the 
deliberations  relative  to  the  position  of  the  United  Euthenians,  etc., 
were  postponed. 

§  229.    Catholicity  in  Ireland. 

In  the  year  1800  the  Act  of  Union,  which  was  consequent  on  the 
rebellion  of  1798,  annihilated  the  political  independence  of  Ireland,^ 
without  bringing  to  the  Catholics  the  equality  in  civil  rights  which 
had  been  proposed  by  the  minister  Pitt.  Thus  the  iron  weight  of 
despotic  caprice  and  of  fanatical  hatred  pressed  heavily  on  the 
necks  of  the  Catholic  Irish,  after  the  conclusion  of  the  Union ;  and 
the  English  Government  sought  by  odious  exceptional  laws,  such 
as  the  suspension  of  the  Habeas  Corpus  Act,  the  Riot  Act,  etc., 
to  hinder  the  success  of  any  attempt  made  by  the  Irish  to  free 
themselves  from  the  yoke. 

Several  bills  were  brought  before  Parliament  to  have  these  dis- 

1  See  Martinov,  Etudes  religieuses,  plul.,  hist.,  et  litt.  par  des  peres  dc  la  Com- 
jjagiiie  de  Jesus,  1874,  ])p.  25  sqq.,  544  sqq. 

-  Compare  §  179,  in  which  tlie  literature  is  also  given.  Charles  Butler,  Histori- 
cal Memoirs  of  the  English,  Irish,  and  Scottish  Catholics,  2d  ed.  4  vols.  London, 
1822.  Milncr,  Supplementary  Memoirs  of  English  Catholics,  London,  1820,  in 
which  the  errors  of  Butler  are  corrected.  E.  Murray,  Ireland  and  her  Church. 
London,  1848.  Shea,  The  Irish  Church.  London,  1852.  Lord  O'Hagan,  Ireland  in 
1853.  Wysc,  History  of  the  Catholic  Association.  2  vols.  London,  1829.  Kev. 
J.  F.  Bright,  English  History.  London,  1877.  KiUen,  Eccl.  Hist,  of  Ireland. 
O'Connell,  Centennial  Record.  Briick,  The  Irish  Veto.  W.  J.  O'Neil  Daunt,  Eighty- 
five  Years  of  Irish  Hist.,  1800-1885,  2  vols.  W.  J.  Amherst,  8.  J.,  Hist,  of  Cath. 
Emancipation,  1771-1820. 


CATHOLICITY  IN  IRELAND.  389 

qualifications  of  Catholics  removed,  but  tliey  were  persistently 
thrown  out.  In  1812  Mr  Canning,  the  prime  minister,  supported 
the  Relief  l^ill  brought  in  by  IVlr.  Grattan.  It  passed  the  House 
of  Commons  by  a  vote  of  255  to  106  ;  but  the  House  of  Lords  threw 
it  out  by  126  to  125  votes,  — that  is,  by  a  majority  of  one.  The  rep- 
resentations of  enlightened  statesmen,  who  in  the  interest  of  public 
peace  wished  for  the  abolition  of  these  unjust  laws,  failed  to  obtain 
a  hearing  either  with  George  III.  (+ 1820)  or  with  the  majority  in 
Parliament.  The  "  Irish  Question  "  was  only  used  by  the  leaders  of 
the  parties,  for  the  sake  of  embarrassing  the  ministry  then  newly 
entered  into  office ;  the  Whigs  cared  as  little  as  the  Tories  for  a  real 
amelioration  of  the  state  of  affairs.  The  proposal  to  grant  emanci- 
pation at  the  cost  of  allowing  the  Government  a  voice  in  the  election 
of  bishops  —  that  is,  the  power  called  the  "  Irish  Veto  "  —  met  with 
the  assent  of  the  English  Catholics,  and  was  partially  assented  to  by 
the  Holy  See,  but  it  happily  encountered  eifective  resistance  from 
Ireland.  The  Relief  Bill  of  1821  was  rejected  by  the  House  of  Lords, 
nor  did  the  negotiations  of  some  parliamentary  deputies  with  the 
Irish  bishops  lead  to  any  favorable  result.  It  was  the  grand  move- 
ment in  Ireland  under  Daniel  O'Connell,  "  the  Liberator,"  that 
changed  the  aspect  of  affairs.  Entirely  devoted  to  the  Church  and 
to  his  fatherland,  this  genial  and  well-informed  leader  of  his  people, 
this  man  who  attracted  the  admiration  of  the  whole  of  Europe,  had 
been  for  many  years  intent  on  restoring  to  Ireland  her  lost  liberties, 
both  religious  and  political.  The  rule  that  he  laid  down  for  himself 
and  his  followers  throughout  the  whole  of  the  noble  course  of  his 
exertions  was  that  the  contest  should  be  carried  on  in  a  legal  way 
without  the  shedding  of  blood.  The  "Catholic  Committees"  founded 
by  him  held  meetings  in  every  part  of  the  island,  the  purpose  of 
which  was  to  emancipate  Catholics  from  their  disabilities  and  to 
obtain  the  repeal  of  the  Union.  The  outrages  perpetrated  by  Orange- 
men, who  from  the  year  1795  had  formed  lodges  for  the  purpose  of 
destroying  the  Catholic  Church  and  Irish  nationality,  stimulated  the 
zeal  of  the  agitators  to  a  higher  degree.^ 

When  in  1814  the  Government  suppressed  the  Catholic  Committees, 
O'Connell,  in  unison  with  Shiel,  founded  in  1823  the  "Catholic  Asso- 
ciation for  Emancipation."  This  was  dissolved  by  Act  of  Parlia- 
ment in  1825,  but  was  immediately  replaced  by  the  Association  for 

1  The  first  "Orange  Livlsre"  was  founded  in  the  village  of  Loughgall,  county  of 
Armagh,  Sept.  21,  1795.  For  the  history  of  this  formidahle  association,  of  which 
the  Canadian  Orangemen  are  an  otTshoot,  see  Chambers's  Encyclopa;dia. 


390  HISTORY  OF   THE   CATHOLIC   CHURCH. 

Instruction.  The  whole  of  Catholic  Ireland  joined  the  band.  In 
every  province  meetings  were  held  to  draw  up  petitions  to  Parlia- 
ment. The  law  passed  on  March  9  forbade  that  meetings  for 
drawing  up  petitions  should  last  longer  than  fourteen  days ;  accord- 
ingly the  Catholics  separated  after  every  fourteen  days  to  meet  again 
some  time  after.  O'Connell  and  Shiel  encouraged  and  enlightened 
every  mind,  but  the  whole  movement  was  kept  strictly  within  the 
limits  prescribed  by  law. 

In  the  year  1826  Sir  Francis  Burdett  introduced  a  Relief  Bill 
into  Parliament,  which  passed  the  House  of  Commons  by  a  vote 
of  268  against  241 ;  but  it  was  thrown  out  in  the  House  of  Lords 
mainly  through  the  efforts  of  the  Duke  of  York,  the  heir  presump- 
tive to  the  throne,  by  a  majority  of  48  among  308  members.  The 
noble-hearted  Sir  Francis  Burdett  renewed  his  motion  in  March? 
1827,  and  again  in  May,  1828,  but  did  not  succeed  in  having  it 
adopted. 

The  election  of  the  "  Liberator "  as  member  of  Parliament  for 
Clare  finally  brought  the  matter  to  a  crisis.  Mr.  Canning,  the  prime 
minister,  who  had  been  the  advocate  of  the  Catholic  claims,  died 
on  Aug.  8,  1827 ;  and  as  the  Duke  of  Wellington,  an  enemy  to  the 
Catholic  cause,  was  called  to  the  premiership,  agitation  became 
still  more  lively.  Monseigneur  Patrick  Curtis,  Archbishop  of 
Armagh  and  Primate  of  Ireland,  addressed  a  spirited  letter  to  the 
Duke  of  Wellington,  who,  like  Mr.  Peel  (afterwards  Sir  Robert  Peel), 
gradually  found  it  necessary  to  favor  emancipation.  Both  became 
convinced  that  the  choice  lay  between  conceding  this  act  of  justice 
and  encountering  a  bloody  civil  war.  Mr.  Peel,'  on  March  23,  1829, 
introduced  the  bill  in  the  House  of  Commons,  where  it  was  carried  by 
a  large  majority.  It  was  recommended  to  the  Upper  House  on  March 
31,  1829,  where  it  was  eloquently  advocated  by  the  Duke  of  Welling- 
ton ;  it  passed  the  House  by  a  vote  of  213  to  109  on  the  10th  of 
April.  George  IV.  reluctantly  signed  the  bill  on  April  13,  1829. 
After  this.  Catholics  were  eligible  to  all  offices,  civil,  municipal,  and 
military,  save  only  the  office  of  Regent,  of  Lord  Chancellor,  of 
Viceroy  of  Ireland,  or  of  Royal  Commissioner  of  the  General  As- 
sembly of  Scotland.  A  new  oath  was  substituted  for  the  old  test 
oath.  2 

1  Peel's  splendid  speech  in  Parliament  and  other  accounts  of  the  Catholic  Emanci- 
pation in  Ireland  are  to  be  fonnd  in  the  "Catholic  of  Mentz,"  vols,  xxxii.,  xxxiii. 
See  Hxnsnrrl,  Parliamentary  Debates,  vol.  xx.  p.  728. 

2  The  first  Catholic  who  at  a  later  period  filled  the  ofBce  of  High  Chancellor  of 


CATHOLICITY  IN   IRELAND.  391 

The  Bill  of  Emancipation,  it  is  true,  put  an  end  to  the  outrageous 
slavery  of  upwards  of  five  millions  of  Catholics  under  four  arch- 
bishops and  twenty-two  bishops  in  Ireland,  but  it  by  no  means 
fulfilled  all  the  demands  they  were  justified  in  making.  The  Angli- 
cans, who  scarcely  numbered  one  tenth  of  the  population,  were  yet 
in  possession  of  the  Church  property  donated  by  Catholics  for 
Catholic  purposes ;  and  all,  even  the  clergy,  were  compelled  to 
pay  tithes  in  support  of  the  Anglican  service.  The  bitter  grie- 
vance of  paying  in  this  way  the  Protestant  preachers  was  after 
lengthened  negotiations  ended  by  the  Tithe  Bill  of  1838.  The  offer 
of  the  Government  in  1837  of  granting  an  endowment  to  the 
bishops,  on  condition  of  having  a  right  in  episcopal  elections,  was 
unanimously  declined.^  Soon  after  the  Tithe  Bill  was  settled,  the 
Repeal  movement  began  by  demanding,  with  its  monster  meetings, 
the  repeal  of  the  Union,  or  full  justice  to  Ireland.  The  excitement 
reached  its  height  in  1813.  The  efforts  of  O'Connell  were  ener- 
getically seconded  by  the  Capuchin  Father  Matthew  ^  (+  1856),  flie 
founder  of  the  Irish  Temperance  Societies.  In  order  to  suppress 
the  exertions  of  the  influential  O'Connell,  the  Government  had  him 
brought  before  a  Protestant  jury  on  a  charge  of  seditious  conspiracy, 
and  convicted  ;  the  sentence  was,  however,  reversed  by  the  House  of 
Lords.     The  "Liberator"  died  on  May  15,  1847.^ 

Among  the  bishops  of  this  time.  Dr.  Doyle,  Bishop  of  Kildare 
(+1834),  Thomas  Kelly,  Archbishop  of  Tuam  (-f  1835),  and  his 
successor,  John  McHale,  were  prominent  for  learning  and  for  the 
influence  they  exercised.  The  "  Dublin  Review  "  was  founded  in 
1836,  by  O'Connell,  Dr.  Wiseman,  and  Mr.  Quin.  The  "  Irish  :\relo- 
dies  "  of  Thomas  Moore  (+  1852)  greatly  contributed  to  arouse  the 
patriotic  enthusiasm  of  the  Irish  people.  The  Union  among  the 
clerg}^  was  truly  admirable. 

The  Legacy  Bill  of  1845  gave  the  Church  the  right  to  acquire 
property;   and  the  Priests'  Seminary  of  IMaynooth,  in  conformity 

Ireland  was  the  late  Lord  O'Hagan,  a  man  of  great  merit.     See  his  "Occasional  Papers 
and  Addresses."     London,  1884. 

1  By  a  decree  of  the  Propaganda  in  1829  the  so-called  "Domestic  Nomination," 
first  suggested  by  Father  Hayes,  was  definitely  introduced ;  by  this,  when  a  bishopric 
becomes  vacant,  the  parish  priests  by  vote  nominate  three  candidates,  whose  names 
are  sent  to  the  Propaganda  ;  one  of  them  (as  a  rule)  is  selected  and  approved  by  the 
Pope. 

2  Maguirc,  Father  Matthew.  London,  1868.  M.  F.  Cusack,  Life  of  Father 
Matthew. 

3  McCabe,  The  Last  Days  of  O'Connell.     Dublin,  1847. 


392  HISTORY  OF  THE   CATHOLIC   CHURCH. 

to  it,  received  a  moderate  endowment  from  the  Government.  On 
May  9  a  bill  was  introduced  into  Parliament  for  the  establishment 
of  three  colleges  in  the  north,  west,  and  south  of  Ireland,  in  which, 
on  similar  principles  to  those  on  which  the  national  schools  are 
founded,  pupils  of  all  religions  might  receive  a  higher  academic 
education.  The  measure  was  carried  in  both  Houses.  But  the 
question  arose  among  the  Irish  Catholics  as  to  whether  it  would  be 
proper  for  Catholic  young  men  to  attend  such  colleges ;  the  question 
of  the  national  schools  had  been  decided  in  the  negative  by  Rome, 
Oct.  18,  1848,  at  the  instance  of  John  McHale,  Archbishop  of  Tuam. 
The  bishops  assembled  at  an  important  synod  at  Thurles  in  1851 
declared  these  latter  colleges  to  be  dangerous  to  the  faith  and  morals 
of  Catholic  students.  The  same  was  done  by  the  archbishops  and 
bishops  at  Maynooth  College,  Aug.  19,  1869,  under  the  presidency 
of  Cardinal  Cullen,  Archbishop  of  Dublin  ^  (+  1878),  when  the  whole 
system  of  mixed  education  was  condemned.  Xov.  3,  1854,  the 
Catholic  University,'^  established  and  supported  by  the  contributions 
of  Irish  Catholics  at  home  and  abroad,  was  opened.  In  1882  it  was 
transformed  into  a  philosophical  faculty,  under  the  name  of  Central 
University  College. 

Besides  the  College  of  Maynooth,  the  Missionary  College  of  All 
Hallows,  and  the  new  Apostolic  College  of  Limerick,  there  are  a 
number  of  other  ecclesiastical  seminaries.  According  to  the  statistics 
of  the  "Catholic  Almanac,"  1885,  there  are  in  Ireland  four  archbish- 
ops, namely,  of  Armagh,  Dublin,  Cashel,  and  Tuam  ;  in  all  twenty- 
four  archbishops  and  bishops  ;  1,089  parishes,  1,004  parish-priests, 
1,772  administrators,  curates,  and  others,  446  regular  clergy ;  or  a 
total  of  3,000  priests  and  2,384  churches  and  chapels. 

By  an  Act  of  Parliament  (1869)  the  Established  Church  in  Ire- 
land was  disestablished  and  disendowed  ;  thus  was  a  long-standing 
grievance  to  the  Catholic  people  at  length  removed.^ 

Pursuant  to  the  call  of  the  Pope,  the  Irish  bishops  assembled  at 
Pome  in  May,  18'85,  to  consult  with  His  Holiness  regarding  the 
holding  of  a  National  Council. 

The  see  of  Dublin,  vacated  by  the  death  of  Archbishop  McCabe 
(-f  1885),  has  since  been  filled  by  Dr.  Walsh,  former  president  of 

1  Moran,  History  of  the  Catholic  Archbishops  of  Dublin  since  the  Reformation. 

2  Molloji,  The  Catholic  University  of  Ireland. 

"  See  tlie  Catholic  World,  May,  1869.  Thebaud,  The  Irish  Race  in  Past  and 
Present. 


CATHOLICITY  IN  ENGLAND  AND   SCOTLAND.       393 

Maynooth  College.     Bishop  Delany,  of  Cork,  the  oldest  bishop  in 
Ireland,  departed  this  life  toward  the  close  of  the  year  188G. 

The  combined  sentiment  of  Irish  faith  and  Irish  nationality, 
says  Archbishop  Walsli,  is  as  vigorous  and  as  active  now  as  it  has 
ever  been  at  any  period  in  the  history  of  the  past.  The  national 
movement  ^  for  what  is  styled  ''  Home  Rule,"  carried  on  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  admonition  of  Pope  Leo  XIII.  to  defend  the 
"just  cause  of  the  country  "  by  just  means,  is  unanimously  approved 
by  the  Irish  bishops,  who  certainly  have  the  welfare  of  their  people 
at  heart. 


§  230.    Revival  of  Catholicity  in  Ejigland  and  Scotland.  —  Resto- 
ration of  the  Hierarchy  in  both  Countries. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  present  period  the  number  of  Catholics  in 
England  Avas  very  small.  According  to  a  report  of  the  year  1767 
they  then  amounted  to  only  69,376,  and  in  1804  this  number  had 
dwindled  down  to  60,000.  In  1688  Pope  Innocent  XI.  had  divided 
England  into  four  ecclesiastical  districts,  which  about  1786  had  359 
priests  ;  the  four  vicars-apostolic  had  no  permanent  sees,  and  received 
their  priests  from  the  Catholic  colleges  of  the  Continent  (Douay, 
St.  Omer,  Liege,  Louvain,  and  Lamspringe  near  Hildesheim).  This 
division  lasted  to  the  time  of  Gregory  XVI.,  who  on  July  3,  1840, 
doubled  the  number  of  vicariates  in  the  brief  "  Muneris  apostolici ; " 
the  number  of  Catholics  being  at  that  time  on  a  promising  increase, 
and  amounting  already  to  about  a  million.  This  happy  change  was 
greatly  owing  to  the  able  expositions  and  defence  of  the  faith  made 
by  Catholic  writers.  Before  this  time  the  Catholics,  being  few^  in 
number,  besides  being  politically  debased  and  the  objects  of  a  host 
of  prejudices,  had  lacked  the  means  of  making  themselves  and  their 
religion  an  object  of  due  consideration.  From  the  time  of  the 
Reformation,  the  Catholic  press  had  ceased  to  exist,  or  had  been 
reduced   to  a   state  of  captivity  ;  the  rise  to  significance  in  1829 

1  See  Catholic  "World,  March,  1885,  "Ireland's  Argument;"  also,  April,  1885, 
'•  Ireland's  Moderation."  See  "  Ireland's  Great  Grievances,  Land  Tenure  in  Ireland 
and  other  Countries,"  in  American  Catholic  Quarterly  Review,  1881,  vol.  vii.  p.  51. 
"The  Situation  in  Ireland,"  p.  326.  American  Quarterly  Review,  "The  Irish  Land 
Bill,"  p.  508  sqq.  See  also  vol.  vi.  p.  751  sqq.  "The  Parnell  Movement.  With 
Sketch  of  Irish  Parties  from  1843."     By  T.  P.  O'Connor,  M.  P. 


394  HISTORY  OF  THE  CATHOLIC  CHURCH. 

was  at  once  the  signal  and  the  cause  of  a  better  manifestation  of 
Catholicity. 

Before  the  time  of  Catholic  emancipation,  the  works  of  Gother/ 
of  Challouer,^  Vicar  Apostolic  of  London  (1758-1781),  Berington  ^ 
(+  1827),  and  Kirk  (+  1851),  Baines  (+  1843),  Fletcher,"  Butler, 
Howard,  Milner,  Coombe,  John  McHale,  and  others,  had  tended 
to  dissipate  the  current  prejudices  against  Catholics  that  had  been 
kept  alive  for  centuries.  A  number  of  able  writers,^  some  of  whose 
names  we  shall  take  occasion  to  recall  in  these  pages,  continued 
from  this  time  forth  to  defend  Catholic  doctrines,  institutions,  and 
rights. 

The  cause  of  true  enlightenment  was  greatly  furthered  by  periodi- 
cal literature  about  this  time.  In  this  the  "  Catholic  Magazine  " 
and  the  "  Tablet,"  the  latter  ably  conducted  for  fifteen  years  by 
Frederic  Lucas  (+  1855),  took  a  distinguished  part.  The  London 
Catholic  Tract  Society  was  earnest  in  promoting  the  recognition  of 
what  Catholicity  truly  is.  The  priests  were  indefatigably  active 
under  the  direction  of  the  vicars-apostolic,  who  held  a  synod  in 
May,  1838,  to  lay  down  rules  for  their  conduct.  After  the  death  of 
Dr.  Poynter  (+  1827),  his  coadjutor,  Dr.  Bramston,  a  man  of  great 
piety  and  extraordinary  learning,  became  vicar-apostolic  of  London, 
and  was  himself  (+  1836)  succeeded  by  Thomas  Griffiths. 

The  number  of  converts  from  the  Anglicans,  and  even  from  the 
Methodists,  increased  from  year  to  year.  In  the  year  1838  a  Catho- 
lic Institute  was  founded,  in  London,  with  three  affiliated  institutes, 

1  Papists  Misrepresented  and  Represented.  It  first  appeared  in  1685,  and  went 
througli  thirty  editions. 

-  Memoirs  of  Missionary  Priests,  etc.;  Edition  of  Holy  Bible  ;  Grounds  of  Catholic 
Doctrine  ;  and  other  works. 

3  State  and  Behavior  of  English  Catholics,  etc.  London,  1781.  Faith  of  Catho- 
lics, by  Kev.  Jos.  Berington  and  Rev.  J.  Kirk  (1813),  revised  and  enlarged  by  Rev. 
J.  Watericorth,  re-edited  in  1884  by  Monsignor  Capel. 

*  (luide  to  the  True  Religion  (1810)  ;  Comparative  View  of  the  Grounds  of  the 
Catholic  and  Protestant  Cliurches  ;  Difficulties  of  Protestantism. 

'"  Among  these  are  :  The  celebrated  historian  Rev.  J.  Lingard  (born  1771,  -f  1851), 
author  of  Antiquities  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  Church;  History  of  England  ;—7'/(o»iffls 
Moore  (-}-  1852),  author  of  Irish  Melodies,  etc. ;  Memoirs  of  the  Life  of  Captain  Rock  ; 
Travels  of  an  Irish  Gentleman  in  Search  of  a  Religion,  London,  1833  ;  —  Miss  Agnew, 
author  of  Geraldine,  etc. ;  Sir  Kenelm  H.  Digby,  author  of  Mores  Catholici  ;  — 
E.  Lanic/an,  who  wrote  History  of  Ireland  to  the  Thirteenth  Century  ;  the  Protes- 
tants Macaulay,  Da/las,  Cobbed  (History  of  the  Protestant  Reformation),  who  in  their 
historic  researches  earnestly  endeavored  to  state  the  truth. 


CATHOLICITY  IN   ENGLAND   AND  SCOTLAND.         395 

by  the  Eavl  of  Shrewsbury  ^  (+  1852),  who  was  a  great  benefactor  to 
the  Catholic  cause.  A  society  of  ladies,  under  the  direction  of  the 
Marchioness  of  Wellesley,  undertook  to  provide  aid  for  furnishing 
churches  and  chapels  with  the  articles  necessary  for  divine  service ; 
other  associations  arose  for  the  establishment  of  religious  free 
schools  and  for  administering  to  the  wants  of  the  sick.  Convents 
of  nuns,  established  by  religious  who  had  been  expelled  from  France 
at  the  time  of  the  Revolution,  had  existed  from  the  year  1794. 

Many  chapels  had  been  built  by  emigrants  ;  the  cathedrals  of 
London  and  York  were  also  erected.  In  the  year  1846  there  were 
already  ten  theological  institutions  in  England ;  among  them  stood 
prominently  forward  those  of  the  Jesuits  at  Stonyhurst  and  St. 
Mary's  near  Birmingham.  The  suppression  of  the  Catholic  col- 
leges of  Douay  and  St.  Omer  furnished  material  for  opening  the 
colleges  of  St.  Cuthbert  in  Ushaw,  and  of  St.  Edmund  at  Crook 
Hall,  and  of  the  Benedictines  at  Downsitle  and  at  Ampleforth.  The 
internal  schisms  among  Protestants,  the  petrifaction  of  the  Estab- 
lished Church,  the  study  of  Christian  antiquity,  and  observation  of 
the  action  of  the  Catholic  Church  in  the  various  countries  of  the 
earth,  by  degrees  led  a  greater  number  of  Protestants  to  the  full 
and  complete  recognition  of  the  Truth. 

In  the  Protestant  University  of  Oxford  a  movement  set  in,  which, 
though  not  so  designed  by  its  originators,  led  many  persons  to  the 
Church  of  Rome.  Several  members  of  the  colleges,  who  had  ob- 
served with  regret  the  laxity  of  the  discipline  prevalent  among  the 
more  wealthy  episcopal  clergy,  and  had  become  aware  of  the  increas- 
ing spread  of  rationalism,  conceived  the  idea  of  inaugurating  a  re- 
form of  the  High  Church  from  within,  by  bringing  it  back,  as  they 
thought,  to  its  apostolic-Catholic  fundamental  principles ;  in  doing 
which  they  proposed  to  avoid  both  extremes,  —  that  of  the  ultra- 
liberal  Protestants  and  that  of  Romanism.  With  admirable  dili- 
gence they  applied  themselves  with  this  intent  to  the  study  of  the 
ancient  Fathers.  They  sought  by  prayer,  by  frequently  receiving  the 
Holy  Eucharist,  by  good  example,  sermons,  and  writings,  to  improve 
the  ecclesiastical  spirit,  and  to  revive  the  knowledge  of  many 
ancient  Christian  doctrines  which  had  fallen  into  neglect  or  had 
not  been  sufficiently  cherished.  They  adhered  to  that  of  the  apos- 
tolic commission  of  the  bishops  and  of  the  priests  subordinated  to 
them  by  an  unbroken  succession.  It  was  John  Keble  who  first  gave 
the   impetus   to   that   far-spreading   movement   by  his   sermon   on 

*  Memoir  of  the  late  Earl  of  Shrewsbury  in  the  Catholic  Directory  of  1854. 


396  HISTORY  OF   THE   CATHOLIC   CHURCH. 

"  National  Apostasy,"  delivered  at  Oxford  July  14, 1833.  This  move- 
ment was  afterwards  called  Tractarianism,  from  the  "  Tracts  for  the 
Times,"  ^  comj^osed  in  its  exposition  by  John  Henry  Newman  and  his 
friends  ;  these  tracts  numbered  ninety  in  all  up  to  the  year  1841. 

When  the  Rev.  Dr.  Edward  B.  Pusey  joined  the  Tractarians  and 
became  the  leader  of  the  party,  the  name  was  changed  to  that  of 
Puseyism.  In  many  dogmas  these  men  came  quite  near  to  the 
Catholic  Church,  as  also  in  regard  to  ecclesiastical  tradition,  justifica- 
tion, the  real  presence  of  Christ  in  the  Holy  Eucharist,  the  state  of 
purification  to  be  undergone  in  the  next  life,  the  veneration  of  saints, 
relics,  and  images ;  but  they  thought  that  these  doctrines  were  dis- 
figured in  the  Roman  Church  with  many  spurious  offshoots,  and 
that  in  the  Anglican  Communion  the  true  Apostolic  Church  with 
true  bishops  and  true  sacraments  existed.  The  idea  of  coalescing 
with  the  Eastern  Church,  as  attempted  by  Mr.  Palmer,  soon  proved 
to  be  a  fallacy.^ 

Further  inquiry  led  many  to  doubt  whether  Anglicanism  were 
tenable  ;  near  as  they  came  to  Catholicity,  they  yet  sought  to  escape 
it,  as  being  branded  with  the  mark  of  superstitious  Romanism  and 
papistry.  But  the  logical  consequences  led  directly  to  the  result 
they  wished  to  avoid,  —  namely,  to  Rome.  Since  1838  many  mem- 
bers have  passed  over  to  the  Catholic  Church.  Pusey  and  Newman, 
the  most  influential  among  the  Tractarians,  sought  to  stem  the  tide. 
The  latter  endeavored  in  vain,  in  Tract  Ninety,  to  demonstrate  that 
the  Thirty-nine  Articles  of  the  English  Establishment  could  be 
reconciled  with  the  teachings  of  the  Council  of  Trent.  This  tract 
found  many  opponents.  One  after  the  other,  the  Anglican  bishops 
declared  against  it.  The  Bishop  of  Oxford  caused  the  "  Tracts  for 
the  Times  "  to  be  discontinued.  Newman  himself,  when  he  saw  that 
the  Anglican  bishops  condemned  his  well-meant  effort,  while  at  the 
same  time  they  were  entering  into  ecclesiastical  communion  with 
"  heretical  "  Protestants  by  the  establishment  of  the  Anglo-Prussian 
Bishopric  at  Jerusalem,  began  to  waver  concerning  his  Anglican 
Church.  In  1843  he  gave  up  his  parish  duty,  and  after  further 
inquiry  became  a  Catholic  in  1845.  In  1847  he  was  ordained 
priest  and  joined  the  Oratorians,  since  which  time  he  has  labored 
with   great   success  in   defence  of   Catholicity.*    His  example  was 

^  See  Account  of  Tractarianism  in  Neimnan's  Apologia,  part  iv. 

^  See  the  Catholic  World,  October,  1880,  "The  Changes  in  Oxford." 

^  See  Characteristics  of  the  Writings  of  John  Henry  Newman,  by  JV.  S.  Lilly. 

New  York,  1875.     In  1850  he  organized  the  Catholic  University  of  Dublin,  and  was 

its  rector  for  five  years. 


CATHOLICITY  IX  ENGLAND  AND  SCOTLAND.        ^.97 

followed  by  Faber  ^  (+  18G3)  and  niaii\'  others,  wlio  became  orna- 
ments of  the  Church.  Pusey,  however,  who  in  1842  had  publicly 
defended  the  ground  taken  by  Dr.  Newman  in  Tract  Ninety,  who 
had  been  for  two  years  suspended  from  the  University  pulpit  in 
consequence  of  a  sermon  he  had  preached  on  the  Eucharist,  who 
moreover  was  in  many  ways  dissatisfied  with  the  state  of  Angli- 
canism, could  nevertheless  not  prevail  upon  himself  to  leave  the 
Anglican  Church.  Many  other  ecclesiastics  inclined  to  the  Catholic 
Church,  but  were  willing  to  wait  for  the  time  when  the  English 
Church  should  be  Catholicized;  therefore  the  Catholicizing  ritual- 
istic tendency,  constantly  assailed  by  progressive  rationalism  and 
looked  upon  disparagingly  by  most  of  the  bishops,  maintained  its 
ground  ;  yet  after  a  while  nine  hundred  Tractarians,  many  of  whom 
were  clergymen,  entered  the  ancient  church,  which  was  continually 
on  the  increase  by  the  accession  of  eminent  persons  to  her  ranks. ^ 

In  recognition  of  the  promising  success  of  Catholicity  in  England, 
Pope  Pius  IX.,  on  Sept.  29, 1850,  by  the  bull  "  Universalis  ecclesiae,"  ^ 
restored  the  Catholic  hierarchy  in  England,  with  twelve  bishoprics  * 
under  the  Archbishop  of  Westminster.  The  latter  dignity,  together 
with  the  cardinalate,  was  conferred  on  Dr.  Wiseman. 

Dr.  Wiseman  was  born  in  1802  at  Seville,  of  Irish  Catholic  parents  ; 
in  1818  he  was  a  pupil  of  the  English  College  at  Rome,  of  which 
he  afterwards  became  rector  ;  in  1836  he,  with  Quin  and  O'Connell, 
began  the  publication  of  the  "  Dublin  Review  "  for  the  furtherance 
of  the  Romeward  movement ;  in  1840  he  was  appointed  Coadjutor 
Vicar-Apostolic  of  the  Midland  District  of  England  and,  at  the  same 
time,  president  of  St.  Mary's  College  of  Oscott.  After  the  death  of 
Thomas  Griffiths  (1847),  he  became  acting  vicar  of  London;  he  was 
a  man  of  extensive  learning,^  and  very  earnest  in  his  solicitude  for 
the  welfare  of  souls. 

The  act  of  the  Pope  respecting  the  hierarchy  called  forth  the 

1  A  great  ascetic  writer. 

^  An  account  of  Puseyism  and  of  the  great  converts  of  his  time  is  given  by  T.  IV. 
Allies,  in  his  interesting  book  "A  Life's  Decision."  London,  1880.  Mr.  Allies,  an 
eminent  defender  of  the  Apostolic  See,  became  a  Catholic  Sept.  11,  1850. 

3  Ullathorne,  History  of  Kestoration  of  the  Catholic  Hierarchy  in  England.  Lon- 
don, 1882. 

*  In  1879  the  bishopric  of  Middleborough  was  added. 

5  Other  distinguished  writers  of  this  period  are  :  Spencer  Northcote  (The  Roman 
Catacombs),  Maguire  (Rome  and  its  Ruler),  and  Lady  Georgiana  Fullerton  (-|-  1885). 


398  HISTORY  OF   THE   CATHOLIC   CHURCH. 

utmost  wrath  of  Protestant  fanatics ;  numberless  speeches  were 
made,  pamphlets  were  distributed,  and  mobs  organized  with  the 
magic  cry  of  "  No  popery  !  " 

In  1851  Parliament  passed  the  Ecclesiastical  Titles  Assumption 
Bill,  forbidding  Catholics  to  assume  or  use  the  episcopal  titles  of 
cities  in  the  United  Kingdom ;  and  the  Class  and  Convent  Bill,  by 
which  priests  and  religious  were  prohibited  from  appearing  in  public 
in  the  dress  of  their  order,  etc.  Yet  the  storm  subsided  without 
serious  consequences :  the  hierarchy,  when  once  established,  quietly 
continued  to  exist ;  twenty  years  later  the  bill  was  recalled.  Car- 
dinal Wiseman  addressed,  in  1851,  a  dignified  "Appeal  to  the  Reason 
and  Good  Feeling  of  the  People  of  England,"  etc.,  which  made  a 
great  impression,  and  converts  became  more  numerous  than  ever  ; 
thirty-three  Anglican  ministers  came  into  the  Church,  among  whom 
were  Henry  Edward  Manning,  Henry  and  Robert  Wilberforce, 
brothers  of  Samuel  Wilberforce,  Bishop  of  Oxford.  In  1852  Car- 
dinal Wiseman  held  the  first  provincial  council  ^  at  Oscott,  which  was 
followed  by  two  others  in  1855  and  1859  (+  Feb.  15, 1865 ).  He  was 
succeeded  by  the  able,  zealous,  and  exemplary  Henry  Edward  Man- 
ning,"'^  who  in  1875  was  likewise  created  Cardinal.  He  was  very 
energetic  at  the  Vatican  Council,  and,  like  Dr.  Newman,  vigorously 
repelled  the  attacks  made  by  Gladstone  on  the  loyalty  of  the 
Catholics  and  on  the  Decrees  of  the  Council. 

The  movement  made  by  the  Ritualists,  headed  by  Dr.  Pusey,  in 
advocating  the  sacrament  of  penance  and  the  monastic  life,  and 
in  introducing  the  ecclesiastical  ceremonies  of  the  primitive  Church, 
promoted  the  victorious  progress  of  Catholic  ideas.  In  1869 
the  Royal  Privy  Council,  and  in  1873  Parliament  in  the  Public 
Worship  Regulation  Act,  proceeded  against  the  Catholicizing  Ritual- 
ists, and  forbade  all  such  practices  as  were  similar  to  the  Romish  ; 
but  the  prosecutions  on  this  account  only  developed  a  more  resolute 
firmness  in  the  adherents  to  this  party,  and  in  1875  many  of  them 
in  a  manifesto  denounced  the  State  bishops  and  their  Erastianism. 
A  disestablishment  of  the  Anglican  Church  would  perhaps  occasion 
a  new  tide  to  set  in  towards  Rome.'^  The  foundation  of  the  gra- 
tuitous Catholic  University  of  London  (1874),  the  composition  of 

1  Decreta  4  Coiiciliorum  Prov.  1852-1873.     Edit.  -J.     Loudini  :  Burns  et  Gates. 

^  See  Characteristics  of  Cardinal  Manning,  by  J  J'.  .V.  LiUi/. 

3  Cf.  "Ritualism  and  the  Anglican  Church"  in  tin-  Catholic  World,  Septeniher, 
1880.  Dublin  Review,  October,  1885,  pp.  406,  407.  Catholic  World,  July,  1886, 
p.  473  sqq. 


RESTunATlON   OF   THE    IIIERAllCHY.  399 

instructive  and  edifying  writings,  the  increase  in  tlie  number  of  the 
Catholic  daily  papers  and  periodicals,  the  establishment  of  semina- 
ries, and  the  numerous  additions  to  the  monastic  institutions  fur- 
thered the  progress  of  Catholicity. 

The  school  question  in  England  is  in  a  very  similar  condition  to 
that  existing  in  the  United  States.  The  "  Education  Act "  intro- 
duced by  Mr.  Foster  in  1870,  on  the  part  of  the  Liberal  government, 
created  State  schools  on  an  exclusively  secular  system  of  education. 
Owing  to  their  large  public  resources,  they  have  a  natural  advantage 
over  the  schools  voluntarily  established  by  various  religious  bodies. 
Yet  their  establishment  has  aroused  the  energies  of  those  who  have 
the  cause  of  religion  at  heart.  The  Catholic  body  in  England, 
headed  by  that  ardent  promoter  of  religious  instruction.  Cardinal 
Manning,  has  established  the  "  Voluntary  School  Association  "  for 
the  purpose  of  promoting  the  cause  of  the  Voluntary  Catholic 
Schools,  which  are  mainly  dependent  upon  private  zeal.^ 

In  Scotland  there  were  a  few  Catholics  who,  despite  the  hostile 
attitude  taken  by  the  Presbyterians,^  remained  faithful  to  the  Catho- 
lic creed,  and  obtained  their  priests  from  the  Scottish  College  of 
Kome.  There  were  also  Scottish  colleges  at  Madrid,  Paris,  and 
Douay.  Until  the  year  1828  Scotland  had  had  two  vicars-apostolic  ; 
since  then  it  has  liad  three.  In  1829  there  were  but  fifty-one  Catho- 
lic churches  there ;  but  in  1848  they  numbered  eighty-seven,  and 
in  1859  there  were  one  hundred  and  eighty-three  churches  and 
chapels,  besides  an  institution  for  the  higher  Catholic  education  in 
the  College  of  St.  Mary's  at  P>lairs.  At  Edinburgh  a  great  Catholic 
Association  was  founded.  Public  conferences  were  held  to  prevent 
Catholic  doctrine  and  Catholic  institutions  from  being  presented 
in  a  false  light ;  the  "  Catholic  Keview,"  the  ''  Catholic  Magazine," 
and  the  "  Penny  Orthodox  Journal "  were  started  for  popular  in- 
struction. Immigration  from  Ireland  has  considerably  increased  the 
number  of  Catholics  of  late ;  they  now  number  over  four  hundred 
thousand.  In  18(38  the  three  vicars-apostolic  of  the  eastern,  west- 
ern, and  northern  districts  received  an  apostolic  delegate  in  the 
person  of  the  Archbishop  of  Anazarba,  Charles  Eyre,  who  was 
placed  over  them  by  Pius  IX.,  preparatory  to  the  act  of  restoring 

1  By  letters  of  the  Propaganda  of  Aug.  6,  1867,  and  of  Jan.  30,  1885,  Catholic 
young  men  are  forbidden  to  attend  the  national  universities  of  Oxford  and  Cambridge. 

-  A  vehement  assault  was  made  upon  the  Catliolics  in  Februar}-,  1778,  after  the  Pai- 
liament  had  placed  the  Catholics  on  an  equal  footing  with  other  dissenters.  At  that  time 
Dr.  Gregory,  a  great  friend  of  Bishop  Challoner,  was  Vicar- Apostolic  in  Scotland. 


400  HISTORY  OF   THE   CATHOLIC   CHURCH. 

the  hierarchy  to  Scotland,  which  was  completed  by  Leo  XIII.  i  i 
1878.  There  are  now  in  Scotland  325,324  Catholics,  governed  by 
two  archbishops,  four  bishops,  and  319  priests. 

B.    HISTORY  OF  THE   INTERIOR  CONDITION   OF  THE  CHURCH. 
I.     CONSTITUTION   OF  THE   CHURCH. 

§  231.    The  Popes  of  the  Nineteenth  Century. 

After  his  return  to  the  Eternal  City,  Pins  VII.,  assisted  by  Con- 
salvi,  his  Cardinal  Secretary  of  State,  was  earnest  in  his  endeavors 
to  promote  the  temporal  and  spiritual  welfare  of  his  subjects,  and  to 
regulate  the  affairs  of  the  Church  in  other  States  by  entering  into 
treaties  with  their  respective  governments.^  The  negotiations  thus 
begun  were  concluded  by  Leo  XII.  (della  Genga,  1823-1829). 
Under  him  the  Cardinal  Dean  Della  Somaglia  filled  the  office  of 
Secretary  of  State.  The  Pope  issued  stringent  ordinances  against 
indifferentism  and  against  secret  societies.^  He  bade  the  Italian 
bishops  keep  watch  over  the  Protestant  Bible-societies,  regulated  the 
educational  system  in  the  States  of  the  Church,  and  proclaimed  the 
Jubilee  for  the  year  1825.  The  arts  found  a  liberal  imtron  in  Leo 
XII.,  and  he  exercised  great  and  successful  energy  in  putting  down 
the  banditti.  Under  his  pontificate  the  papal  finances  were  in  a 
good  condition.^ 

Leo  XII.  was  succeeded  by  Pius  VIII.  (Castiglione),  who  reigned 
but  one  year  and  eight  months,  and  was  in  turn  succeeded  by 
Gregory  XVI.  (Capellari),  a  member  of  the  Order  of  Camaldo- 
lites.  During  his  pontificate  the  plots  and  intrigues  of  the  secret 
societies  began.  Encouraged  by  the  July  Revolution,  they  raised 
the  flag  of  rebellion  in  the  Legations  *  and  in  the  Province  of 
Ancona.  The  troops  of  Austria  restored  a  temporary  peace ;  but 
the  hidden  fire  yet  glowed  beneath  the  ashes.  Foreign  powers  also 
interfered  in  the  affairs  of  the  Church,  and  presented  the  memo- 

1  See  Literature,  §  215.  Cf.  Cardinal  Wiseman's  Recollections  of  the  Last  Four 
Popes.     Roskovdny,  Mon.  Cath.  ii.  1  sqq. 

2  The  Freemasons  have  been  repeatedly  condemned  by  the  Popes,  and  lately  the 
condemnation  was  renewed  in  an  Encyclical  of  Leo  XI II. 

3  Artaud,  Hist,  du  Pape  Leon  XII.,  Paris,  1843,  et  du  Pape  Pie  VIII.,  Paris, 
1844. 

*  The  Legations  were  the  divisions  of  the  States  of  the  Church. 


THE  POPES  OF   THE  NINETEENTH  CENTURY.       401 

randum  of  May  31,  1831.  In  the  name  of  the  Pope,  Bernetti,  the 
Cardinal  Secretary  of  State,  defended  the  rights  of  his  sovereign. 
Gregory  XVI.  introduced  judicial  reforms,  as  well  as  reforms  in  the 
administration,  in  taxation,  etc. ;  but  the  leaders  of  the  Carbonari 
were  not  satisfied  with  this,  and  filled  all  Europe  with  their  com- 
plaints and  calumnies  against  the  Holy  See.  The  Pope,  nothing 
daunted,  proceeded  with  wondrous  energy  against  the  political  con- 
spirators, at  whose  head  stood  the  notorious  Mazzini  (+ 1872). 
Peace  was  preserved  up  to  the  year  1843.  Since  that  time,  how- 
ever, the  revolutionary  movement  in  Italy  has  gained  new  power, 
and  the  agitation  against  the  temporal  sovereignty  of  the  Holy  See 
has  gained  a  wider  extension,  which  has  been  furthered  in  no  small 
degree  by  the  conduct  of  the  diplomatists. 

As  Prince  of  the  Church,  the  learned  Pope,  who  as  Pope  still 
continued  to  follow  the  strict  rule  of  his  order,  developed  a  won- 
drous capacity  and  energy  in  defending  the  rights  of  the  Church, 
which  had  been  shamefully  violated  by  several  governments ;  in 
rejecting  erroneous  and  dangerous  doctrines  as  well  as  in  supporting 
missions,^  Avhich  received  a  new  impulse  and  made  great  progress 
during  his  pontificate.  Gregory  XVI.  expressly  disapproved  of  the 
Polish  insurrection.^  The  arts  and  sciences  found  in  him  a  pro- 
tector. Among  the  cardinals  appointed  by  him  were  the  two  learned 
men,  Angelo  Mai  (-f- 1854)  and  Mezzofanti  (+  1849).^  On  the  retire- 
ment of  Bernetti  (1836),  Cardinal  Lambruschino  filled  the  position 
of  Cardinal  Secretary  of  State  until  the  death  of  this  great  Pope  on 
June  1,  1846. 

Gregory  XVI.  held  the  revolutionary  elements  in  restraint  by 
severity.*  His  successor,  Pius  IX.  (Mastai  Feretti),  sought  to  con- 
ciliate them  by  mildness.^  He  made  Cardinal  Gizzi  Secretary  of 
State,  granted  an  amnesty  to  political  criminals,  introduced  the 
wished-for  reforms,  and  admitted  persons  of  the  laity  to  high  offices 
of  State.  But  the  hopes  cherished  by  the  Pope  were  sadly  dis- 
appointed, and  the  laudations  which  had  been  showered  on  him  by  the 
liberal  and  radical  press  were  but  too  soon  changed  into  rude  and 
violent  attacks.     The  followers   of  Mazzini,  recalled  by  him  from 

1  See  §§  219,  223,  224,  226.  ^  See  §  228. 

^  Life  of  Cardinal  Mezzofanti  by  Dr.  Russel. 

*  Gregory  XVI.,  on  May  20,  1846,  summoned  J.  Cretineau  Joly  to  his  presence,  and 
commissioned  him  to  write  a  "  History  of  Secret  Societies  and  their  Results."  J.  Creti 
neau  Joly.     Paris,  1875. 

^  Acta  Pii  IX.     3  vols.     Rom.  1854  sriq.     See  Maguire's  Pius  IX.,  new  edition, 
by  Rt.  Rev.  Mousignor  Patterson.     Pius  IX.  and  his  Times,  by  P.  Dwyer. 
VOL.   II.  26 


402  HISTORY   OF    THE    CATHOLIC    CHURCH. 

exile,  secretly  pursued  their  intrigues,  although  they  had  hypocriti- 
cally assured  the  Pope  of  their  fidelity  and  gratitude  to  him. 

The  Revolution  of  1848  found  its  echo  in  Rome.  The  concessions 
of  the  Pope,  who,  on  ]\Iarch  10,  1848,  gave  a  constitution  to  the 
country,  did  not  satisfy  the  revolutionary  party.  They  desired  the 
Apostolic  See  to  take  part  in  the  war  with  Austria.  Pius  IX.  re- 
fused to  do  so.  On  this,  the  rebels  compelled  him  to  accept  the 
revolutionary  ministry  of  Mamiani.  After  his  dismissal  the  ener- 
getic minister  De  Rossi  strove  to  restore  order,  but  on  November  15 
fell  by  the  dagger  of  an  assassin.  The  Pope,  thus  beset  on  all  sides, 
left  Rome  (November  24),  and  found  refuge  in  Gaeta.  On  Feb.  9, 
1849,  the  Revolutionary  Constituent  Assembly  proclaimed  the  Re- 
public, at  the  head  of  which  stood  the  triumvirate  Mazzini,  Saffi,  and 
Armellini.  Under  their  government  Rome  became  the  theatre  of 
great  public  crimes.  On  July  3,  a  French  army  under  General 
Oudinot  delivered  the  Eternal  City  from  the  heroes  of  the  Revo- 
lution, who  took  to  flight ;  while  the  Austrians  marched  against  the 
Legations.^  The  reign  of  the  Pope  was  restored,  to  the  great  joy  of 
the  well-disposed.  On  April  12,  1850,  Pius  IX.  returned  to  his 
capital.  Cardinal  Antonelli  (+ 1876)  became  prime  minister,  under 
the  title  of  Secretary  of  State.  Before  he  returned  to  Rome,  the 
Pope  had  already  issued  a  proclamation  declaring  an  amnesty,  from 
the  benefit  of  which  only  the  greatest  criminals  were  excluded. 

While  the  Papal  Government  was  occupied  in  promoting  the  mate- 
rial and  spiritual  interests  of  the  people,  the  revolutionists  con- 
tinued systematically  to  calumniate  and  blacken  it,  at  the  same  time 
that  they  took  every  kind  of  means  to  entrap  the  inexperienced 
youth  of  Italy  into  their  secret  societies. 

The  revolutionary  party  found  an  ally  in  King  Victor  Emmanuel 
of  Sardinia,  whose  minister,  Count  Cavour,  brought  the  "  Italian 
Question "  '^  before  the  Parisian  Congress  (1856).  His  accusations 
against  the  Papal  Court  had  already  been  refuted  by  the  French 

1  By  two  edicts,  one  of  the  22(1,  the  other  of  the  24th  of  November,  1850,  the  gov- 
ernment of  the  Provinces  and  of  the  Commonalty  was  regulated.  The  law  concerning 
the  provinces  divided  the  domain  of  the  State  into  fourteen  Legations,  besides  the  capi- 
tal city  and  the  domain  thereto  belonging.  The  Legations  are  subdivided  into  Provinces 
or  Delegations,  these  into  Governments,  and  these  again  into  Commonalties.  At  the 
head  of  each  legation  a  cardinal,  with  the  title  "  Legate  of  the  Holy  See,"  was  to  be 
placed,  assisted  by  one  out  of  the  four  fellow-members  of  the  Constituent  CounciL 
Dr.  Fchr,  Univ.  Hist.  vol.  ii.  p.  909. 

"^  Roskovdny,  Rom.  pontif.  v.  418.  Cf.  The  Independence  of  the  Holy  See,  by 
Cardinal  Manning. 


THE   POPES    OF    THE   NINETEENTH    CENTURY.      403 

ambassador  Count  Rayneval,  in  his  report  ^  of  May  14,  185G ;  but 
this  report  was  not  attended  to.  England  was  on  the  side  of  the 
revolutionary  party  ;  and  Napoleon  III.,  intimidated  by  the  bombs  of 
Orsini,  offered  to  lend  a  hand  to  drive  Austria  out  of  Italy  (1859), 
the  result  of  which  was  the  loss  of  the  Legations  and  of  Ko magna 
for  the  Pope.  The  battle  of  Castel  Fidardo  (October,  1860)  despoiled 
him  of  the  Marquisates  and  of  Umbria,  so  as  to  leave  him  but  a 
pitiful  remnant  of  his  former  possessions.  Napoleon  had  looked  on 
tranquilly  while  the  robbery  was  taking  place.  An  attack  upon  Rome 
by  the  Garibaldians  was  repulsed  by  the  papal  army,  assisted  by  a 
corps  of  French  soldiers,  in  the  battle  of  Mentana  (Nov.  3,  1867). 
After  the  French  had  evacuated  Rome  in  1870,  Victor  Emmanuel 
ordered  the  city  to  be  cannonaded.  On  the  20th  of  September  of 
that  year  his  troops  entered  Rome.  Then  followed  the  farce  of 
popular  election.  Victor  Emmanuel  took  possession  of  the  papal 
palace  of  the  Quirinal ;  the  Pope,  despoiled  of  his  temporal  posses- 
sions, remained  in  the  Vatican,  refusing  to  accept  the  law  guarantee- 
ing to  him  his  freedom,  and  the  civil  list  which  provided  him  with 
a  stipulated  revenue. 

During  his  long  pontificate  of  thirty-two  years  Pius  IX.  in  refer- 
ence to  Church  affairs  displayed  a  universal  activity ;  he  strove  to 
reorganize  the  affairs  of  the  Church  in  the  several  countries  by 
making  conventions  with  them ;  he  reinstituted  the  Catholic  hie- 
rarchy in  England  and  Holland,  and  erected  bishoprics  and  apostolic 
vicariates  in  the  interests  of  missions  throughout  the  world,^  As 
supreme  teacher  of  all  nations,  he  encouraged  learning ;  and  b}'-  the 
supi)ort  and  countenance  he  gave,  he  enabled  others  to  publish 
learned  and  valuable  works  on  Christian  Archaeology  and  Art.^ 
With  the  whole  force  of  his  authority,  he  resisted  the  degeneracy 
of  the  times,  and  frequently  opposed  and  condemned  the  scientific, 
political,  and  social  errors  of  the  day.  The  renowned  Syllabus,  which 
was  annexed  to  the  Papal  Encyclical  of  Dec.  8,  1864,  was  compiled 
from  separate  documents.  Pius  IX.  assembled  around  his  throne 
a  great  number  of  the  prelates  of  the  whole  world  five  several 
times.     The  first  occasion  was  in  1854,  when  the  dogmatical  defi- 

1  Copied  in  Maguire's  Rome  and  its  Ruler. 

-  He  erected  twenty-nine  archbishoprics,  a  hundred  and  thirty-two  bishoprics, 
thirty-three  vicariates-apostolic,  fifteen  prefectures-apostolic,  and  three  delegations- 
apostolic. 

"*  Rossi,  Roma  sotteranea  cristiana,  etc.,  translated  into  English  by  Very  Rev. 
J.  Spencer  Northcote. 


404  HISTORY  OF   THE    CATHOLIC   CHURCH. 

nition  of  the  Immaculate  Conception  was  proclaimed,  on  Decem- 
ber 8;  the  second  was  at  the  canonization  of  the  Japanese  maityis 
(June  9,  1862)  ;  the  third  at  the  celebration  of  the  centenary  t  f 
Sts.  Peter  and  Paul  (June  29,  1867) ;  at  the  fourth  time  the  bishops 
of  the  world  were  assembled  to  hold  the  Vatican  Council  (Dec.  8, 
1869),  when  their  labors  were  suddenly  brought  to  a  close  by  the 
invasion  of  the  Piedmontese.  The  occasion  of  the  fifth  assembly 
was  to  celebrate  the  Jubilee  of  Pius  IX.  having  been  fifty  years 
bishop  (June  3,  1877). 

In  1878,  on  Feb.  7,  the  far-famed  pontificate  •  of  Pius  IX.  came 
to  an  end.  His  successor  was  Leo  XIII.  (Vincent  Joachim  Pecci). 
He,  like  his  predecessor,  is  a  prisoner  in  the  Vatican ;  yet  up  to  this 
time  he  has  displayed  an  active  energy  which  has  encompassed 
the  whole  world ;  repeatedly  and  solemnly  has  he  protested  against 
the  robbery  of  the  States  of  the  Church  ;  most  energeticall}'  and 
solemnly  has  he  condemned  the  aspirations  of  socialism,  while  he 
has  protected  the  sanctity  of  marriage  and  of  property,  and  re- 
formed philosophical  studies.  He  has  resumed  relations  with 
Germany,  and  through  the  mediation  of  Errington  with  England 
also.  He  has  raised  his  voice  against  the  oppression  of  Catholics 
in  Belgium  and  Italy,  and  by  his  considerate  conduct  has  jire- 
vented  a  rupture  with  France  without  detracting  from  the  rights 
of  the  Church.  He  has  made  representations  to  Christian  regents 
concerning  their  dignity  and  their  duties,  restored  the  hierarchy 
to  Scotland,  addressed  loving  and  earnest  words  to  Irish  Catholics, 
recommended  Catholic  journalism,  has  directed  his  apostolic  solici- 
tude to  the  Christian  East  and  to  the  Slavic  nations  as  well  as 
to  the  missions  among  the  heathen.  He  has  promoted  science 
and  piety,  and  endeavored  to  adjust  the  religio-political  difficul- 
ties of  Spain,  and  has  condemned  anew  the  secret  societies.  While 
Leo  XIII.  thus  courageously  advocates  the  cause  of  right  and  of 
justice,  he  enjoys  the  sympathies  of  the  whole  Catholic  world ; 
while,  on  the  other  hand,  King  Humbert  in  Italy  does  not  for  a 
moment  feel  himself  secure  upon  his  throne. 

After  the  occupation  of  Pome  the  anti-ecclesiastical  policy  was 
introduced  ;  the  cloisters  were  suppressed,  the  Church  was  deprived 
of  its  property,  and  sectarians  were  allowed  freedom  of  worship. 
Protestant  churches  and  schools  arose  in  Pome,  and  the  Protestant 
propagandists  employed  every  means  in  their  power  to  gain  ad- 
herents ;  tlius  far,  however,  money  and  persuasion  have  alike 
proved  of  no  avail. 


THE    (ECUMENICAL   COUNCIL    OF   THE    VATICAN.     405 

On  the  occasion  of  removing  the  corpse  of  Pius  IX.,  on  July  13, 
1881,  from  St.  Peter's  to  San  Lorenzo,  a  vile  rabble  surrounded  the 
bier,  reviling  his  memory  and  desecrating  his  remains ;  of  this 
outrage  the  Liberal  Government  took  no  notice  whatever. 

§  232.    The  (Ecwmenical  Council  of  the  Vatican. 

On  June  29,  1868,  Pius  IX.,  by  his  bull  "  Aeterni  Patris  Unigeni- 
tus,"  convoked  an  oecumenical  council  to  Rome,^  the  object  of  which 
was  more  precisely  stated  in  said  bull.  The  schismatic  Orientalists 
and  the  Protestants  received  special  letters  from  the  Pope  on  this 
occasion  ;  the  former  were,  on  the  8th  of  September,  invited  to  attend 
the  synod ;  the  latter  were,  on  the  13tli  of  September,  exhorted  to 
unite  themselves  to  the  Church.  The  preparations  for  the  council, 
especially  the  drawing  up  of  the  Schemata,  or  programme  of  proceed- 
ings, were  intrusted  to  several  commissions,  to  form  which  learned 
men  of  all  nations  had  been  summoned.  On  Dec.  8,  1869,  the  synod 
was  solemnly  opened  in  the  Basilica  of  St.  Peter.  Seven  hundred 
and  forty-seven  bishops  of  the  Eastern  and  Western  Churches  were 
present.  In  the  public  sessions  the  Pope  presided  in  person ;  in  the 
general  congregations  five  cardinals  took  the  presidency.  A  papal 
bull  of  Nov.  27,  1869,  had  already  determined  the  Order  of  Proceed- 
ings ;  but  on  the  petition  of  the  majority  of  the  council  it  received, 
on  Feb.  20,  1870,  several  additional  resolutions,  in  order  to  bring  the 
council  to  a  more  speedy  termination.  The  first  public  session  was 
devoted  to  the  solemn  opening  of  the  council,  and  in  the  second  (Jan. 
6,  1870)  the  Fathers  recited  the  Tridentine  profession  of  faith.  It 
was  at  the  third  session,  on  April  24,  that  the  first  dogmatic  decree 
of  faith  was  solemnly  proclaimed  and  the  opposing  errors  condemned. 
Thereupon  the  scheme  ("schema")  of  the  Church  came  before  them  ; 
and  at  the  request  of  the  majority  of  the  council,  a  beginning  was 
made  by  the  discussion  on  the  Primacy. 

The  disciission  was  carried  on  with  great  animation.  The  minor- 
ity of  the  bishops  assembled  in  Rome  were  against  the  dogmatic 
definition  of  papal  infallibility,  while  the  far  larger  majority  were 

^  Acta  et  decret.  ss.  Oecum.  Cone.  Vatic.  2  fasc.  Frib.,  1871.  Ceccnni,  Hist,  of 
Vatican  Council.  Cardinal  Manning,  Vatican  Council  and  its  Definitions  ;  The  True 
Story  of  the  Vatican  Co\incil.  Fcssler,  The  VatictMi  Cotmcil,  etc.  A  coniiilete  collec- 
tion of  all  documents  referring  to  the  Vatican  is  contained  in  Rosl~ovdny,  Rom.  ]>ontif. 
torn.  vii.  sq(i.  The  Protestant  Dr.  Emil  Friedberg  composed  a  '"Collection  of  Docu- 
ments of  the  First  Vatican  Council;  "  it  contains  also  a  list  of  works  on  the  Council. 


406  HISTORY   OF   THE    CATHOLIC   CHURCH. 

most  earnest  in  desiring  it.  The  discussion  was  prolonged  for  some 
time,  and  it  was  not  till  the  Fathers  had  maturely  considered  all 
the  reasons  for  and  against  the  declaration  of  the  infallibility  of  the 
Pope  in  his  office  as  teacher  that  in  the  fourth  public  session  (July 
18)  the  dogmatical  definition  of  the  Primacy  and  of  the  infallibility 
of  the  Pope  in  deciding  matters  of  faith  and  morals  was  decided  on, 
in  the  presence  of  five  hundred  and  thirty-iive  bishops. 

Very  few  of  the  prelates  objected  to  the  dogma  in  itself ;  the 
other  members  of  the  minority  thought  the  declaration  of  the  dogma 
inopportune,  because,  as  they  expressed  it,  there  Avas  no  special  rea- 
son for  defining  it,  and  it  might  serve  as  a  handle  for  the  enemies 
of  the  Church  and  even  for  governments  to  use  to  the  injury  of  the 
Church.  But  outside  the  circle  of  the  bishops  the  most  odious 
agitation  was  carried  on  against  the  declaration  of  papal  infallibility. 
This  agitation  had  begun  before  the  opening  of  the  council,  and  was 
continued  during  the  debates  with  ever-increasing  bitterness.  At 
the  head  of  the  anti-infallibilists  stood  Dollinger  of  Munich ;  he  was 
joined  by  several  professors  of  theology  who  believed  that  the  free- 
dom of  German  science  would  be  endangered  by  the  infallible  doc- 
trinal authority  of  the  Pope.  In  order  to  influence  public  opinion, 
ex  parte  statements  appeared  in  the  public  papers  concerning  the 
doings  of  the  council ;  while  the  so-called  "  Janus  "  was  written, 
with  an  appearance  of  learning,  ostensibly  to  combat  the  dogma  on 
historic  and  dogmatic  grounds.^  Diplomacy  also  took  part  in  the 
agitation.  The  governments  indeed  rejected  the  proposition  of 
Prince  Hohenlohe  to  make  common  cause  against  the  council,  while 
they  carried  on  their  intrigues  partly  in  secret,  partly  openly.  The 
future  will  perhaps  withdraw  the  veil  which  now  covers  the  whole 
transaction,  and  enable  us  to  form  a  correct  judgment  respecting  the 
acts  of  the  governments.  The  enemies  of  the  Church  were  looking 
for  the  apostasy  of  several  bishops,  but  happily  their  expectations 
were  not  fulfilled ;  all  the  Catholic  bishops  submitted  to  the  decree 
of  the  council.  Meantime  the  struggle  is  not  ended  yet.  As  in  the 
days  gone  by  the  'O/xoovVios,  so  in  our  times  the  ''  Infallibile  Magis- 
terium  "  of  the  Pope  becomes  the  subject  of  bitter  polemics,  the  aim 
of  which  is,  consciously  or  unconsciously,  the  denial  of  the  infallible 
authority  of  the  Church  in  teaching,  involving  the  denial  of  the 
divine  authority  of  the  Church  itself. 

^  Janus,  The  Pope  and  the  Council.  Leipzig,  1869.  Hergcnrothcr  wrote  an 
Anti-Janus,  Freib.  1870,  translated  into  English  bj'  J.  B.  Robertson.  Dublin,  1870. 
In  1872  Hergcnrothcr  wrote  also  "  The  Catholic  Church  and  Christian  State." 


THEOLOGICAL    SCIENCE.  407 

Several  courts  made  the  dogmatic  decision  on  this  head  a  pretext 
for  evading  the  fulfihnent  of  the  obligations  they  were  under 
towards  the  Church,  and  for  enacting  the  most  stringent  laws 
against  her.  Professor  Von  Schulte  became  the  apologist  of  State 
power. 

In  France  and  Italy  the  decree  found  opponents  ;  but  here  they 
did  not  gain  ground.  In  some  cantons  of  Switzerland,  however,  the 
opposition  was  carried  on  more  successfully.  After  the  so-called 
"  Congress  of  the  Old  Catholics  "  of  Munich,  a  new  sect  was  formed, 
which  was,  sad  to  sa}',  also  joined  by  several  men  renowned  for 
their  knowledge  and  learning  in  Catholic  literature. 

After  the  inroads  of  the  Piedmontese,  the  Pope  adjourned  the 
council,  which  will  resume  its  salutary  labors  when  the  restoration 
of  order  and  of  the  legitimate  government  affords  the  opportunity. 

On  religious  orders  and  congregations,  see  §  239. 

II.     DEVELOPMENT   OF  DOCTRINE. 

1.     Scientific  Studies. 
§  233.    Theological  Science  in  the  Nineteenth  Century. 

The  demolition  of  ecclesiastical  order,  more  especially  the  sup- 
pression of  the  institutions  of  learning  and  of  the  scientific  corpora- 
tions of  the  Catholic  Church  throughout  the  whole  Continent  of 
Europe,  which  ensued  from  the  French  Revolution  and  from  secu- 
larization, was  of  immeasurable  damage  to  ecclesiastical  science, 
which  had  already  suffered  greatly  by  the  rationalism  of  the  eigh- 
teenth century  and  by  the  Josephist  enlightenment. 

After  the  reorganization  of  this  ecclesiastical  order,  the  Church, 
robbed  of  her  property,  possessed  neither  an  adequate  number  of 
able  teachers  nor  means  to  build  up  ncAV  institutions  for  study  ; 
besides  which  the  State  power  debarred  her  from  exercising  any 
effective  influence  on  the  higher  schools,  over  which  the  State 
claimed  exclusive  direction,  and  in  point  of  fact  enforced  its  claim. 

As  if  to  increase  the  evil,  deistic  and  pantheistic  philosophy  con- 
tinued to  spread,  and  exerted  the  most  pernicious  influence  on 
science,  which  became  divested  more  and  more  of  its  Christian 
character. 

The  transformation  in  Germany  was  the  saddest  of  all.  The  old 
Catholic  universities  were  either  suppressed  or  changed  into  high- 


408  HISTORY  OF   THE   CATHOLIC   CHURCH. 

schools  conducted  on  the  principles  of  so-called  parity  or  equality,  but 
in  which  Protestantism  greatly  predominated.  The  philosophy  of 
a  Kant,  a  Schelling,  and  a  Hegel  were  presented  by  the  professorial 
chairs,  offering  in  a  brilliant  form  the  rationalistico-pantheistic 
views  of  German  classics  to  the  so-called  educated  public.  By 
proceedings  of  this  character  the  Catholic  Church  was  muzzled; 
even  the  education  of  the  clergy  was  conducted  by  the  State.  Yet 
in  Germany,  as  in  other  countries,^  the  Catholic  Church  surmounted 
the  many  obstacles  it  had  to  encounter,  and  by  degrees  a  Catholic 
science  ^  arose,  which  returned  more  and  more  to  the  principles  of 
the  great  Catholic  philosophers  and  theologians,  whose  profound 
works  have  been  frequently  re-edited  in  our  days. 

"With  regard  to  the  separate  branches  of  science  we  will  give  only 
short  intimations. 

Dogmatics  ^  were  treated  partly  as  positive,  mostly  in  the  form 
of  a  compendium  with  a  short  statement  of  proofs  and  refutation  of 
objections ;  partly  as  speculative,  in  opposition  to  the  anti-Christian 
speculations. 

Man}'  theologians  strayed  from  the  path  of  the  true  faith,  either 
because  they  based  their  reasonings  on  the  false  principles  of  the 
philosophy  in  vogue,  or  because  they  themselves  set  up  one-sided 
and  erroneous  systems,  and  thus  came  into  collision  with  the  truth. 

The  scientific  aberrations  and  controversies  of  modern  times  refer 
principally  to  the  relationships  that  philosophy  and  theology  bear 
to  each  other,  to  those  between  the  natural  and  the  supernatural 
phenomena  as  well  as  those  between  liberty  and  grace. 

The  controversy  concerning  the  speculative  theology  of  George 
Hermes,  Professor  of  Bonn  (-f- 1831),  assumed  a  special  significance. 
Hermes,  starting  from  positive  doubt,  was  desirous  of  constructing 
theology  on  the  basis  of  philosophy,*  and  besides  this  fell  into  the 

1  On  Great  Britain,  see  §§  229,  230. 

2  Thesaurus  libroruni  rei  catli.     3  vols.     Wiirzburg,  1850. 

3  The  modern  dogmatic  teachers  are  :  Liebermann  (+  1844),  Klee  (+  1840), 
Standenmaier  (+1856),  Kuhn,  Berlage,  Dieringer  (+1876),  Friedhof,  Oswald, 
Schwetz,  Reinerding,  Denzinger,  Kleutgen,  Schiitzler,  Heinrich,  Scheeben,  Glossiier 
(of  Germany),  Dens,  Laforet,  Jungmann,  Schouppe  (of  Belgium),  Cardinal  Gousset, 
Hilarins  (of  Paris),  Martinet,  Archbishop  Kenrick  (of  Baltimore.  +  1863),  Arch- 
bishop Spalding  (+ 1872>  ;  the  Cnpuchin  Albert  (of  Ruisano),  Perrone  (+  1876), 
Passaglia,  Schrader  (+  1875),  Cardinal  Franzelin,  Cardinal  C.uidi,  Hurter,  Mazella, 
De  Augustinis,  the  philosophers  Liberatore,  Tongiorgi,  Palinieri,  Sanseverino,  Car- 
dinal Zigliara,  and  others. 

*  "  Rationem  principem  normam  et  unicum  medium  esse,  quo  homo  assequi  jmssit 


THEOLOGICAL   SCIENCE.  409 

error  of  rationalism  respecting  certain  dogmas.  In  1835  the  Apos- 
tolic See  after  a  careful  examination  condemned  the  false  doctrine 
of  some  propositions ;  but  some  of  his  pupils  refused  to  accept 
the  papal  brief  on  a  plea  of  Jansenist  distinction,  tliat  the  con- 
demned propositions  were  not  to  be  found  in  the  writings  of  this 
professor.  The  professors  Elvenich  in  Breslau  and  Braun  (+  1863) 
in  Bonn  undertook  to  convince  the  Holy  See  of  this,  but  were 
required  to  accept  the  papal  brief  unconditionally.  Braun  and  his 
colleague  Achterfeld  (-f- 1877)  would  not  agree  to  this,  whereupon 
the  coadjutor-bishop  John  of  Geissel  in  1844  withdrew  from  them 
the  "  Venia  legendi,"  that  is,  the  permission  to  teach. 

Traditionalism,  as  principally  developed  by  Bonald,  is  diametrically 
opposed  to  Hermesianism  in  that  it  refers  all  knowledge,  or  at  least 
that  of  religious  and  moral  truth,  to  tradition,  and  this  tradition  itself 
to  a  primitive  revelation.  This  erroneous  system  was  also  taught 
by  Professor  Bautain  at  Strasburg.  He  denied  that  human  reason 
could  attain  to  certainty  on  religious  and  moral  truths.  He  did  not 
place  the  source  of  certainty  in  the  "sensus  communis,"  as  De 
Lamennais  had  done,  but  considered  Divine  Bevelation  to  be  the 
sole  ground  of  reliance ;  and  the  trustworthiness  of  this  he  thought 
could  not  be  proved  by  reason.  Finally,  Bautain  and  his  pupils 
submitted  to  the  judgment  of  the  Church.  Similar  erroneous  views 
were  taught  by  Bonnetty,  who  in  1855  subscribed  the  four  theses 
laid  before  him  by  the  Holy  See.  The  ontologist  Ubaghs  in  Louvain 
likewise  asserted  traditional  propositions. 

The  controversies  that  arose  respecting  the  philosophy  of  the 
secular  priest  Anthony  Gunther  (+  18G3)  induced  the  Holy  See  to 
subject  the  doctrines  of  the  well-disposed  author  to  a  closer  exami- 
nation. His  wish  to' refute  pantheism  led  him  to  the  vain  attempt 
to  demonstrate  the  mysteries  of  Christianity  a  priori,  and  to  be 
able  to  prove  and  lay  them  open  to  comprehension  by  speculative 
reasoning;  but,  as  could  scarcely  be  avoided  in  such  speculations,  he 
fell  into  many  errors  concerning  the  relation  between  the  natural 
and  the  supernatural.  He,  however,  submitted  to  the  censure  of  the 
Pope,  Feb.  20,  1857. 

Professor  Frohschammer  of  Munich,  who  had  already  incurred 
censure  on  account  of  his  "  Generatianismus  "  asserted  that  dogma, 
being  once  historically  given,  became  an  object  of  philosophy,  and 
that  the  latter  as  well  as  science  itself   was  absolutely  independ- 

supernaturalinm  veritatuni  cognitionera  (statuit)."     Cf.  Breve  Crrcg.  XVI.  ap.  Den- 
zinger,  Enchir.  p.  436. 


410  HISTORY  OF   THE   CATHOLIC   CHURCH. 

ent  of  revelation  and  of  the  authority  of  the  Church.  He  refused 
obedience  to  the  decision  of  the  Apostolic  See  which  was  given 
against  him,  and  subsequently  fell  to  the  standpoint  of  pure 
naturalism. 

The  empirico-naturalistic  system  of  the  Frenchman  Auguste 
Comte,  which  is  called  Positivism,  denies  the  possibility  of  coming 
at  the  knowledge  of  the  essence  and  cause  of  things,  and  with  this 
denies  all  metaphysical  and  theological  science ;  this  system  has  in 
our  day  obtained  a  widely  diffused  influence.  The  notorious  Renan 
(author  of  the  "  Life  of  Jesus  "  )  and  similar  spirits  move  in  the 
same  circle  of  ideas.  But  those  one-sided  theologians  who  consider 
Christianity  merely  as  ''  history,"  and  explain  the  dogmas  as  "  his- 
torical truths,"  likewise  turn  their  backs  on  the  authority  of  the 
Church,  and  consider  historical  criticism  and  science  as  the  supreme 
judge  in  matters  of  faith,  thus  proving  that  they  belong  to  a  spirit 
following  the  same  intellectual  movement. 

The  latest  controversy  on  the  relation  which  philosophy  bears  to 
theology  and  on  the  doctrine  of  nature  and  of  supernatural  existence 
began,  after  some  previous  attacks  on  scholasticism  and  the  so-called 
neo-scholastics,  between  John  Kuhn,  professor  at  Tubingen,  and 
James  Clemens,  professor  at  Munster,  and  after  the  death  of  the 
latter  was  carried  on  between  Kuhn  and  Constantine  von  Schiitzler 
(-1- 1880),  with  several  new  points  introduced  into  the  controversy. 

In  order  to  bring  about  a  closer  union  among  the  learned  Catholics 
of  Germany,  and  adjust  their  scientific  differences,  Dollinger,  Hane- 
berg,  and  Alzog  convoked  a  meeting  of  men  of  learning  and  science 
in  the  year  1863  at  Munich,  which  it  was  intended  periodically  to 
renew ;  and  it  might  have  become  of  great  importance  for  philoso- 
phy and  science  had  not  the  discordant  tone  of  a  portion  of  those 
assembled,  and  the  aversion  to  ecclesiastical  science  displayed  in  the 
opening  speech  of  Dollinger,  rendered  any  salutary  action  of  the 
assembly  altogether  impossible. 

In  order  to  oppose  the  various  erroneous  opinions  which  endanger 
faith  and  theological  science,  the  Apostolic  See,  in  virtue  of  its 
office  as  supreme  teacher,  has,  on  various  occasions  and  lastly  at 
the  Vatican,  given  expression  to  the  correct  principles  i  on  which 
theological  and  philosophical  science  is  based,  and  within  the  limits 
of  which  the  greatest  liberty  and  independence  may  be  exercised 
without  wandering  from  the  paths  of  faith  and  of  true  science.     In 

1  Encycl.  Pii  ad  Ep.  (Dec.  8,  1864)  cum  Syllab.  (§§  1,  2).  Cone.  Vatic.  Sess.  3,  de 
fide  cath.  (Acta  et  decret.  fasc.  i.  TO  sqq.  fasc.  ii.  170  sqq.). 


THEOLOGICAL   SCIENCE.  411 

particular,  the  Cliurch  desires  neither  a  one-sided  scholasticism  nor 
ajiy  presumptuous  ignoring  of  scholasticism,  but  rather  that  the  con- 
clusions arrived  at  b}-  the  great  theologians  of  ancient  times  should 
be  added  to  the  results  of  modern  investigation,  and  be  put  to  use 
by  serving  to  explain  and  defend  the  truths  of  faith. 

The  literature  of  symbolism  and  of  apologetico-polemical  theology, 
as  well  as  that  of  the  history  of  dogma,'  was  enriched  by  many 
excellent  works. 

Moral  theology  ^  was  treated  of  partly  as  a  system,  partly  as  matter 
of  casuistry.  In  this  department  St.  Alphonsus  Liguori,^  whose 
works  exercise  great  influence  and  are  of  enduring  merit,  stands  high 
as  a  leader. 

As  opposed  to  the  Galileans,  Febronians,  and  Josephists,  the 
modern  canonists  *  again  come  forward  to  defend  the  correct  prin- 
ciples based  on  the  articles  of  faith  ;  and  in  doing  so,  decidedly 
oppose  the  unjustifiable  and  deplorable  State-churchdom.  Although 
the  exegetical  writings  of  the  nineteenth  century  are  not  equal  to 
the  master-works  of  a  Maldonat,  etc.,  they  are  nevertheless  of  great 
importance  as  bearing  on  the  questions  of  the  day.  Catholic  ex- 
egetical Avriters  devote  special  attention  to  the  introduction  of  the 
Sacred  Scriptures,  and  refute  particularly  the  false  assertions  of 
Protestant  hypercriticism.  In  their  commentaries  on  Holy  Writ 
they  attend  as  much  to  the  contents  as  to  the  literal  explanation 
of  the  books  of  the  Old  and  New  Testaments,  in  doing  which  they 
make  use  of  the  results  of  modern  philology.  The  objections 
drawn  from  natural  science*  against  the  trustworthiness  of   biblical 

1  Histories  on  dogmas  were  written  by  Klee,  Zobl,  Schwane,  Bach  (see  §  99), 
Ginoulhiac  (see  §  32). 

2  As  Moralists  we  niaj'  name  :  Sailer,  J.  A.  Stapf  (-j-  1844),  Hirscher  (-}- 1865), 
Bisiiop  Martin,  Probst.  K.  Werner,  Fuchs,  Jochau),  Elger,  Rietter  (-f  1866),  Sclimid, 
Iklo'lfang,  Simar,  Stein  (Pathol. -Moral  Princiiiles),  Primer,  Miiller,  Friedhof,  Waibel, 
Halmlein,  Lehmkuhl,  Haine,  Cardinal  Gousset  (-)-1862),  Bishoj)  Bouvier  (-f  1854), 
Bautain  (The  Morality  of  the  Gospel  compared  with  that  of  the  various  Systems 
of  Philosophy),  Martinet,  Gury  (-f  1866),  Scavini,  Ballerini,  Kenrick,  A.  Kouings 
(+  1884),  Sabetti,  Vincent,  and  others. 

3  On  the  controversy  between  the  Redemptorists  and  P.  Ballerini,  S.  J.,  in  refer- 
ence to  the  moral  theology  of  St.  Alphonsus,  see  Vindiciae  Alphonsianae,  etc.  Eom. 
1873  (The  Catholic,  1873,  ii.  222  S(i(i.). 

♦  See  Vering,  Walter,  Phillips  (+  1872),  Permaneder  (-f  1862),  Cardinal  Gousset. 
Craisson,  Boixix,  Tarquini,  Grandelaude,  De  Angelis,  De  Brabandere,  etc. 

^  Bosizio,  Wiseman.  Other  exegetical  works  and  treatises  were  written  by  Aberle 
(-}-  1875),  Kaulen,  Himpel,  Bade,  Holzammer  ;  the  Italians  F.  X.  Patrizi,  S.  J.  Al. 
Vineenzi,  C.  Vercellone  (+  1870).     The  earlier  writings  of  Professors  Reusch  and 


412  HISTORY  OF   THE    CATHOLIC   CHURCH. 

narratives  receive  a  thorough  refutation.  An  unmistakable  sign 
of  the  impetus  given  in  our  time  to  historical  studies  is,  besides 
the  works  on  universal  Church  history,  the  monographs  and  biog- 
raphies, the  historical  works  on  the  Church  in  separate  countries, 
the  histories  of  the  councils  and  of  the  religious  orders,  etc. 
Special  diligence  has  been  accorded  to  archaeological  ^  studies ; 
and,  since  Mohler's  time,  patrology  has  been  the  subject  of  a  more 
careful  treatment.^ 

Liturgical  and  pastoral  theology,  as  also  homilies,  and  catechetical 
and  pedagogic  works,  have  received  an  increase  in  solid  produc- 
tions, the  authors  of  which  combine  great  learning  with  the  eccle- 
siastical spirit. 

The  literature  of  sermons  has  recently  largely  increased.  Yet 
with  some  praiseworthy  productions  may  be  found  others  of  but 
moderate  value. 

Finally,  we  must  mention  the  various  religious-scientific  periodicals, 
magazines  treating  on  religious  subjects,  and  the  like,^  which  have 
partly  been  continued  in  the  first  half  of  this  century,  and  partly 
been  called  into  existence  within  the  last  twenty  years. 

2.   Heresies  and  Schisms. 

§  234.    Theological  Tendencies  among  Protestants. 

While  theological  studies  fell  to  a  very  low  ebb  in  most  of  the 
Protestant  countries,  they  were  eagerly  pursued  in  England  and 
Germany,  but  at  the  same  time  brought  prominently  forward  the 
interior  divisions  of  Protestantism. 

Langen  of  Bonn,  who  afterwards  apostatized,  may  here  be  named.  P.  Pius  Zingerle, 
Bullers,  professor  at  Giessen,  and  Bickell,  professor  at  Innsbruck,  are  distinguished 
Orientalists. 

1  The  works  of  Binterim,  Marchi,  S.  J.,  De  Rossi,  Garucci,  S.  J.,  Perret,  Le  Blant, 
Martigny,  Spencer  Northcote,  and  others,  are  of  great  merit. 

2  We  mention  the  works  of  Lumper,  Fessler,  Alzog,  Permaneder,  Nirschl,  Hurter, 
Chevalier,  and  Villemain. 

3  English  periodicals  are  :  The  Dublin  Review,  The  Month,  The  Tablet,  The 
Weekly  Register,  The  Catholic  Times,  The  Irish  Ecclesiastical  Record,  The  Irish 
^lonthly,  Carlow  College  Magazine,  etc.  The  most  important  Italian  magazine  is 
La  Civitta  Cattolica.  French  periodicals  are  :  Etudes,  Revue  des  Sciences  Eccle- 
siastiques,  Revue  Catholique  de  I' Alsace,  Revue  Catholique  de  Louvain.  In  Spain, 
the  Ciencia  Cristiana,  edited  by  the-  learned  Orti  y  Lara,  deserves  special  mention. 
There  are  eleven  magazines  of  great  merit  in  Germany. 


THEOLOGICAL    TENDENCIES.  413 

In  the  range  of  the  Protestant  theology  of  the  nineteenth  century 
^iree  principal  aims  are  distinguishable, — that  of  rationalism,  of 
confessionalism  (that  is,  of  professing  or  adhering  to  some  special 
creed),  and  of  the  so-called  mediatorial  theology,  —  all  of  which 
put  forth  their  pretensions  in  the  various  steps  of  gradation. 

The  contest  of  rationalism,  which,  veiled  in  a  philosophic  garb, 
Kant  carried  on  against  supernatural sm,  was  the  occasion  of  great 
bitterness  ;  while  the  so-called  rational  supernaturalism  undertook 
to  mediate  between  them.  But  a  split  took  place  among  the 
rationalists,  some  theologians  rejecting  the  rationalism  of  the 
"Vulgar,"  while  defending  the  historico-critical  and  aesthetic  ra,- 
tionalism,  without  being  able  to  help  it  in  obtaining  the  victory. 
Schelling  (+  1854)  and  Hegel  (-f- 1831)  awakened  greater  and  more 
sympathetic  accordance  with  the  pantheistic  ideas,  which,  being  ex- 
pressed in  words  similar  to  those  used  in  Christian  phraseology, 
became  naturalized  by  them  in  theology.  The  greatest  influence 
exercised  on  the  new  formation  of  Protestant  theology  was  that  of 
Frederic  Schleiermacher  (-f  1834),  who,  in  understanding  a  pan- 
theist and  in  heart  a  Christian,  gave  up  systematic  teaching  and 
placed  religion  simply  in  emotion  ;  whereas  his  colleague  and  rival 
Hegel,  equally  one-sided,  designated  the  understanding  as  the  seat 
of  religion.  Among  the  adherents  of  Hegel,  whose  pantheism  was 
brought  into  speculative  theology  by  Daub  in  Heidelberg  (+  1836) 
and  by  Marheineke  in  Berlin  (+  1846),  various  positions  were 
taken.  Those  on  the  "  Right "  maintained  the  agreement  of  their 
doctrine  with  Christianity;  those  on  the  ''Left"  denied  this.  The 
contradiction  of  the  school  of  Hegel  with  positive  Christianity  was 
visibly  seen  in  the  "  Life  of  Jesus "  by  David  Strauss  (-f- 1 874). 
Ferdinand  Christian  Baur  (-{- 1860),  and  the  "  Tubingen  School  " 
under  his  guidance,  attempted,  as  Strauss  had  done  already,  to  set 
up  Hegel's  pantheistic  idealism  in  the  place  of  Christianity. 

Related  to  this  aim  and  object  is  the  "  free  Protestant  theology  " 
of  Schenkel,  Bunsen,  and  others,  which  despoils  Christianity  of  its 
supernatural  character,  denies  its  fundamental  truths,  and  destroys 
all  fervid  piety.  The  last  development  of  rationalistic-infidel  views 
is  materialism,  which  Strauss  and  Hartmann  publicly  preached. 

As  administrator  of  Lutheran  Orthodoxy,  Claus  Harms  {+  1855) 
arose  in  Kiel ;  his  ninety-five  Theses  raised  a  great  cloud  of  dust 
(1817).  Hengstenberg,  professor  in  Berlin  (-|- 1869),  in  his  "  Evan- 
gelical Gazette,"  combated,  from  the  year  1827,  rationalism  and 
infidelity,  while  at  that  time  he  defended  the  Union,  against  which 


414  HISTORY  OF   THE   CATHOLIC   CHURCH. 

he  afterwards  turned  his  weapons.  The  chief  organ  of  exchisive 
Lutheranism  on  the  basis  of  the  Formula  of  Concord  is  the 
"  Gazette  for  Lutheran  Theology,"  edited  by  Guerike  and  Eudel- 
bach.  The  gazette  established  by  Harless  in  Munich,  entitled 
"  For  Protestantism  and  Church,"  represents  the  interests  of 
Lutheran  Orthodoxy. 

In  contradistinction  to  the  Old  Lutherans,  the  New  Lutherans 
formed  a  party,  without,  however,  agreeing  among  themselves. 
They  indeed  hold  firmly  to  the  justification  theory  of  Luther,  the 
"  sola  fides  ;  "  but  with  it  they  associate  a  sacramental  church,  with 
a  so-called  ordination  of  the  preacher,  contrary  to  the  Old  Lutheran 
theory  of  the  invisibility  of  the  Church  and  of  a  priesthood  common 
to  all  Christians.  Some  theologians  of  these  views  —  as,  for  instance, 
Lohe  (+  1872)  —  describe  the  Lord's  Supper  as  the  central  point  of 
all  Christian  worship,  and  place  preaching  on  a  much  lower  footing. 
The  most  eminent  men  belong  to  the  New  Lutherans,  such  as  Vilmar 
in  Marburg  (+  1868),  K.  von  Hofmann  (+  1877),  and  Thomasius 
(+ 1875)  in  Erlangen,  Kahnis  in  Leipsic  (he  however  has  latterly 
taken  a  more  rationalistic  turn),  the  Upper  Church  Counsellor 
Kliefoth  in  Schwerin,  the  Jurists  Goschel  in  Magdeburg  (+  1862) 
and  Stahl  in  Berlin  (+  1861),  the  well-known  opponent  of  Bunsen. 
Although  the  greater  number  of  the  New  Lutherans  are  in  no  way 
behind  the  Old  Lutherans  in  aversion  to  the  Catholic  Church,  yet 
they  are  decried  by  these  last  as  German  Puseyites,  and  as  already 
standing  quite  near  to  the  gates  of  Eome. 

In  the  midst  between  rationalism  and  the  symbolic  faith  stands 
mediatorial  theology,  which  is  striving  to  strike  out  a  path  in  which 
Christianity  can  be  reconciled  with  modern  unbelief.  The  real 
founder  of  the  sect  is  Schleiermacher,  whose  disciples  work  par- 
tially in  the  views  of  their  master.  The  most  prominent  representa- 
tives of  this  system,  which  in  fact  gives  up  every  particular  form 
of  creed,  are  Liicke  in  Gottingen  (+1855),  Nitzsch  (+1868),  Jul. 
Miiller  in  Halle,  Ullmann,  at  last  prelate  in  Carlsruhe  (+  1864), 
Twesten  and  Dorner  (+ 1884)  in  Berlin,  Hundeshagen  in  Bonn 
(+  1872),  and  others.  Richard  Rothe  in  Heidelberg  (+  1867),  the 
theologian  of  the  Protestant  Union,  seeks  to  mediate  between  Chris- 
tianity and  modern  culture,  by  surrendering  the  fundamental  truths 
of  the  former  and  letting  the  Church  come  forth  in  the  State. 
These  views  he  sets  forth  more  particularly  in  his  Ethics,  in  which 
Christianity  appears  as  "  the  pure  and  perfect  development  of 
humanity." 


THE   I'ROTESTAXT    i'MOX  AXD   ITS  RESULTS.       415 

As  in  dogma,  morals,  etc.,  the  various  directions  taken  by  the 
Protestant  theologians  made  themselves  felt  in  the  departments  of 
Exegesis,  of  Church  History,  and  of  the  branches  of  learning  allied 
with  these. 

Eationalism  still  predominates  alike  in  the  explanation  of  Scrip- 
ture as  in  the  preliminary  sciences ;  it  is,  however,  successfully  com- 
bated by  the  positive  theologians,  although  the  writings  of  these 
latter  are  not  free  from  error  and  one-sidedness.  The  Bible-work  of 
Bunsen  and  the  still  more  radical  work  of  Schmid  and  Holtzendorff 
represent  the  views  of  the  ordinary  unbelief  in  the  mind  of  the 
Protestant  Union.  Lachmann  (+  1851)  and  Tischendorf  (4-  1874) 
are  the  best  critics  of  the  text. 

The  necessary  information  respecting  the  Protestant  learned  writ- 
ers of  Church  history  has  already  been  given  in  §  2,  Vol.  I. 

The  works  on  Canon  Law  by  Eichhorn  (+  1854)  and  Kichter 
(+  1864)  are  of  a  more  positive  character,  and  are  written  with  a 
certain  impartiality. 

The  Cyclopfedia  of  Herzog,  in  twenty-two  volumes,  is  a  Protestant  Church 
lexicon.     The  second  edition  is  much  inferior  to  the  first  in  every  respect. 

§  235.    The  Protestant  Union  and  its  Results.  —  Several  Shades 
in  Protestantism. 

At  the  celebration  of  the  Festival  of  the  Eeformation  Sept.  27, 
1817,  King  Frederic  William  of  Prussia  summoned  the  Lutherans 
and  the  Reformed  of  his  kingdom  to  unite  in  one  "Evangelical 
Church  ; "  and  with  this  the  preachers  and  congregations  of  other 
States,  either  of  their  own  free-will  or  at  the  command  of  a  higher 
[tower,  joined  themselves.  The  point  of  unity  for  this  concord, 
effected  on  the  basis  of  religious  indifferentism  and  of  rationalism, 
was  to  be  the  Church  service  ("Agenda"),  which  in  1822  the  king 
prescribed  for  the  Court  Church  and  the  military,  and  in  a  Protean- 
like  publication  (1829)  made  it  also  apply  to  all  Protestant  churches. 
Taking  part  in  the  Union  was  at  each  one's  option,  but  the  use 
of  the  Church  service  was  strictly  enjoined.  The  opposition  of 
some  Lutheran  preachers  to  the  Church  service  was  punished  by 
deposition  and  imprisonment ;  that  of  the  congregations  was  broken 
by  military  executions.  The  formation  of  "separate  religious  asso- 
ciations" was  forbidden.  It  was  not  till  1840  that  King  Frederic 
William  IV.  set  the  imprisoned  preachers  at  liberty.      Then  sev- 


416  HISTORY   OF   THE    CATHOLIC    CHURCH. 

eral  separate  Lutheran  congregations  were  founded,  which  in  1845 
were  recognized  as  sects  of  the  Church.  The  superintendence  of 
these  was  undertaken  by  the  Upper  Church  College  in  Breslau, 
under  the  presidency  of  the  Jurist  Huschke.  The  agreement  of 
the  separated  Lutherans  was  not  of  long  duration. 

The  forcible  measures  employed  by  the  Bureaucrats  could  have 
only  an  exterior  effect.  It  is  easy  to  understand  that  the  ITnion, 
which  was  repugnant  alike  to  reason  and  conscience,  could  not 
promote  ecclesiastical  sentiments  or  domestic  i^iety  ;  it  reveals  only 
the  interior  disorder  of  Protestantism,  and  the  religious  indifference 
of  its  members,  which  alone  could  render  a  union  of  this  kind 
feasible. 

In  order  to  give  stability  to  the  Union,  Frederic  William  IV.  in 
1846  convoked  a  so-called  general  synod  at  Berlin,  to  discuss  the 
questions  of  creed  and  constitution.  The  result  was  the  adoption  of 
the  formula  of  Ordination,  drawn  up  by  Nitzsch,  which  does  away 
with  the  ecclesiastical  creeds,  together  with  the  most  important 
truths  of  the  Christian  faith.  But  unity  was  by  no  means  restored 
by  this  ;  on  the  contrary,  the  dissensions  among  the  Protestant  sects 
were  increased,  and  protestations  were  made  on  all  sides  against  the 
"  Robber-synod  "  which  had  not  given  "  expression  to  the  universal 
Protestant  consciousness." 

The  assembly  convoked  by  Bunsen  at  Berlin  in  1857,  which  con- 
sisted of  deputies  of  the  English  Evangelical  Alliance  and  of  Ger- 
man Protestant  celebrities,  was  equally  unsuccessful ;  it  only  called 
forth  protests  on  all  sides  against  that  "All  the  "World's  Church," 
which  in  respect  to  indifferentism  far  exceeded  the  Union  itself. 

Other  attempts  of  Protestants  to  excite  animation  and  to  rouse  a 
vital  spirit  were  also  failures.  The  interior  mission  only  exposed 
them  to  the  scorn  and  mockery  of  the  rationalistic  majority.  The 
Evangelical  Conference  of  1846,  called  together  by  Prussia  and 
Wiirtemberg  could  not  bring  the  parties  closer  together,  even  on  the 
basis  of  the  most  vague  indifferentism.  The  "  Church  Association," 
with  its  Church  days,  formed  by  believing  preachers  at  Sandhof ,  near 
Frankfort,  in  1848,  was  consistent  only  in  its  outbreaks  against  Rome, 
while  its  positive  believing  tendency  had  to  yield  to  the  infidelity 
of  rationalism.  In  order  to  escape  this  danger,  the  deputies  of  the 
most  widely  differing  sects,  who  since  the  year  1852  have  assembled 
in  Church  conference  at  Pentecost  (at  first  yearly,  then  every  two 
years)  at  the  foot  of  the  Wartburg,  have  avoided  the  discussion 
of  theological  questions,  and  contented  themselves  with  the  prep- 


SEVERAL   SHADES   IN  PROTEST  AST  ISM .  417 

aration  of  statistical  notices,  of  a  collection  of  choice  Church  hymns, 
and  the  correction  of  Luther's  translation  of  the  Bible,  to  bring  it 
more  in  accordance  with  the  times.  The  "  first  Protestant  diet,"' 
held  in  Eisenach,  1864,  under  the  presidency  of  Bluntschi  of  Heidel- 
berg and  of  the  Upper  Court  preacher  Schwartz  of  Gotha,  called  the 
German  Protestant  Union  into  life.  Its  purpose  was  said  to  be  "  the 
renovation  of  the  Protestant  Chiu-ch  in  the  spirit  of  evangelical  free- 
dom and  in  harmony  with  the  development  of  culture  in  our  own 
times."  The  Union  manifested  great  diligence  in  undermining  every 
Ivind  of  religious  tendency.  Its  members  for  the  most  part  belong 
to  the  extreme  unbelieving  direction.  This  unbelief  makes  itself 
sufficiently  felt  in  their  writings  and  in  their  yearly  assemblies.  In 
these  latter  times  the  Protestant  Unioi  has  fraternized  with  the 
so-called  Old  Catholics 

Tlie  small  fanatical  sects  of  false  mysticism  which  spring  from 
the  bosom  of  Protestantism  have  attained  to  no  signiticance. 

Out  of  opposition  to  the  orthodox-pietistic  ''  Men  of  Darkness," 
the  "  Friends  of  Light,"  under  Uhlich,  Wislicenus  (+  1875),  Eupp, 
and  others  have  formed  themselves  into  "  free  communities,"  whose 
creed  is  that  of  unbelief. 

The  proximate  occasion  for  the  formation  of  the  association  of  the 
Friends  of  Light  was  the  proceeding  of  the  Consistory  of  Magde- 
burg against  the  preacher  Sintenis,  who  in  1840  declared  the  worship 
of  Christ  to  be  a  blasphemous  superstition.  The  attack  made  by  the 
"Evangelical  Church  Gazette  "  against  the  assembly  of  the  Friends 
of  Light  in  Kothen  (1844)  called  forth  a  theological  protest,  Aug. 
15,  1846,  signed  by  eighty-eight  preachers. 

In  order  to  come  to  the  support  of  the  "  scattered  Protestant 
congregations  "  and  to  wage  war  against  the  Catholic  Church,  the 
Gustavus  Adolphus  Association  was  founded  in  1841  and  1843. 
Bavaria  forbade  it  on  account  of  the  hateful  polemic  it  carried  on 
against  the  Catholics.  Even  Prussia  at  first  would  not  permit  this 
production  of  rationalistic  indift'erentism.  The  appearance  of  Eup}), 
the  free-congregation  preacher,  at  the  Assembly  of  Berlin  in  1846 
caused  a  division  among  the  associates,  which  the  Assembly  of  Darm- 
stadt in  1847  sou.ght  to  remove  by  vague  and  meaningless  phrases. 
As  far  as  regards  the  actual  duties  of  religious  life,  the  Gustavus 
Adolphus  Association,  in  spite  of  its  large  revenues,  did  nothing  to 
promote  their  performance ;  it  did  but  little  in  support  of  Protestant 
congregations,  b\it  so  much  the  more  did  it  expend  its  funds  in 
founding  Protestant  churches  and  schools  among  almost  exclusively 
YfiL.  ir.  27 


418  HISTORY   OF   THE    CATHOLIC    CHURCH. 

Catholic  populations.  The  yearly  assemblies  commonly  run  through 
the  obligatory  attacks  on  the  Catholic  Church,  and  afford  an  instruc- 
tive insight  into  the  confusion  of  opinions  that  distinguishes  modern 
Protestantism. 

§  236.  l7iterior  State  of  Protestantism.  —  Sects. 

The  most  modern  history  ^  of  Protestantism  offers  but  a  gloomy 
picture  of  interior  discord  and  the  rending  asunder  of  sects.  The 
symbolical  books  have  long  since  been  laid  aside,  and  faith  is  yielding 
more  and  more  to  a  growing  religious  indifferentism.  The  preachers 
are  divided  into  several  parties,  each  differing  from  each ;  some  still 
adhering  to  positive  Christianity,  while  others,  and  indeed  the 
greater  part,  are  wandering  in  the  labyrinths  of  rationalistic  enlight- 
enment, which  frequently  leads  to  pantheism.  Whole  communities, 
affected  by  the  unchristian  flood  which  poured  forth  from  the 
Protestant  high  schools,  have  at  times  opposed  the  appointment  of 
a  believing  preacher.  In  consequence  of  an  unbounded  subjectivism, 
which  is  not  checked  by  any  divine  teaching  authority,  Protestant- 
ism crumbles  more  and  more  into  widely  divergent  sects,  of  Avhich 
the  only  bond  that  holds  them  together  is  one  of  negation  and  of 
protest.  Even  in  Sweden  it  was  useless  to  try  to  suppress,  by  police 
regulations  and  legal  penalties,  the  opposition  offered  by  the  Pietists 
(called  "  Lasare,"  or  Bible  readers  and  readers  of  Luther's  works) 
to  the  "  defunct  orthodoxy."  Under  Oscar  II.  (1873)  the  dissidents 
were,  with  certain  limitations,  permitted  the  public  exercise  of  their 
religion. 

The  United  States  of  America  constitute  a  most  fertile  field  for 
the  formation  of  sects.  Here,  where  the  principle  of  the  complete 
separation  of  Church  and  State  ^  is  recognized,  where  religious  com- 
munities are  regarded  by  the  Government  as  civil  corporations, 
where  nationalities  from  various  countries  aggregate,  religious  views 
of  every  shape  have  been  introduced  or  have  originated :  new  sects, 
like  new  temporal  societies,  are  continually  springing  up.  Besides 
Episcopalians,  Presbyterians,  ^Methodists,  Baptists,  German  Luther- 
ans, there  are  many  others,  whose  number  could  be  with  difficulty 
accurately  ascertained.  The  frequent  revivals,  though  conducted 
with  every  appearance  of  zeal  and  enthusiasm,  and  productive  of 

1  Dorner,  Hist,  of  Protestant  Theology.  Jorg.  Hist,  of  Protestantism.  DdUingcr, 
Church  ami  Churches.     Catholic  Quarterly  Review,  July,  1885. 

2  See  Catholic  World,  February,  1885,  p.  592. 


INTERIOR   STATE   OF  PROTESTANTISM.  419 

moinentavy  accessions  (conversions  so-called),  have  no  permanent 
result  with  regard  to  dogmatic  teaching.  Outside  of  the  Catholic 
Church,  the  great  bulk  of  Americans  are  indifferent  to  distinctive 
dogmas  of  faith,  which  indifferentism  is  fostered  by  the  pursuits 
of  a  merely  secular  education  in  the  public  schools  of  the  country. 
They  have  some  vague  conceptions  of  fundamental  religious  truth, 
beyond  which  they  indulge  in  free  thinking  with  regard  to  matters 
of  faith.  The  good  qualities  for  which  they  are  praised  are  to  a 
great  extent  the  effects  of  natural  generosity  and  benevolent  feel- 
ings. There  are  a  considerable  number  who  disavow  all  positive 
faith  and  openly  profess  infidelity. 

In  England,  also,  sects  spring  up  like  mushrooms.     There  are  said 
to  be  now  more  than  one  hundred  and  fifty  known  forms  of  religion.. 
The  Episcopal  or   Established  Church,   besides  the   High   Church 
party,  counts  among  its  clergy  many  members  of  the  Low  Church 
party  called   the  Evangelicals,  who  adhere  to  Calvinism,  consider 
the  sacraments  as  mere  signs  or  symbols,  and  incline  to  the  Dis- 
senters.   Of  the  Tractarians  we  have  spoken  in  §  230.    A  third  party 
within  the  National  Church  is  the  Broad  Church  party,  countenanced 
more  or  less  by  the  late  Dean   Stanley,  by  Professor   Jowet  and 
Canon   Farrars ;   this  party,  which  has  been  developed  under  the 
influence  of  German  literature  and  theology,  denies    the  intrinsic 
value  of  dogmatic  teachings  and  indulges  in  a  rationalistic  Chris- 
tianity.    The  Puseyites,  called  also  the  Ritualists,  are  almost  the 
only  ones  who  are  scientifically  active ;  they,  believing  in  the  catho- 
licity of  the  English  Church,  seek  to  restore  the  ancient  practices. 
They  introduce  ecclesiastical  ceremonies,  adopt  the  doctrines  of  the 
seven  sacraments,  of  transubstantiation,  of  the  sacrifice  of  the  Mass, 
establish  religious  orders,  defend  celibacy,  etc.     The  Privy  Council, 
which  since  1833  has  been  the  supreme  court  of  appeal  in  matters 
of  doctrine   and   discipline,    and   consists   mainly  of   laymen,    for- 
bade in  1869  all  those  forms  of  worship  not  expressly  sanctioned. 
In   the  convocation  of   clergy  in   the   year   1872  there  were  four 
hundred  and   forty-three  Anglican  clergymen  who  demanded   the 
reintroduction  of  c  )nfession,  of  masses  for   the  dead,  and  of   the 
invocation  of  the  Blessed  Virgin.     The  Archbishop  of  Canterbury 
introduced  a  law  against  the  Kitualists  in  Parliament,  the  passing 
of  which,  however,  did  not  prevent  the  movement  from  progressing. 
The  Ritualists  belong  to  the  Great  Union  in  the  English  Church,  and 
always   come  forward  to  defend  any  clergyman  prosecuted  under 
the    act  for  the  regulation   of   public  worship.     A   section  of   the 


420  HISTORY  OF  THE   CATHOLIC   CHURCH. 

Eitualists  are  generously  inclined  towards  the  Apostolic  See,  and 
many  of  them  have  already  joined  the  Church.  Eationalism  is, 
however,  gaining  ground  more  and  more  in  the  Anglican  Church, 
as  is  manifest  in  the  controversies  of  Hampden  and  Gorham.  The 
essays  and  reviews,  seven  in  number,  published  in  1860  under  the 
editorial  supervision  of  Jowet,  Regius  Professor  of  Greek  at  Oxfonl, 
are  a  virtual  denial  of  divine  revelation.  The  Anglican  clergy  pro- 
tested against  them ;  the  Privy  Council,  hoAvever,  among  whom 
were  several  Anglican  dignitaries,  acquitted  their  authors.  Dr. 
Colenso  (+  1883),  Bishop  of  Natal  in  southeastern  Africa,  who 
wrote  against  the  authenticity  of  the  Pentateuch  and  the  Book  of 
Joshua,  was  likewise  acquitted.  The  supernatural  theology  of  Pro- 
fessor Leely  at  Cambridge  is  written  from  the  standpoint  of  Darwin. 
Religious  indifference  shows  itself  also  in  the  fact  that  dissenters 
are  buried  by  Anglican  clergymen  according  to  the  form  prescribed 
by  the  funeral  liturgy.  The  divorce-law  of  1858  met  with  but 
slight  opposition  from  the  Anglican  bishops.  The  richly  endowed 
Anglican  clergy  quietly  bear  the  yoke  of  State  despotism,  and  take 
but  little  heed  of  the  lower  classes,  avIio  in  many  instances  grow  up 
without  any  sense  of  vital  religion. 

The  Anglican  Church,  broad  in  theory  as  in  practice,  embraces 
ultra-Protestants  and  free-thinkers.'  Its  disestablishment  can  be 
only  a  question  of  time.  In  Ireland  such  disestablishment  has 
already  taken  place ;  the  motions  introduced  for  doing  this  in  Eng- 
land, which  have  been  brought  before  Parliament,  have  not  as  A'et 
received  the  assent  of  the  majority.  In  Scotland,  in  1843,  about 
two  hundred  preachers  (non-Intrusionists),  together  with  their  con- 
gregations, seceded  from  the  Establishment  of  that  country,  the 
Kirk,  and  organized  the  General  Assembly  of  the  Free  Kirk  of 
Scotland.  AVithin  seventeen  years  this  Free  Kirk  has  built  upwards 
of  eight  hundred  churches,  with  parsonages  and  schools,  by  free  con- 
tributions ;  and  the  adherents  thereto  soon  comprised  a  third  of  the 
population.     Dr.  Chalmers  (+  1847)  led  the  primal  movement. 

English  Dissenters,  who  for  the  most  part  belong  to  the  middle 
classes,  are  chiefly  divided  into  those  of  a  rationalistic  and  those 
of  a  visionary  tendency.  The}-  acknowledge  no  church  authority 
and  no  firmly  established  symbols  of  faith  or  of  i-eligious  exercises. 
Their  worship  consists  mainly  in  preaching,  and  the  preachers  are 
entirely  dependent  on  their  congregations.  The  Old  Presbyterians 
have   for  the   most  part  merged  into  socinianism.      The  Baptists 

1  SeeCatholi'  WorM.  September,  1S80. 


SECTS.  421 

administer  baptism  to  adults  alone,  and  by  complete  immersion. 
The  Old  Quakers  and  INIethodists  maintain  their  previous  standing, 
although  lately,  among  the  latter,  contentions  respecting  the  consti- 
tution have  broken  out,  which  have  caused  secessions.  A  branch 
of  these  are  called  "  Momiers  "  in  Geneva,  and  the  "  Revived "  in 
France.  The  Independents,  or  Congregationalists,  reject  every  doc- 
trinal type,  and  desire  that  the  preacher  should  conform  to  the 
views  of  his  congregation,  especially  of  the  wealthier  and  more 
influential  members.  Yet  all  Dissenters  have  retained  the  easy 
Protestant  theory  on  justification. 

The  Plymouth  Brethren,  called  Darbyites  from  John  Darby 
(+ 1882),  and  the  Irvingites,  founded  by  Edward  Irving,  preacher 
at  the  Scotch  National  Church,  London,  maintain  that  even  in 
the  apostolic  age  the  true  Church  of  God  had  been  disfigured.  The 
former  of  these  reject  every  church,  and  edify  themselves  by  the 
"gifts  of  the  Holy  Ghost  which  have  remained  with  them."  The 
latter  desire,  with  the  help  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  newly  poured  out 
upon  them,  to  restore  the  original  purity  of  Christianity.  The 
Irvingite  sect  found  adherents  even  in  Germany,  among  whom  is 
the  Pietist  theologian  Thiersch  (+  Dec.  3,  1885),  professor  of  Mar- 
burg. In  some  doctrinal  points  they  resemble  the  Catholic  Church, 
while  they  strictly  condemn  the  principle  of  Protestantism. 

The  sect  of  the  ]\Iormons,  or  the  Free  Church  of  Jesus  Christ  of 
Latter-Day  Saints,  was  founded  in  North  America  by  Joseph  Smith  ^ 
(+ 1844).  He  was  born  in  the  beginning  of  this  century  in  the 
State  of  Vermont,  of  disreputable  parents,  and  was  always  a  vision- 
ary. In  1830  he  proclaimed  that  in  September,  1827,  he  had  re- 
ceived from  an  angel  the  records  of  the  earliest  inhabitants  of 
America,  engraven  on  golden  plates ;  this  record  he  affirmed  was 
once  written  by  the  prophet  Mormon,  who  buried  the  plates  in  the 
earth.  The  document  has  been  proved  to  be  nearly  a  literal  tran- 
script of  an  unprinted  romance  written  by  Solomon  Spalding  at 
the  beginning  of  this  century.  After  several  wanderings.  Smith's 
adherents,  who  from  a  small  beginning  have  increased  to  consider- 
able numbers,  settled  in  1847  on  the  shores  of  Salt  Lake,  in  the 
present  Territory  of  Utah,  and  under  Smith's  successor,  P>righam 
Young  (+  1877),  founded  the  New  Jerusalem,  a  Tlieo-democracy, 
of  which  Brigham  Young  became  president.     They  have  introduced 

1  Besides  the  numerous  periodicals  and  jiamphlets  in  various  lanfi^uages,  the  prin- 
cipal Mormon  works  are  the  "Book  of  JMormons  "  and  the  "Book  of  Doctrine  and 
Covenants."     "  Mormon  Portraits,"  by  Dr.  JF.   JVijl. 


422  HISTORY  OF   THE   CATHOLIC   CHURCH. 

olygamy  as  a  distinctive  institution,  and  also  have  a  partial  com- 
munity of  goods.  The  sect  is  very  similar  to  Mahometauism.  From 
Utah  they  send  out  missionaries  to  every  part  of  the  world  to  make 
converts.  The  land  they  inhabit  was  created  a  Territory  by  Con- 
gress in  1850;  the  number  of  inhabitants  in  1880  was  143,963, 
most  of  whom  were  emigrants  from  Great  Britain  and  from  the 
European  Continent.  In  1871  action  was  taken  in  the  courts  of 
the  United  States  against  polygamy  as  a  criminal  offence,  and  the 
entire  suppression  of  Mormonism  is  the  outspoken  desire  of  many 
American  citizens. 

In  1845,  in  England,  the  Evangelical  Alliance  was  founded  by 
High-churchmen  and  Dissenters,  on  the  broad  basis  of  their  com- 
mon principles  of  Christianity,  in  order  to  check  the  progress  of 
the  Catholic  Church  in  the  kingdom.  The  meetings  of  this  associa- 
tion,^ which  were  also  attended  by  French,  German,  and  other 
Protestants,  clearly  attest  the  internal  distractions  that  disturb 
Protestantism,  together  with  the  sentiments  of  many  of  its  adher- 
ents towards  the  Catholic  Church. 

Recently  a  new  sect,  known  as  '•  The  Salvation  Army,"  has  arisen. 

To  attain  a  closer  aud  more  accurate  knowledge  of  the  pi-esent  interior 
state  of  German  Protestantism,  it  may  be  well  carefully  to  consider  the  follow- 
ing points :  — 

1.  Contrary  to  the  practice  of  old  Protestantism,  which  looked  upon  the 
sermon  as  the  main  point  of  divine  service,  many  efforts  are  now  being  made 
to  establish  a  liturgical  service,  of  which  the  Eucharist  is  to  form  the  central 
point.  Intimately  connected  with  this  innovation  is  that  of  kneeling  at  divine 
service,  and  the  adorning  of  churches  with  the  pictures  of  saints,  together  with 
the  introduction  of  choral  chant.  To  this  may  be  added  the  bringing  in  of  a 
sort  of  confession,  of  a  stricter  observance  of  Church  discipline,  the  reforma- 
tion of  rationalistic  hymn-books  and  liturgies,  the  holding  daily  service,  etc., 
all  of  which  are  zealously  advocated  in  behalf  of  a  religious  life  by  preachers 
and  at  ecclesiastical  assemblies.  So  far,  however,  all  these  attempts  at  reform, 
which  are  Itut  husks  without  the  kernel,  have  been  frustrat«;d  by  the  opposi- 
tion of  the  majority  of  the  Protestants,  who  are  either  hostUe  or  indifferent  to 
such  endeavors.'-^ 

2.  Equally  unsuccessful  have  been  the  attempts  to  replace  the  vague  and 
indifferent  catechisms  by  better  works. ^  The  party  of  the  Protestant  Union 
have  in  these  later  days  made  the  attempt  to  banish  every  profession  of  faith 

^  See  Quarterly  Review,  January,  1874. 
2  Jorg.  Hist,  of  Protestantism,  etc.,  i.  513  scjq. 

'^  Controversy  on  Catechisms  and  Hymnals  in  the  Palatinate  of  the  Rhine  (1853- 
1859). 


THE   RONGEANS.  423 

—  that  is,  of  Christianity  —  fnjui  tlie  catecliisin,  aud  unfortunately  have  in 
some  degree  succeeded.^ 

."•5.  The  internal  diss(dution  nf  Protestantism  is  also  shown  by  the  fact  that 
preachers  like  Ewald  in  Darmstadt,  Lisco  and  Sydow  in  Berlin  (1872),  openly 
announce  their  intidelity  without  the  ecclesiastical  authorities  venturing  to 
take  energetic  measures  to  oppose  them.  The  sentence  of  deposition  pro- 
nounced by  the  Consistory  against  Sydow,  who  had  denied  the  divinity  of 
Christ,  was  immediately  rescinded  by  the  Upper  Ecclesiastical  Council,  as  no 
"official  oft'ence"  had  been  laid  to  his  charge.  Against  Sydow's  deposition 
twenty-six  clergymen  of  the  Province  of  Brandenburg  and  twelve  preachers 
of  Berlin  protested.  In  like  manner  the  preacher  Schroder,  deposed  in  1871 
by  the  Consistory  of  Wiesbaden  for  infidelity,  was  reinstated  in  January,  1874, 
liy  Falk,  the  Minister  of  Worship.  The  plea  of  the  theologians  of  Jena,  in  the 
address  which  they,  together  with  the  professors  and  preachers,  signed  and 
presented  to  the  Minister  of  Wf)rship  in  Sydow's  favor,  was  made  "  in  the 
interest  of  freedom  for  teaching." 

4.  When  the  Prussian  May-laws  appeared  in  1873,  it  was  but  a  very 
insignificantly  small  proportion  of  the  Protestant  preachers  who  protested 
against  the  underlying  principles,  and  these  immediately  recognized  the  duty  of 
obeying  the  laws.  Not  a  single  Protestant  protest  M^is  made  against  the 
Hessian  Church-laws. 

.5.  The  edict  regarding  the  constitution  of  the  Evangelical  Church  in  the 
Grand  Duchy  of  Hesse  ordains,  in  division  2,  §  10,  that  Lutheran  clergymen 
must  administer  the  Sacraments  also  to  any  of  the  reformed  who  may  have 
settled  in  their  parish,  and  vice  versa.  Only  four  or  five  clergymen  sacrificed 
their  positions  to  their  conscience ;  the  others  yielded. 

6.  The  question  of  constitution  forms  a  very  sore  spot  in  Protestantism. 
The  supreme  episcopate  of  the  ruler  is  now  in  many  respects  limited  by  con- 
gregational representatives  in  the  so-called  synods,  who  have  been  introduced 
after  the  Calvinistic  model.  The  events  in  Hesse  (1873),  Prussia  (1875), 
and  Baden  (187(3)  jirove  that  the  liberal  tendency  in  the  spirit  of  the  Pnjtest- 
aut  Union  predominates  alike  in  small  circles  and  in  the  general  synods. 

7.  With  regard  to  religious  life  among  the  Protestants  we  may  judge  from 
the  ever-increasing  neglect  of  divine  service,  the  sensibly  decreasing  number 
of  theological  students,  their  indiS'erence  towards  baptism,  the  Lord's  Supper, 
ami  Christian  burial,  etc.  Since  the  introduction  ot  civil  marriage,  a  con- 
siderabli:;  number  of  Protestants  neglect  ecclesiastical  matrimony  altogether, 
aiul   do  noL  even  have  their  children  baptized. 

§  287.      The  Sect  of  the  Rongemu  and  of  the  so-called  Old 

Catholics. 

The  "  French-Catholic  Church  "  of  the  Abbe  Chatel  (+  1857)  and 
the  "  Apostolic  Catholic  Church "  of  the  Abbe  Helsen  in  Brussels 

1  See  the  Synod  of  Baden  of  1876. 


424  HISTORY   OF   THE   CATHOLIC    CHURCH. 

(+1842)  find  a  worthy  rival  in  the  "German  Catholic"  Sect.  The 
originators  of  this  sect  are  the  suspended  priests  John  Rouge  and 
Czerski ;  their  fundamental  principle  is  a  denial  of  Christianity. 
The  movement  began  with  a  provocative  public  letter  written  by 
Ronge  to  Arnoldi  (+  1864),  Bishop  of  Treves,  on  the  occasion  of  the 
pilgrimage  to  Treves  for  the  veneration  of  the  "  Holy  Coat "  of  the 
Savior.  The  first  synod,  at  Leipsic,  in  1845,  gave  expression  to 
religious  Nihilism.  Some  governments,  especially  Prussia,  favored 
the  "Catholic  dissenters "  (I) ;  others  closed  their  territory  to 
them.  The  movement  soon  assumed  larger  dimensions.  Ronge 
was  hailed  as  a  "second  Luther,"  the  infidel  press  applauded,  the 
sentiment,  and  Protestant  preachers  offered  his  adherents  the  joint 
use  of  their  churches ;  but  this  incense  of  victory  was  soon  followed 
by  more  sober  feelings.  The  hopes  which  Protestants  had  con- 
ceived of  a  revolution  against  the  Catholic  Church,  headed  by  men 
so  insignificant  and  for  the  most  part  so  greatly  depraved,  were  not 
fulfilled;  and  finally  Protestantism  experienced  the  result  of  such 
a  uioveraent  when  Ronge,  Dowiat,  and  others,  in  1848,  carried  their 
revolutionary  church  principles  into  political  life.  This  cooled  the 
zeal  of  many  statesmen  for  the  sect,  which  is  now  verging  towards 
complete  extinction.  Many  who  had  been  deceived  (among  whom 
was  Dowiat)  have  returned  to  the  Church,  and  but  few  congregations 
are  now  left  to  linger  on  in  a  precarious  existence. 

The  sect  of  the  "Old.  Catholics,"  so-called,  took  its  rise  in  the 
opposition  made  to  the  Vatican  Council.  Dollinger  was  the  prin- 
cipal leader  in  the  movement.  It  began  with  the  denial  of  papal 
infallibility,  whence  it  passed  rapidly  to  the  rejection  of  the  eccle- 
siastical office  of  teaching  in  general ;  it  then  changed  the  consti- 
tution and  discipline  of  the  Church  in  many  essential  points, 
introduced  innovations  into  the  liturgy,  and  entered  into  connection 
with  infidel  and  anti-ecclesiastical  parties.  The  sectarians  were 
highly  favored  and  aided  in  Germany  ^  and  Switzerland  '^  by  the 
temporal  power,  because  they  were  expected  to  become  useful  in- 

^  III  1873  the  governments  of  Prus.sia,  Baden,  and  Hesse  recognized  the  apostate 
priest  Jos.  Hubert  Eeinkens,  who  had  been  consecrated  by  the  Jansenist  bishop  Hey- 
decamp  of  Deventer  as  a  Catholic  bishop.  Prussia  granted  an  annuity  of  sixteen 
thousand  thalers  for  his  maintenance,  and  for  "Old  Catholic"  purposes  Baden 
added  two  thousand  thalers  thereto. 

2  In  Switzerland  the  sectaries  organized  themselves  into  a  Christian  Catholic 
Church.  Herzog,  an  apostate  piiest,  was  elected  bishop,  and  was  consecrated  by 
Reinkens. 


THE   SCHISMATIC   CHURCHES   OF    THE    EAST.        425 

struments  in  promoting  the  so-called  "  Cnltur-kampf."  This  hope, 
however,  failed  entirely  ;  and  the  sect,  which  did  not  rise  even  to 
so  much  significance  as  had  been  attained  by  that  of  the  "  German 
Catholics,"  is  already  in  that  state  of  internal  dissolution  which 
promises  a  speedy  extinction. 

§  238.    The  Schismatic  Churches  of  the  East. 

The  Orthodox  Church  of  Anodoli,  or  Natolia,  lias  undergone  the 
fate  of  a  branch  lopped  from  the  living  and  life-giving  vine. 

The  Schismatic  Church  of  Constantinople  is  striding  nearer 
and  nearer  to  its  final  dissolution.  The  greater  number  of  the 
churches  connected  with  this  patriarchate  have  already  rendered 
themselves  independent  of  it ;  there  are  not  more  than  nine  millions 
of  schismatics  who  acknoAvledge  fealty  to  its  head.  The  Patriarch 
of  Constantinople  exercises  an  extensive,  nay,  almost  an  unlimited 
jurisdiction  over  his  subjects.  At  his  pleasure  he  can  install  or 
depose  bishops,  assign  punishments,  and  impose  taxes  upon  clergy 
and  people.  The  appointment  to  the  patriarchate  takes  place,  with 
scarcely  an  exception,  through  simony,  and  it  is  seldom  that  a  patri- 
arch dies  while  yet  in  possession  of  his  see.  Most  patriarchs  after 
a  short  reign  are  deposed  by  the  synod,  or  compelled  to  resign  their 
episcopal  dignity,  which  others  have  purchased  with  money.  The 
clergy  are  ignorant,  and  in  oppressive  dependence  on  the  bishops, 
who  often  desecrate  their  holy  office  by  exactions  of  money,  simony, 
and  the  like.  The  Popes,  especially  Pius  IX.  and  Leo  XIII.,  have 
repeatedly  sought  measures  to  deliver  the  Church  of  the  East,  so 
venerable  in  ancient  times,  from  her  disgraceful  condition.  The 
schismatic  patriarchs  have  preferred  to  submit  their  ecclesiastical 
arrangements  to  the  Turk  rather  than  to  the  successor  of  St.  Peter. 

The  Russian  Church  stands  altogether  under  the  dominion  of 
the  Czar.  The  bishops  are  dependent  on  the  Holy  Synod  in  all 
matters.  The  popes  (as  the  Russian  priests  are  termed)  are 
exposed  to  their  caprice,  and  for  the  most  part  are  without  high 
education ;  they  frequently  live  in  very  oppressive  povel•t3^  The 
conduct  of  divine  service  often  degenerates  into  a  mere  mechanical 
ritualism.  Among  the  higher  classes  Voltairism  holds  the  sway, 
while  the  lower  classes  are  the  prey  of  ignorance  and  superstition. 
Sectarianism,  in  spite  of  the  legal  penalties  imposed  by  imperialism, 
makes  great  progress,  and  the  decay  of  morals  is  becoming  more 
and  more  common. 


426  HISTORY   OF    THE   CATHOLIC    CHURCH. 

The  "  Orthodox  Oriental  Church  "  of  Hellas,  in  the  year  1833,  pro- 
claimed its  independence  of  the  patriarchate  of  Constantinople,  and 
in  the  year  1850  obtained  the  recognition  of  the  same  from  the 
patriarch.  Its  guide  is  the  ''  Permanent  Synod,"  which  consists  of 
spiritual  and  secular  members.  The  clergy  and  people  are  governed 
by  moral  and  religious  conditions  similar  to  those  existing  in 
Kussia. 


III.     WOKSHIP  AND  DISCIPLINE. 

§  239.    Divine  Service.  —  Christian  Life. 

The  later  liturgical  directions  ^  refer  chiefly  to  the  worthy  cele- 
bration of  divine  service,  especially  to  the  more  accurate  ob- 
servance of  the  Rubrics.  Ordinances  have  also  been  issued  by  the 
Church  respecting  ecclesiastical  chant,  now  enjoying  a  particular 
cultivation  by  the  societies  organized  in  honor  of  St.  Cecilia.  To 
the  great  satisfaction  of  Pius  IX.,  almost  all  the  bishops  of  Prance 
reintroduced  the  Roman  liturgy  in  their  dioceses.  The  dogmatical 
declaration  of  the  Immaculate  Conception  of  the  Blessed  Virgin 
Mary  ( 1854)  reflected  a  lustre  of  higher  dignity  on  this  festival,  for 
which  a  new  office  and  a  neAv  Mass  was  prescribed  by  Pius  IX.  in  a 
bull  of  Sept.  25,  1863.  The  decree  on  the  veneration  of  relics 
(Dec.  10,  1863)  confirmed  the  edict  that  had  been  previously  issued 
on  April  10, 1668,  by  the  Congregation  of  Rites,  regarding  the  phials 
of  blood  ("  ampullae  sanguinolentae,  phialae  cruentae ")  found  in 
the  Catacombs ;  ^  yet  it  did  not  put  an  end  to  the  controversy  as  to 
whether  these  are  to  be  accepted  as  certain  proofs  of  martyrdom. 
The  number  of  the  feasts  of  saints  was  increased  by  several  beati- 
fications and  canonizations.  By  a  decree  of  the  year  1856,  Pius  IX. 
extended  the  celebration  of  the  festival  of  the  Most  Sacred  Heart  oi 
Jesus  ^  to  the  whole  Church,  and  through  a  decree  of  Dec.  8,  1870, 

'  They  are  collected  by  Gardellini  (Decreta  authentica  congreg.  sac.  rituum  ex 
actis  ejusd.  collecta  ab  1588-1856).     4  vols.     Romae,  1856  scjq. 

-  It  determines:  "Cum  de  notis  disceptaretur,  ex  quibus  verae  sanctorum  Martyrum 
reliquiae  a  falsis  et  dubiis  cognosci  possint,  eadem  Congregatio  censuit,  Palmam  et 
vas  illorum  sanguine  tinctum  pro  signis  certissimis  habenda  esse:  aliorum  veto  sig- 
norum  examen  in  aliud  tempus  rejecit.  On  the  controversy,  see  De  Rossi,  Roma 
sotteranea,  iii.  707  sqq.     Krcms,  Roma  sotter.  2d  ed.  p.  507  sqq. 

3  Nilles,  De  rationibus  festorum  sacr.  Cordis  Jesu  et  purissimi  Cordis  Mariae. 
Innsbr.  1869.     (2ded.) 


DI I ^IXE    SEIl  VICE.  —  CHR IS TIA  N   L IFE.  42 7 

and  one  of  July  1,  1871,  the  Pope  (Pius  IX,)  elected  St.  Joseph  as 
patron  of  the  whole  Catholic  Church. 

The  united  Oriental  Church,  together  with  her  rites  and  discipline, 
is  a  cherished  object  of  papal  solicitude.  By  the  brief  "■  Poniani 
pontiiices,"  of  Jan.  6,  1862,  a  special  congregation  was  appointed  to 
take  charge  of  the  affairs  of  this  Oriental  Church. 

Among  the  regulations  for  the  promotion  of  discipline  in  this  era, 
may  be  briefly  mentioned  those  on  religious  orders,  on  mixed  mar- 
riages, on  the  repealing  of  certain  ancient  censures,  on  indulgence;';* 
and  the  like.  Strict  prohibitory  measures  appeared  respecting  the 
disorders  caused  by  the  practice  of  magnetism.  Tlie  civil-marriage 
law  introduced  by  the  Eevolution  into  France  in  1789,  and  at  a  later 
date  in  other  countries  also,^  was  met  by  decided  disapproval  on  the 
part  of  the  Church. 

Art  was  again  employed  in  the  service  of  the  Church,  and  excel- 
lent works  were  produced  in  the  domain  of  architecture,^  sculpture,* 
painting,^  and  poetry ; "  while,  on  the  other  hand,  irreligious  artists, 
such  as  Kavilbach  (+  1874  at  Munich),  used  their  talent  to  express 
their  false  ideals. 

As  far  as  regards  the  religious  and  moral  life  of  this  era,  it  is  not 
to  be  denied  that  the  French  Revolution  produced  evil  effects  on 
public  and  family  life,  in  the  perceptible  endeavor  to  strip  marriage, 
school,  and  civil  legislation  of  their  Christian  character,  and  to  sub- 
stitute revolutionary  and  anti-Christian  principles.  Yet  religious 
life  received  a  gladdening  impulse  in  the  fact  that  eminent  eccle- 
siastics and  laymen  "^  became  enthusiastic  in  promoting  and  encour- 

1  Decreta  authentica  S.  congr.  Indulgentiis  sacrisque  reliquiis  praepositae  ab  anno 
1668  ad  annum  1882.     Ratisbon,  1883. 

2  §§  223,  226,  227. 

3  Among  the  celebrated  architects  we  may  name  Viollet-le-Duc,  the  two  brothers 
Melchior  and  Sulpice  Boisseree,  the  Englishman  Pugin  the  eldei",  Hiibsch,  Schmid, 
Cuypers,  and  others. 

*  Among  sculptors  were  Canova  (+1822),  Schwanthaler  (+1848),  Eberhard 
(+  18.58),  Ackerman  (+  1883  at  Rome),  and  others.  Thorwaldsen,  a  Dane  (+  1844) 
-was  a  famous  Protestant  sculptor. 

5  In  this  connection  we  may  mention  Fred.  Overbeck  (+  1869),  Cornelius  ( -i-1867), 
Philip  Veit  (+  1877),  and  Schadow. 

6  Thomas  Moore  {+  1834),  Faber  (+  1863),  Frederic  Schlegel  (+  1829),  Clement 
Brentano  (+  1842),  Baron  of  Eichendortf  (  +  1857),  Weber,  Manzoni  (+  1873), 
Silvio  Pellico,  and  others. 

"In  Germany,  the  noble  convert  and  historian  Leopold  Count  of  Stolberg 
(+1819),  and  Jos.  Gorres  (+1848),  were  eminent  men  at  the  beginning  of  this 
century. 


428  HISTORY   OF   THE    CATHOLIC    CHURCH. 

aging  true  religion  and  morality,  while  but  an  insignificant  portion 
of  the  clergy  ^  adhered  to  the  neological  views  of  the  past  century. 

The  numerous  societies  that  have  arisen  under  the  guidance  of 
the  Church,  in  order  to  serve  her  interests,  are  a  gratifying  evidence 
of  the  Christian  spirit ;  while  the  new  congregations  that  devote 
themselves  to  the  instru.ction  of  youth,  to  the  care  of  the  sick  or 
other  works  of  charity,  testify  that  religion  is  not  dead.  Other 
manifestations  of  this  may  be  seen  in  the  frequent  reception  of  the 
Holy  Sacraments,  the  various  congregations  in  honor  of  the  Blessed 
Virgin  Mary,  the  very  great  interest  shown  by  the  people  in  missions 
and  by  the  clergy  in  retreats,  the  great  number  of  the  faithful  who 
enter  the  third  order  of  St.  Francis  of  Assisi,  the  almost  universal 
propagation  of  the  Confraternity  of  the  Sacred  Heart  of  Mary  for 
the  conversion  of  sinners,  the  Apostleship  of  Prayer  (highly  com- 
mended by  the  Holy  See),  the  Association  of  Christian  Mothers,  the 
numerous  pilgrimages,  and,  finally,  the  dedication  of  the  Avhole 
Catholic  world  to  the  divine  heart  of  Jesus. 

The  sentiments  of  Catholics  throughout  the  world  are  also  mani- 
fested in  the  grand  effusions  of  fidelity  and  love  for  the  Holy  See 
that  are  constantly  pouring  forth,  in  the  cheerful  alacrity  with  which 
Peter's  pence  are  paid,  and  in  tlie  numerous  deputations  continually 
going  to  Home  to  pay  homage  to  the  Vicar  of  Christ  in  the  name  of 
millions  of  Catholics,  —  an  homage  formerly  paid  to  Pius  IX.,  and 
now  continued  to  his  successor,  Leo  XIII. 

Nor  has  our  era  been  lacking  in  phenomena  of  a  supernatural 
order.^ 

But,  on  the  other  hand,  the  enemies  of  the  Church  have  not  been 
idle.  Infidelity  and  immorality  prevail  in  many  forms  among  the  in- 
dustrial classes  at  the  very  moment  that  the  high  aristocracy  are 
again  turning  toward  the  Church.     The  infidel  press  distributes  the 

^  On  the  two  brothers  Anthony  and  Augustus  Theiner,  — the  former  of  whom  died 
as  a  "  German  Catholic,"  the  latter  was  converted  and  became  an  Oratoriau, — see 
Roskovdny,  Rom.  pontif.  iv.  583  sqq. 

2  The  miracle  of  the  Stigmata  was  conferred,  among  others,  on  Catherine  Emme- 
rich (-f  1824),  on  Maria  Mori  (-f  1868),  and  on  Louise  Lateau  (+ 1883).  The  appa- 
rition of  the  Blessed  Virgin  Mary  at  La  Salette  (1846)  and  at  Lourdes  (1858)  has 
been  confirmed  by  many  miracles.  The  Jew  Alphonse  M.  Ratisbonne  (-f  1884),  who 
in  union  with  his  brother  conducted  the  association  of  Notre  Dame  de  Sion,  was 
converted  by  a  miraculous  apparition  of  the  Blessed  Virgin  Mary.  The  Madonna  of 
Rimini  by  a  movement  of  the  eyes  preannouneed  the  disasters  that  were  to  come 
upon  Italy  (1858).  On  the  shrines  of  the  Blessed  Virgin  in  various  countries  of 
Europe,  see  Spencer  Northcote. 


CHRISTIAN   LIFE.  429 

most  filthy  and  frivolous  })apers  without  Ijeing  disturbed.  Pamphlets 
and  illustrated  newspapers  and  magazines  destructive  of  all  ecclesias- 
tical and  political  order  have  full  range;  they  raise  doubts,  and  question 
every  state  of  property  and  possession,  while  they  aim  at  the  equaliza- 
tion of  all  social  conditions,  as  appeared  in  a  most  appalling  manner 
during  the  "Commune,"  after  the  late  war  of  France  with  Germany. 

A  public  state  of  irreligion  is  equally  obvious  in  the  systematic 
attempts  made  to  unchristianize  the  schools.  The  change  of  schools 
conducted  by  the  representatives  of  various  creeds  into  the  common 
schools  from  which  religion  is  excluded,  the  expulsion  of  the  orders 
devoted  to  teaching,  and  the  modern  school-laws  (in  Germany)  violate 
the  most  sacred  rights  of  the  parents,  who  are  compelled  to  sur- 
render their  children  to  such  institutions;  although  by  doing  so, 
they  betray  the  interests  of  the  Church,  which  is  thus  denied  the 
supervision  of  the  schools  which  for  the  most  part  she  herself  had 
founded.  The  higher  instruction  is,  even  more  than  that  of  the 
lower  grade,  tyrannized  over  by  the  modern  State,  which  admits 
atheistic  and  materialistic  professors  to  the  chairs  of  the  Univer- 
sity, who  instil  into  the  minds  of  the  youthful  students  the  poison 
of  infidelity  and  immorality.  To  counteract  this  evil,  free  Catholic 
universities  have  been  founded  in  some  countries ;  ^  the  effort  to 
effect  this  in  Germany  has  not  as  yet  been  successful,  although  in 
that  country  there  is  urgent  need  of  a  higher  institution  of  learning 
freed  from  State  monopoly. 

While  the  heralds  of  impiety  and  of  revolution  unscrupulously 
cast  off  the  mask,  and  unveil  plans  which  they  seek  to  carry  out  by 
international  combinations,  the  legislative  halls  are  filled  with  men 
struck  with  spiritual  blindness,  who  are  full  of  hatred  towards  the 
Church,  —  men  who  are  over-eager  in  their  haste  to  forge  new  chains 
with  which  to  fetter  the  only  institution  on  earth  that  is  able  to 
help  the  world. 

Thus  is  it  with  the  public  affairs  of  our  era !  The  world  is  di- 
vided into  two  camps.  Belief  and  unbelief,  Christianity  and  anti- 
Christianity,  are  waging  a  gigantic  warfare  one  with  the  other. 
Albeit  this  contest  must  necessarily  result  in  the  victory  of  the 
Church  over  the  kingdom  of  Satan,  yet  may  great  tribulations  and 
hard  trials  come  upon  mankind,  thus  estranged  from  God,  until  it 

1  The  Catholics  of  the  United  States  of  North  America,  under  the  guidance  of 
their  ecclesiastical  superiors,  have  lately  taken  energetic  steps  to  establish  a  Catholic 
University  in  their  country.  A  great  promoter  of  this  long-cherished  project  is  the 
'^minent  bishop  of  Peoria,  Ft.  Rev.  J.  L.  Spalding. 


430  HISTORY   OF    THE    CATHOLIC    CHURCH. 

casts  off  its  seducers  and  penitently  returns  to  the  arms  of  Mother- 
Churcli. 

§  240.    Concl^idin;/  Remarks. 

As  throughout  the  previous  centuries,  so  also  during  the  last 
three  hundred  years,  the  Church,  as  history  proves,  has  ever  been 
faithful  to  her  divine  mission  in  every  respect. 

What  the  Church  has  done  for  the  conversion  of  heathen  lands 
is  proved  by  the  missions,  which  floui'ished  anew  in  the  sixteenth 
century,  and  extended  over  the  Old  World  as  well  as  the  ISTew  ;  so 
that  the  Church,  purified  from  her  withered  branches,  now  stretches 
forth  its  fruit-bearing  boughs  from  a  tree  fresh  with  life,  over  the 
five  divisions  of  the  world, ^  and  everywhere  the  gospel  is  preached. 

While  in  the  Middle  Ages  the  Popes  were  contending  bravely  for 
the  independence  of  the  Church  against  C8esarian-pa})ism,  and  not 
without  success,  the  Reformers  (so-called)  did  not  hesitate  to  subject 
their  churches  to  that  princely  power  which  then  took  the  place  of 
the  divinely  ordained  authority. 

The  example  of  Protestant  regents  exercised  an  evil  influence  on 
Catholic  potentates.  Perverted  court-canonists  applied  Protestant 
principles  to  the  Catholic  Church,  and  absolute  princes  endeavored 
to  carry  them  out.  Even  some  spiritual  princes  in  Germany  set  the 
pernicious  example  of  disrespect  and  disobedience  to  the  Apostolic 
See  ;  and  instead  of  genuine  Catholic  science,  sought  to  substitute 
their  barren  enlightenment,  injuring  and  offending  the  faithful 
people  by  their  ordinances  respecting  the  manner  in  which  divine 
service  was  to  be  performed. 

The  French  Revolution  buried  the  anti-ecclesiastical  plans  under 
the  ruins  of  the  old  State  system  ;  but  after  political  order  had  been 
once  more  restored,  the  conflict  with  the  Church  was  renewed,  in 
which  Bureaucrats  as  well  as  Liberals  took  part,  as  the  events  of 
the  last  years  have  plainly  shown. 

How  little  the  rights  of  the  Church  are  observed  in  Germany  is  ob- 
vious from  the  fact  that  the  Protestant  majorities  give  laws  to  the 
Catholic  Church,  and  treat  her  formally  as  an  institution  of  the  State  ; 
while  in  other  lands  under  Catholic  regents,  "liberal"  governments 
place  obstacles  to  the  liberty  of  the  Church  and  violate  her  rights. 

Amid  these  storms  Pope  Pius  IX.,  undismayed  by  the  confusion 
of  the  ideas  of  the  age,  repeatedly  spoke  of  the  mutual  relationships 
that  should  exist  between  the  spiritual  and  temporal  powers,  and 

^  John  XV.  1  sqq. 


CONCLUDING   REMARKS.  431 

showed  how  detrimental  ^  to  the  one  as  to  the  other  wouhl  be  the 
severance  of  these  two  powers. 

It  is  cheering  and  consoling  to  witness  the  manifold  and  striking 
manifestations  of  the  interior  sympathies  and  harmonious  accord- 
ance of  the  episcopate  and  the  Catholic  people  with  the  Apostolic 
See,  whose  supremacy  and  authority  are  celebrated  most  gloriousl}', 
most  triumphantly,  precisely  at  the  period  when  tlie  Pope  is 
oppressed  and  persecuted. 

The  progress  made  in  Catholic  science  during  this  period  is  proved 
b}^  the  copious  literature  in  the  departments  of  theological  and 
profane  discipline  in  various  countries. 

The  heresies  of  the  last  three  hundred  centuries  have  laid  a 
destructive  hand  on  the  organization  of  the  Church,  and  have 
occasioned  a  great  confusion  among  the  faithful,  of  whom  no  in- 
considerable number  have  succumbed  to  their  seductive  force  ;  they 
have  called  forth  devastating  wars,  and  have  worked  injuriously 
on  religious  life,  notwithstanding  that  they  have  encountered  the 
fate  of  the  heretical  doctrines  of  the  earlier  ages,  and  have  dissolved 
themselves  in  innumerable  sects,  of  which  some  have  already  thrown 
Christianity  overboard. 

The  invincible  power  of  life  possessed  by  the  Church,  particu- 
larly in  the  numerous  religious  communities,  the  members  of  which 
occupy  themselves  with  the  corporal  as  well  as  the  spiritual  well- 
being  of  mankind,  is  manifested  on  all  sides.  When  hostile  gov- 
ernments drive  them  from  their  possessions  and  their  country  in 
one  part  of  the  world,  they  are  received  with  open  arms,  by  other 
nations,  Christian  and  heathen,  and  welcomed  as  benefactors. 

As  for  the  rest,  the  Church,  which  from  her  foundation  to  the 
present  hour  has,  according  to  the  prophecy  "^  of  her  Divine  founder, 
and  like  unto  Himself,  overcome  the  world  amid  tribulation  and  per- 
secution, must  still  continue  to  the  end  her  pilgrimage  amid  the 
hostilities  of  the  world,  fortified  by  the  consolations  of  God,^  until 
both  the  militant  and  the  suffering  Church  become  absorbed  in  the 
triumph  of  the  New  Jerusalem,  where  neither  death  nor  mourning, 
neither  complaint  nor  pain,  can  be  forevermore.^ 

1  Syllabus,  §  6,  No.  39  sqq.  2  joim  xvi.  33. 

"  Aug.  Civ.  Dei,  lib.  xviii.  c.  51.  *  Apoc.  xxi.  4. 


CHRONOLOGICAL    LIST    OF    POPES 


FROM  BENEDICT   XI.   TO   LEO   XIII. 


Benedict  XL,  1303-1304. 
Clement  v., 1  1305-1314. 
John  XXII.,  1316-1334. 
Benedict  XIL,  1334-1342. 
Clement  VI.,  1342-1352. 
Innocent  VL,  1352-1362. 
Urban  V.,  1362-1370. 
Gregory  XL,  1370-1378. 
Urban  VL, 2  1378-1389. 
Boniface  IX.,  1389-1404. 
Innocent  VIL,  1404-1406. 
Gregory  XIL,  1406  ;  resigned,  1415. 


POPES   OF    PISA. 


Alexander  v.,  1409-1410 
XXIIL,  1410-1415. 


and  John 


Martin  V.,  1417-1431. 
Eugene  IV.,  1431-1447. 
(Anti-Pope  Felix  V.,  1439-1448.) 
Nicholas  v.,  1447-1455. 
Calixtus  III.,  1455-1458. 
Pius  II.,  1458-1464. 
Paul  IL,  1464-1471. 
SixtusIV.,  1471-1484. 
Innocent  VIII. ,  1484-1492. 
Alexander  VI. ,  1492-1503. 
Pius  III.,  t  1503. 
Julius  IL,  1503-1513. 


Leo  X.,  1513-1521. 

Adrian  VI. ,  1522-1523. 

Clement  VIL,  1523-1534. 

Paul  III.,  1534-1549. 

Julius  III.,  1550-1555. 

Marcellus  II. ,  +  1555  (reigned  twenty-one 

days). 
Paul  IV.,  1555-1559. 
Pius  IV.,  1559-1565. 
St.  Pius  v.,  1566-1572. 
Gregory  XIIL,  1572-1585. 
Sixtus  v.,  1585-1590. 
Urban    VIL,    f   1590    (reigned    thirteen 

days). 
Gregory  XIV.,  1 1591  (reigned  ten  months 

and  ten  days). 
Innocent      IX.,    t    1591    (reigned     two 

months). 
Clement  VI IL,  1592-1604. 
Leo  XL,  t  1605  (reigned  thirteen  days). 
Paul  v.,  1605-1621. 
Gregory  XV.,  1621-1623. 
Urban  VIII. ,  1623-1644. 
Innocent  X.,  1644-1655. 
Alexander  VIL,  1655-1667._ 
Clement  IX.,  1667-1669. 
Clement  X..  1670-1676. 
Innocent  XL,  1676-1689. 
Alexander  VIIL,  1689-1691. 


1  The  Popes  from  Clement  V.  to  Gregory  XI.  resided  at  Avignon. 

2  Robert  of  Geneva  (Clement  VIT..  1.378-1304)  opposed  Urban  VI.  as  anti-Pope, 
successor  was  Peter  de  Luna  (Benedict  XIIL,  t  1424). 


His 


CHRONOLOGICAL   LIST  OF  COUNCILS. 


433 


Innocent  XII.,  1691-1700. 
Clement  XL,  1700-1721. 
Innocent  XIIL,  1721-1724. 
Benedict  XIII.,  ''724-1730. 
Clement  XII.,  1730-1740. 
Benedict  XIV.,  1740-1758. 
Clement  XIIL,  1758-1769. 
Clement  XIV.,  1769-1774. 


Pius  VI.,  1775-1799. 
Pius  VII.,  1800-1823. 
Leo  XII.,  1823-1829. 
Pius  VIIL,  1829-1830. 
Gregory  XVI.,  1830-1846. 
Pius  IX.,  1846-1878. 
Leo  XIIL,  Feb.  20,  1878. 


CHEONOLOGICAL    LIST    OF    (ECUMENICAL    COUNCILS 

FROM  THE  COUNCIL  OF   VIENNE  TO  THAT  OF  THE  VATICAN. 


15.  The  Council  of  Vienne  (1311). 

16.  The  Council  of  Constance  (1414). 

17.  The  Council  of  Basle  and  Florence  (1431). 

18.  The  Fifth  Council  in  the  Lateran  (1511). 

19.  The  Council  of  Trent  (1545). 

20.  The  Council  in  the  Vatican  (1869). 


434 


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HISTORY  OF   THE    CATHOLIC   CHURCH. 


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CHROXOLOaiCAL    TABLE.  441 


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CHRONOLOGICAL    TABLE.  443 

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GExNERAL    INDEX. 


ABASGI,  i.  118. 
Alibacomites,  i.  268. 

Abdas,  Bp.  of  Susa,  i.  118. 

Abelard,  ii.  77  sq. 

Abgar,  i.  ^8. 

Abgar,  image,  i.  210. 

Aboe,  i.  318. 

Abraham  a  St.  Clara,  ii.  260. 

Abraxas,  i.  92. 

Absalon,  Bp.  of  Roskild,  i.  318. 

Abyssinia,  i.  119. 

Acacius,  Bp.  of  Amida,  i.  118; 
of  Benea,  i.  180;  of  CiBsa- 
rea,  i.  165,  109  ;  of  Constan- 
tinople, i.   184. 

Academy  of  Sciences,  ii.  41. 

Acceptants,  ii   282. 

Acephali,  i.  185. 

Acharaoth,  i.  92. 

Achillas  of  Alexandria,  i.  102. 

Achterfeld,  ii.  409. 

Acre  (Ptolemais),  i.  313. 

Acta  Pilati,  i.  60;  Sanctorum, 
ii.  259. 

Adalbert,  Archbp.  of  Bremen 
i.   242;  of  Mentz,    i.   332 
Bp.  of  Prague,  i.  244,  319 
heretic,  i.  236;  son  of  Be- 
rengarius,  i.  260. 

Adam  of  Bremen,  i.  291. 

Adamites,  ii.  115. 

Adelphius,  i.  212. 

,A.deodatus,  i.  148. 

Adoptionism,  i.  299  sqq. 

Advent,  i.  209. 

Advocati  togati  et  armati,  i. 
270. 

^desius,  i.  119. 

.(Egidius,  of  Rome,  ii.  82;  of 
Viterbo,  ii.  134. 

jElfried,  i.  290. 

JEUa.  Capitolina,  i.  48. 

.(Eluros,  Timotheus,  i.  184. 

^neas  Svlvius,  ii.  39,  41. 

.^ons,  i.YtO. 

Aerius  of  Sebaste,  i.  212. 

Aetius,  i.  107. 

Afra.  .St.,  i.  51. 

Africa,  Christianity  in,  i.  34; 
ii.  140,  3.30. 


Agap*,  i.  108. 

Agapetus,  i.  146,  186;  ii.260. 

Agatho,  i.  148,  193  sqq. 

Agenda,  ii   415. 

Agilulph,  i.  223. 

Agnoetai,  i.  186. 

Agobard  of  Lvons,  i.  288,  294  ; 
n.  102. 

Agricola,  .John,  ii.  265 ;  Ru- 
dolph, ii.  92. 

Agrippa,  Herod,  i.  40. 

Agrippinus,  Bp.  of  Carthage, 
i.  105. 

Aidan.  i.  229. 

Aistulf,  i.  251. 

Akiba,  i.  48. 

Alanus  of  Rvssel,  ii.  79. 

Alarie,  i.  219. 

Alberic  of  Tuscany,  i.  200. 

Albert,  of  ApeldeVn,  i.  319; 
of  Brandenburg,  ii.  163, 205; 
Emperor,  ii.  .38;  Magnus, 
ii.  80;  of  Mentz,  ii.  153, 
104. 

Albigenses,  ii.  99  sqq. 

Albinus,  i.  230. 

Albion,  i.  237. 

Alboin,  i.  222. 

Albornoz,  ii.  22. 

Alcantara,  Peter  of,  ii.  232. 

Alcuin,  i.  287,  300. 

Aleander,  ii.  1,59,  232. 

Alemany,  ii.  319. 

Alexander  (I.),  i.  78:  (II.), 
Pope,  i.  207,  281:  (III.),  i. 
3-38,  343  sqq.;  (IV.),  i.354; 
(V.),  ii.  28:  (VI.),  ii.  43 
S(|q..  141;  (VII.),  ii.  244; 
(Vlir  ),  ii.  247. 

Alexander,  of  Alexandria,  i. 
162;  of  Hales,  ii.  79;  of  Je- 
rusalem, i.  86;  Severus,  i. 
57. 

Alexandria,  Patriarchate,  i. 
137;  School,  1.85;  Svnod, 
i.  112,  102. 

Ale.xians,  ii.  03. 

Alfred  the  Great,  i.  290. 

Alifiers,  ii.  .330. 

Al'legri,  ii.  309. 


Allen,  William,  ii.  200. 
Alliance,  Eyangelical,  ii.  416, 

422. 
Allies,  T.  \V.,  ii.  .397. 
All-Samts,  Feast,  i.  209,  307. 
All-Souls.  Feast,  i.  307. 
Alngi,  i.  \)S. 
Alonibrados,  ii.  284. 
Alonzo,  ii.  372. 
Alpliousus  of  Castile,  i.  355. 
Alphonsus  XII.  of  Spain,  ii 

373. 
Altar,  i.  205. 
Altham,  ii.  149. 
Aha,  Duke,  ii.  193. 
Alvarez,  ii.  278. 
Al varus,  i.  321. 
Alvarus  Pelagius,  ii.  18. 
Alzog,  i.  23. 
Amadeus  of  Savov  (Felix  V.), 

ii.  38:  Duke,  ii.  247. 
Amalarius   of   Metz,    i.  303, 

306. 
Amaleric  of  Chartres  (Bena), 

ii.  99. 
Amandusof  Miistricht,  i.  233. 
Amboise,  consijiracv,  ii.  183. 
Ambon,  i.  205. 
Ambrose,  St.,  i.  1.50,  206.  214. 
Ambrosiaster.  i.  156. 
America,  ii.  141  s(|.,  312  sq. 
Amict,  i.  207. 
Ammoiiius,   i.    213;    Saccas, 

i.  64. 
Amolo  of  Lyons,  i.  302. 
Amort,  ii.  87. 
Amphilochius,    Bp.    of    Ico- 

nium,  i.  170. 
Amsdorf,  ii.  205  si| 
Anabaptists,  ii.  177.  269. 
AnastMsius,  Pope  (I.),  i.  143; 

(II.),  i.  145;  (IV.),  i.  .325. 
Anastasius,    of    Constantino- 
ple,  i.  292  :   F.mperor  (I.), 

185:  historian,  i.  21. 
Anathema,  i.  204. 
Anchieta,  ii.  144. 
Anchorano,  Peter,  ii.  28 
Anchorets,  i.  213. 
Ancvra,  .Synod  of.  i   134. 


456 


GENER  A  L  INDEX . 


Anderson,  Lorenzo,  ii.  213. 

Aiullaw,  ii.  ;j52. 

Andrea',  James,  ii.  2G7 ;  John 

Valentine,  ii.  27U. 
Andrew,  of  Samosata,  i.  179; 

King  of  Hungary,  i.^li;  of 

Kiiodes,  ii.  94. 
A.iidronicus  (II.  and  III-),  ii. 

94. 
Angela,  of  Foligny,   ii.  129; 

Meriei  (Brescia),  ii.  239. 
Angelica    Arnauld    (of    Port 

Kuyal),  ii.  280. 
Angeliis  Domini,  ii.  125. 
Anglican  ('hurch,  ii.  194  sq.; 

ordinations,  ii.  201. 
Anglo-Catholics,  ii.  395  sq. 
Anglo-Saxons,  i.  227  sq. 
Anicet,_  I'ope,  i.  78. 
Annates,  ii.  oti,  51. 
Anomitans,  i.  IGtJ. 
Ansegisus,  i.  289. 
Anselni,  of  Canterbury,  i.  291, 

340,    ii.   76  sq.;  of"  Havel- 

bcrg,  ii.  93;  of  Laon,  ii.  88. 
Ansgar,  St.,  i.  239  sti. 
Anlhimus  of  Constantinople, 

i.  141. 
Antliiinists.  ii.  63. 
Antliony,  hermit,  i.  I(i4,  213 ; 

Iconoclast,  i.  293;  of  I'adua, 

ii.  (i9. 
Anthiupomorphites,  i.  188. 
Antidikomarianites,  i.  208. 

'A^T.ou.^a^  1.  108. 

Antinomian  contest,  ii.  265. 

Antiocii,  first  community  of 
Christians,  i.  40;  principal 
church  of  Asia,  i.  50: 
School,  i.  151  sq. ;  Synod, 
i.  142. 

Antiplionic  chant,  i.  206. 

Antitactes.  i.  93. 

Antitri7iitarian.s,  i.  96  sq. 

Antonelli,  ii.  402  sq. 

Antoninus,  of  Florence,  i.  21; 
Pins,  i.  56. 

Apelles,  Gnostic,  i.  94. 

Apocrisiaries,  i.  132. 

Apocryphal  Gospels,  i.  38. 

Apollinaris,  of  Hierapolis,  i. 
67;  of  Laodicea,  i.  170. 

Apollonius  of  IVana,  i.  63 
sq. 

Apologists,  i.  65  sq.,  126  sq. 

Apostles,  i.  35. 

Apostolical  Council,  i.  41. 

Apostolic  Brethren,  ii.  98; 
Canons  and  Constitutions, 
i.  82;  Fathers,  i.  81. 

Appeals  to  the  Pope,  i.  142; 
from  the  Pope  to  an  oecu- 
menical council,  ii.  27,  32, 
41 ;  to  the  State,  ii.  246, 
360. 

Appellants,  ii.  282  sq. 

Aquaviya,  ii.  278. 

Aranda,  ii.  305. 


Arausicanum,  Council,  i.  177. 
Arcadius,  i.  124,  154. 
Archdeaconries,  i.  272. 
Archdeacons,  i.  132,  272. 
Archives,    ecclesiastical,      i. 

132. 
Archpresbyter,  i.  132,  272. 
Aresen,  ii.  215. 
Ariaid,  i.  281. 
Arianism,  i.  162  sq. 
Ariminum,  Synod,  i.  168. 
Aristides,  Apologist,  i.  67. 
Aristolaus,  Tribune,  i.  180. 
Aristotle,  i.  32;  ii.  79. 
Arius,  i.  162  sq. 
Aries,    Synods,    i.    106,    116, 

166. 
Arnuigh,  i.  279. 
Armenians,  i.  186;  ii.  95,  333. 
Arminius,  ii.  268  sq. 
Armorica,  i.  227. 
Arnauld,  ii.  258,  279. 
Arndt,  i.  270. 
Arno,  Bp.,  i.  239. 
An.dbiu.'",    .\pologist,    i.    67, 

88. 
Arnold,  of  Brescia,  i.  334,  ii. 

98;    of   Ciieaux,    ii.    101; 

historian,  i.  24. 
Arnoldi,    Bp.    of   Treves,   ii. 

424. 
Arnuliih.  Archbp.  of  Rheims, 

i.  276 ;  King,  i.  257. 
Ars  moriendi,  ii.  128. 
Artabasdus,  i.  292. 
.Artemon,  i.  96. 
Ascetics,  i.  116. 
Asclei)iadolos,  i.  96. 
Ascosnaghes.  i.  186. 
Asylum,  right  of,  i.  130.  310. 
Atiianasius,  1.127,152,164  sq., 

170. 
Athenagoras,     Apologist,     i. 

67,   83. 
Athens,   Neoplatonic  School, 

i.  126. 
Attila,  i.  221. 
Atto  of  Vercelli,  i.  290. 
Auctorem  tidei,  ii.  247. 
Audientes,  i.  104,  110. 
And  ins,  i.  212. 
Audomar.  i   233. 
Augsburg.  Diet  and  Confes- 
sion of,  ii.  166;  Interim,  ii. 

174:    Religious   Peace,    ii. 

175. 
Augustine,  of  Canterbury,  i. 

227   sq.,   283  ;  St.,   i.  "127. 

157  .'<q.,   174  sq.,  179;  Tri- 

umphus,  ii.  18. 
Augustinian  Hermits,  ii.  67. 
Aurelian,  Emperor,  i.  58. 
Aurelius,  of  Carthage,  i.  175; 

Marcus,  i.  56. 
Ausculta  fill.  i.  361. 
Autbert,  i.  240. 
Autliaris,  i.  223. 
Autos-da-fe,  ii.  106. 


Ayari,  i.  239. 

Ayerroes,  philosopher,  ii.  79. 

Ayicebrou,     philosopher,    ii. 

79. 
Avignon,  ii.  12  sq. 
Avila,  ii.  232,  258. 
Avitus,  Bp.  of  Yienne,  i.  221. 
Azevedo,  ii.  144. 
Azvme,  i.  108;  ii.  96. 


BACON,  Roger,  ii.  83;  of 
Verulam,  ii.  292. 

Baden,  ii.  350  sq.,  362  sq. ; 
Articles  of,  ii.  377. 

Badia,  Thomas,  ii.  232. 

Badin,  ii.  316. 

Bahram  V.,  i.  118. 

Bahrdt,  ii.  299. 

Bail,  ii.  258. 

Baines,  ii.  394. 

Bains,  ii.  276  sq. 

Balde,  ii   309. 

Baldwin,  i.  314. 

Ballerini,  ii.  2.50,  259. 

Balmez,  ii.  106. 

Balsamon,  i.  299. 

1  allinuire  (^'ouncils.  ii.  315  sqq. 

Baltimore,  Lord,  ii   148. 

Bangor,  JMonastery,  i.  285. 

Bannez,  ii.  257,  277. 

Ba))tism,  i.  103  sq.;   of  chil- 
li ren,  i.  105. 
!  Baptisteries,  i.  104,  206. 

Baptists,  ii.  275. 

Baradai,  i.  187. 

Baraga,  ii.  321. 
I  Barclay,  ii.  274. 

Bar-Cochba,  i.  48,  55. 

Bardas,  i.  295. 

Bardesanes,  Gnostic,  i.  94. 

Barlaaln,  ii.  94. 

Barleita.  (iabriel,  ii.  129. 

Barlow,  ii.  201 
:  Barnabas,  i.  81. 
j  Barnabites,  ii.  238. 

Barnave,  ii.  335. 
!  Baronius,  ii.  243,  259. 
I  Barruel,  ii.  334. 
I  Barsumas,  Abbot,  i.  183;  Bp. 

of  Nisibis,  i.  181. 
!  Bartholomew,  of  Lucca,  i.  21; 
1      de  Martyribus,  ii.  232;  de 
[       Medina," ii.  2.58;    Niylit  of 
I      St.,  ii.  187  sq. 
I  Basedow,  ii.  299. 

Basilicas,  i.  204. 

Basilides,  Bishop,  i.  75; 
Gnostic,  i    91. 

Basiliscus,  i.  184. 

Basilius,  of  Ancvra.  i.  167; 
the  Great,  i.  152  sq.,  213; 
the  jMaced(mian.  i.  296. 

Basle,  Council,  ii.  33  sq. 

Basnage,  i.  25. 

Bassi,'ii.  236. 

Bathory,  Stephen,  ii.  216  sq. 

Bamngarten,  ii.  272,  297. 


GENERAL   INDEX. 


457 


Baur,  i.  2.1;  ii.  413. 

Batitaiu,  ii.  409. 

Bavaria,  i.  232  sij. ;  ii.  345  sq., 

3G2  sq. 
Baxter,  ii.  275. 
Bayle,  ii.  2lto. 
BaVlev,  Art'iibp.,  ii.  321  sq. 
B.-arn"  ii.  185. 
Beaton,  ii.  202. 
Beatiis  uf  Libaiia,  i.  300. 
Bee,  Monastery,  i.  291. 
Becanus,  ii.  257. 
Bechetti,  i.  22. 
Becker,  ii.  301. 
Beeivet  (*ee  Tlionias). 
Beda  Venerabilis,  i.  21,  286. 
Bediui,  ii.  321. 
Bel<,qiim,  i.  233;  ii.  380  sq. 
Belisarius,  i.  141,  221. 
Bellarmine,  ii.  243,  257. 
Beliay,  ii   182. 
Benedict,   of  Aniane,   i.  284, 

.300;   of  Levita,  i.  274;   of 

Nursia,    i.    282;    Order   of 

St.,  i.  222.  282,  ii.  240. 
Benedict,    Pope  (I.),  i.  147; 

(IV.),  i.  255,  259;  (V.,VI.), 

i.     2(52;      (VII.),    i.     263; 

(VIII.).  i.    263;     (IX.),   i. 

204;    (XI.),     ii.     12     sq.; 

(XII.),  ii.  20  sq.;  (XIII.), 

ii.248;  (XIV.),  ii.  248,  283. 
Benedictina,  ii.  72. 
Beniguus,  i.  225. 
Bennet,  Biscop,  i.  286. 
Benno,  Bp.  of  Meissen,  i.  245. 
Berault-Bercastel,  i.  22. 
Berengarius,  of  Friuli,  i.  257 

sq.;    of   Ivrea,    i.   260;   of 

Tours,  i.  304. 
Bergier.  ii.  296. 
Berington,  ii.  352,  394. 
Berkeley,  ii-  293. 
Bernard,  of  Clair vaux,  i.  335, 

ii.   61,   84;    missionarv,    i. 

317. 
Bernardines,  ii.  61. 
Bernetti,  ii.  409. 
Bernhardi.  Barth.,  ii.  160. 
Berno,  i.  290. 
Bertha  of  Kent,  i.  227. 
Berthold,  of  Calabria,  ii.  62; 

of    Chiemsee,    ii.    257;    of 

Livonia,  i.319;  of  Ratisbon, 

ii.  129. 
Berti,  i.  22. 
Berulle,  ii.  238,  258. 
Bervllus,  i.  86,  97. 
Beser,  i.  291. 
Bessarion,  ii.  90.  94. 
Beza,  Tlieodore,  ii.  182. 
Beziers,  Roger,  ii.  101. 
Bianchi,  ii.  259. 
Bible  editions,  ii.  130. 
Bible  Societies,  Protestant,  ii. 

333. 
Biblia  paiiperum,  ii.  127. 
Bichi.  ii.  248. 


Biel,  Gabriel,  ii.  65,  86,  129. 

Bileaniites,  i.  89. 

Hinteriin,  ii.  412. 

liiriiiu>,  i.  22!t. 

Ijisliopric,      -Vnglo-Prussian, 

ii.  .334. 
Bishops,  i.  (17  sq.,  1.36  sq. 
Bismarck,  ii.  359  sqq. 
Blanc,  i.  22. 
Blanchet,  ii.  318. 
Blandrata,  ii.  218. 
Blastares,  i.  299. 
Blast  us,  i.  84. 
Blau,  i.  301. 
Blood,  phials  of,  ii.  426. 
Bludoff,  ii.  386. 
Blum,  Bp.,  ii.  353,  363. 
Bobbiv.  Monastery,  i.  232. 
Boccaccio,  ii.  90. 
Boehnie.  ii.  270. 
Boethius,  i.  222. 
Bogomiles,  ii.  95,  99. 
Bogoris,  i.  245. 
Bohemia,  i.  243. 
Bohemian  Brethren,  ii.  116. 
Boleslaw  (I.),  i.  244;  Chrobrv, 

i.  244,  317;  (II.)  the  Pious, 

i.  244. 
Boleyn,  Anne,  ii.  194  sq. 
Bolgeni,  ii.  259. 
Bolingbroke,  ii.  293. 
Boll,  ii.  351. 
Bollandists,  ii.  2.59. 
Bolsena,  miracle,  ii.  119. 
Bommel,  ii.  382. 
Bonald,  ii.  .366  sq.,  409. 
Bonaventure,  ii.  81,  168. 
Boniface,  Pope  (I.),  i.  144  sq.; 

(II.),  i.  146,  177:  (III.,  IV., 

v.),  i.  147;   (VI.),  i.  2.57; 

(VII  ),  i.  263;    (VIII.),  i. 

358  sq.;  (IX.),  ii.  25  sq. 
Boniface,  St.,  i.  2-33  sqq. 
Bonnetty,  ii.  409. 
Bonosus,    Bp.  of   Sardica,  i. 

208. 
Bora,  Catherine,  ii.  163. 
Bordeaux,  Synod,  i.  172. 
Borgia,  Cajsar,  ii.  44;  Fran- 
cis,   ii.  235:  .John,  ii.    44; 

Lucretia,  ii.  45. 
Borromeo,  ii.  232,  238. 
Borziwoi,  i.  243. 
Bosio,  ii.  2.59. 
Bossuet,  i.  22;   ii.   247,  258, 

287. 
Boulogne,  i.  366. 
Bourdaloue,  ii.  259. 
Bradaez,  ii.  116. 
Bradwardine,  Thomas,  ii.  86, 

107. 
Branco,  ii.  3-30. 
Braun.  Hermesian,  ii.  409. 
Brazil,  ii.  144.  .329. 
Bread    for   the    Eucharist,   i. 

108. 
Brebeuf,  ii.  150. 
Bremen,  Bishopric,  ii.  240. 


Brendel,  ii.  2-33. 

Brest,  Svnod,  ii.  290. 

Bretagtie,  i.  227. 

Bridget,  St.,  i.  225;  ii.  23,  65, 

i;jo. 

Brighani  Young,  ii.  421. 
British    Isles,     i.    224   sq(|., 

278  s<iq, 
Broglie  of  Ghent,  ii.  .381. 
Brothers,    of     the     Common 

Life,  ii.  65:    of  Merc\-.   ii. 

239:  the  four  tall,  i.  188. 
Brownists,  ii.  199. 
Brownson,  ii.  324. 
Brunner,  ii.  302 ;  Francis  d« 

Sales,  ii.  320. 
Bruno,  of  ('ologne,  i.  280,  ii. 

60;  the  Saxon,  i.  237. 
Brute,  ii.  316. 
Bucer,  ii.  169. 
Buck,  De,  ii.  382. 
Budicus,  ii.  93. 
Btigenhagen,  ii.  215. 
Bull,  ii.  142. 
Bulgarians,  i.  245. 
Bunseii,  ii.  413,  415. 
Burchard,   Bp.,  i.   230,   280, 

289. 
Burdett,  ii.  390. 
Burgundians,  i.  221. 
Burial-places,  i.  116. 
Buridan, .].,  ii.  86. 
Bursfeld,  congregation,  ii.  72. 
Bus,  Civsar  de,  ii.  239. 
Butler,  ii.  394. 
Byzantines,  i.  21. 


/^ADALUS    of    Parma,    i. 

V-/     267. 

Cffcilian  of  Carthage,  i.  159. 

Ciecilius,  Priest,  i.  88. 

Cadestius,  i.  174  .sq. 

Ciesaraugusta,  Synod,  i.  171. 

Cajsarea,  i.  50,  73. 

Citsarius,  Bp.  of  Aries,  i.  177. 

Ciesars,  i.  125. 

Cajetanus.  ii.  1.56,  232,  238. 

Cajus,  Presbvter,  i.99;  Pope, 

i'.  80. 
Calasanctius,  .Joseph,  ii.  239. 
Calderon,  ii.  .309. 
Caledonians,  i.  226. 
Calendar,  Julian,  ii.  241. 
Caliphs,  i.  247. 
Calixtities,  ii.  115. 
('alixtus,    of    Helmstiidt,    ii. 

268. 
Calixtus,  Pope  (II.),   i.  317, 

332. 
Callistus,  Pope,  i.  79,  109. 
Calmet,  i.  257. 
Calvin,  ii.  179.  260. 
Camaldoli.  i.  282,  284. 
Camisardes,  ii.  191. 
Campegcrio,  ii.  Kil.  195. 
Canad:i.  ii.  1.52.  -326. 
Candidian,  i.  179. 


458 


GENERAL   INDEX 


Canisius,  ii.  233. 

Canning,  ii.  389. 

Cano,  Meluliior,  ii.  23.5. 

Canon  of  the  Mass,  i.  201. 

Canonic'i,  i.  272. 

Canonists,  in  the  Middle 
Ages,  ii.  89;  in  the  seven- 
teenth and  eighteenth  cen- 
turies, ii.  259;  modern,  ii. 
411. 

Canonization,  i.  307. 

Canons,  apostolic,  i.  82. 

Canossa,  i.  325  sq. 

Canterbury,  metropolis,  i. 
227. 

Cantus,  i.  206. 

Capelique,  i.  22. 

Capistranus,  ii.  129. 

Capito,  ii.  177. 

Capreolus,  ii.  86. 

Capuchins,  ii.  23G  sq. 

Caracalla,  Emperor,  i.  57. 

Caraccioli,  ii.  158. 

Cardenas,  ii.  145. 

Cardinals,  i.  265,  273;  ii.  54. 

Carlstadt,  ii.  157. 

Carmelites,  ii.  62,  240. 

Caroline  Books,  i.  294. 

Carpocrates,  Gnostic,  i.  93 

Carpzov,  ii.  127,  271. 

Carroll,  Bp.,  ii.  312  sq. 

Cartesius.  ii.  292. 

Carthage,  Synod,  i.  176. 

Carthusians,  ii.  60. 

Casas,  Barth.  de  las,  ii.  142 
sqq. 

Casimir  of  Poland,  i.  244. 

Cassander,  ii.  220. 

Cassian  of  St.  Victor,  i.  177. 

Cassidorus,  i.  20,  222. 

Cataldino,  ii.  145. 

Catechismus  Romanus,  ii. 
2.30. 

Cathari,  ii.  99  sqq. 

Catherine,  of  Aragon,  ii.  194; 

of  Genoa,  ii.  130;   de  Me- 

dicis,  ii.  184  sq.;  of  Russia, 

.      ii.  184;  of  Siena,  ii.  2.3, 1.30. 

Cavour,  ii.  375,  402. 

Ceadwalla,  King,  i.  229. 

Cedd.  i.  229. 

Celestine,  Pope  (I.),  i.  142  sq., 
176  sq.,  224;  (II.),  i.  3.33; 
(III.),  i.  .344;  (V.),  i.  358. 

C'eiestinian  Hermits,  ii.  61. 

Celibacy,  i.  133  sq. 

Cellites"  ii.  63. 

Celsus,  i.  63. 

Centuriators  of  Magdeburg, 
i.  21.  24. 

Cerdo,  Gnostic,  i.  94. 

Cerinth,  i.  89. 

Cerularius,  Michael,  i.  298. 

Ceryantes,  ii.  38. 

Cervini,  ii.  227. 

Chalcedon,  i.  138,  183  sq. 

Challoner,  ii.  .394. 

Chalmers,  ii.  420. 


Chapters,  collegiate  and 
cathedral,  i.  272. 

Charlemagne,  i.  237  sq., 
252  s(i. 

Charles,  of  Anjou,  i.  355; 
v.,  Emperor,  ii.  158  sq.; 
IX.  of  France,  i.  184  sq.; 
X.,  i.  190  sq. ;  Martel,  i. 
233  sq.,  249,  268 :  of  Sue- 
dermanland,  ii.  44;  Theo- 
dore, Elector,  ii.  253  ;  of 
Valois,  ii.  14. 

Charta,  caritatis,  ii.  61;  liber- 
tatis,  i.  348. 

Chateaubriand,  ii.  365. 

Chatel,  ii.  367,  423. 

Chauvelin,  ii.  305. 

Chazari,  i.  246. 

Chelm,  united  diocese,  ii. 
388. 

Chemnitz,  ii.  267. 

Cherier,  i.  23. 

Cheverus,  ii.  313  sq. 

Chieregati,  ii.  161. 

Chiersv  ((iuiercv),  i.  302. 

Chigi,'ii.  161. 

Chili,  ii.  144. 

Chiliasm,  i.  99. 

Chinese  usages,  ii.  138. 

Chiquitos,  ii.  145. 

Choir  of  the  Church,  i.  205. 

Choiseul.  ii.  246. 

Chorbishops,  i.  72,  133,  272. 

Chrism,  i.  105. 

Christian,  (II.,  III.)  of  Den- 
mark, ii.  213  sq.;  (IV.), 
ii.  221;  missionar}-,  i.  319 
sq. 

Christopher,  i.  259. 

Chrodogang,  i.  272. 

Chrysaphius,  i.  182. 

Chrysolanus,  ii.  93. 

Chrysostom,  i.  143,  154  sq., 
188 

Chubb,  ii.  293. 

Cid,  i.  321. 

Cimabue,  ii.  123. 

Cingulum,  i.  207. 

Circumcellions,  i.  160. 

Cirta,  Synod,  i.  159. 

Cistercians,  ii.  61. 

Citeaux,  ii.  61. 

Civil  constitution,  ii.  335. 

Civil  marriage,  ii.  330. 

Clara,  St.,  of  Assisi,  ii.  66. 

Clarendon,  Diet,  i.  342. 

Claudius.  Emperor,  i.  44;  of 
Turin,  i.  288,  294,  ii.  102. 

Clementina,  i.  89. 

Clementines,  ii.  54. 

Clement,  of  Alexandria,  i.  67; 
Augustus  of  Cologne,  ii. 
349;  heretic,  i.  2-36;  .James, 
ii.  190;  philosopher,  ii.  410; 
AYenceslaus  of  Treves,  ii. 
2.53. 

Clement,  Pope  (I.),  i.  75  sq. ; 
(II.),  i.  264,  280;   (III.),  i. 


326,  344;  (V.),  ii.  13  sqq.; 

(VI.),ii.21:  (VII.),  ii.l!)4; 

(VIII.),  ii.  242,  277:  (IX.), 

ii.  244;  (XI.),  ii.  248.  280 

sq.:  (XII.),  ii.  248:  (XIII.), 

ii.  250,  305  sq.;  (XIV.).  ii. 

2.50,  306. 
Cleomenes,  i.  97. 
Clei-gy,  i.  67  sq. 
Clerici  et  Fratres  vitae  com- 
munis, ii.  65. 
Cletus,  Pope,  i.  78. 
Clovis,  i.  223. 
Clugny,  abbev.  i.  284. 
Cobbett,  ii.  3{)4. 
Cobham.  ii.  111. 
Cochem,  ii.  260. 
Codde,  ii.  269,  283. 
Ctt'lius  Sediilius,  i.  207. 
Coena  Domini,  Bull,  ii.  241. 
Coleuso,  ii.  420. 
Colet,  ii.  93. 
Coligny,  ii.  183. 
Collegia  pietatis,  ii.  271. 
Collegiants,  ii.  269. 
Collegium,  Germanicum,    ii. 

241;  Urbanum,  ii.  243. 
Collins,  ii.  293. 
Collyridians,  i.  208. 
Colman,  i.  231. 
Columba,  St.,  i.  226. 
Columban,  St.  i.  232. 
Columbino,  ii.  63. 
Columbus,  ii.  141. 
Comboni,  ii.  330. 
Commendone,  ii.  232. 
Commodus,  i.  56. 
Communion,  i.  108,  201,  305. 
Comonfiirt,  ii.  328. 
Compact  of  Prague,  ii.  116. 
Competentes,  i.  104. 
Compline,  i.  211. 
Comte,  ii.  410. 
Conceptio     inimaculata,      ii. 

125. 
Conclave,  i.  357. 
Concordia  of  Wittenberg,  ii. 

169. 
Condc,  Prince,  ii.  183. 
Condillac,  ii.  296. 
Confessio,  Augustana,  ii.  166; 

Havnica,    ii.     215:    tetra- 

politana.  ii.  168. 
Confession,  i.  109;  ii.  120. 
Confessors,  i.  105. 
Confucius,  ii.  138. 
Congregatio,  de   auxiliis,   ii. 

277 ;    de  propaganda  tide, 

ii.  1.35. 
Congregation,  of    the    Holv 

Ghost,  ii.  .330;  of  the  Lord, 

ii.  202;  of  Satan,  ii.  202. 
Congregationalists,     ii.    199, 

421.  " 
Congruism,  ii.  278. 
Connolly,  ii.  314. 
Conrad  (II.),  i.  264;  (III.),  i. 

334. 


GENERAL   INDEX. 


459 


Conradin,  i.  354  sq. 
Consalvi,  ii.  400. 
Consensus,     ticlei     repetitus, 

etc.,  ii.  268;  Dresdensis,  ii. 

266. 
Consistentes,  i.  110. 
Consistories,  ii.  164,  180. 
Consolanientuin,  ii.  100. 
Constance,    Treaty,    i.    325; 

Council,  ii.  2!(  s(i. 
Constans,  i.  120. 
Constantia,  i.  345. 
Constantino,  tlie  Great,  i.  00, 

120;  (II.),  i.  120;  Copron- 

vnius,   i.   292;    Pogonatus, 

1.  1!13. 
Constantinople,    i.    137,    171, 

190. 
Constantius,  Chlorns,    i.    58; 

Arian,  i.  120  sqq. 
Constitutum     of     Pope     Vi- 

gilius,  i.  190. 
Contarini,  Cardinal,  ii.  232. 
Contenson,  ii.  258. 
Convention,  French,  ii.  336. 
Convulsionaries,  ii.  283. 
Copernicus,  ii.  244. 
Coptic  Christians,  i.  186;  ii. 

291,  .331. 
Corbinian,  St.,  i.  2-33. 
Corcoran,  ii.  324. 
Cornelius  a  Lapide,  ii.  257.- 
Cornelius,  Pope,  i.  75,  79,  111. 
Cornet,  ii.  279. 
Corpa,  Peter  de,  ii.  147. 
Corporale,  i.  207. 
Corporation  Act,  ii.  206. 
Corpus,    doctrinae    Philippi- 

cum,   ii.  266 ;   Evangelico- 

runi,  etc.,  ii.  222;  juris  ca- 

nonici,  ii.  54. 
Corpwald,  i.  228. 
Correggio,  ii.  123. 
Corruptibilists.  i.  186. 
Cortese,  ii.  2-32. 
Cortez,  ii.  143. 
Councils,  (Ecumenical,  i.  149 

sqq. 
Cournault,  ii.  180. 
Courtnay,  ii.  108  sq. 
Cranmer,     Thomas,     ii.    195 

sqq. 
Crell,  Chancellor,  ii.  267. 
Crescentians,  i.  262  sq. 
Crispus,  i.  120. 
Cromwell,    Thomas,    ii.    195 

sqq. 
Crvpto-Calvinists,  ii.  267. 
Culdees,  i.  279. 
Cullen,  Cardinal,  ii.  392. 
Cultur-kampf,  ii.  :i,59  sqq. 
Cumulatio    beneficiorum,    ii. 

55. 
Curtis,  ii.  .390. 

Customs,  hereditary,  in  Eng- 
land, i.  342. 
Cvprian,    i.    58,    75   sq.,  88, 

"110. 


Cyran,  ii.  278. 

Cyril,  of  Alexandria,  i.   127, 

179  sq.;    of  Jerusalem,   i. 

1.54:  Monk,  i  243. 
Cyrila,  Arian  Bishop,  i.  220. 
Cyrus  of  Pluisis,  i.  191. 
Czerski,  ii.  424. 


DAGOBEKT,  i.  224, 
Dahomev,  ii.  330. 
D'Aillv,  ii.  29" sq. 
Dalberg,  John,  ii.  303. 
D'Alembert,  ii.  295. 
Dallas,  ii.  394. 
D'Allemand,  ii.  36  sq-. 
Dahnatius,  Abbot,  i.  180. 
Damasus,    Pope  (I.),    i.  143, 

171;  ii.  264,  280. 
Damian,  Peter,  i.  280,  291. 
Dance,  of  Death,  ii.  128;  St. 

Guy's,  ii.  121. 
Daniel,    Bp.    of   Winchester, 

235;  missionary,  ii.  151. 
Dante,  ii.  83. 
Danton,  ii.  336. 
Darbvites,  ii.  421. 
Darr.as,  i.  22. 
Daub,  i.  413. 

David,  of  Augsburg,    ii.  85; 
of  Dinanto,  ii.  99;    St.,  i. 
227. 
Deaconesses,  i.  71  sq. 
Deacon-;,  i.  71. 
Dean,  i.  272. 

Dechami)s,  Cardinal,  ii.  .383. 
Decius,  Emperor,  i.  .57. 
Decretals,    Pseudo-Isidorean, 

i.  1.50,  273  sq. 
Defensore-,  i.  132. 
Deists,  English,  ii.  291  sqq. 
Del  Monte,  ii.  227. 
Delsignore,  i.  22. 
Demetrius.    Bp.    of    Alexan- 
dria, i.  85  sq. 
Demiurgus,  i  90. 
Denmark,  i.  2-39;  ii.  213,221. 
DeSmet,  ii.  318  sq. 
D'Espence,  ii.  184. 
Desservants  in  France,  ii.  367. 
Deuberia,  ii.  332. 
Devav,  ii.  218. 
Dhu-iSTowas,  i.  118. 
Diderot,  ii.  295. 
Didier,  delaCour,  ii.  240;  la 

Mothe,  ii.  63. 
Didvmus,  the  Blind,  i.   154; 

Gabriel,  ii.  160. 
Diego,  Bp.  of  C>sma,  ii.  65. 
Diocletian,  i.  58. 
Diodorus   of  Tarsus,    i.   152, 

181. 
Diognetus.  i.  67. 
Dionvsius,  Areopagita.  i.  73  ; 

of 'Alexandria,  i.  75,  80,87. 

97:  Carthusian,   ii.   88;  of 

Corinth,  i.  78;  of  Milan,  i. 

167. 


Dionvsius,  Po]je,  i.  75,  80,  97. 
Dioscorus  of   Alexandria,    i. 

182. 
Diplomatics,  i.  18. 
Diptychs,  i.  202. 
Discipline  Book  of  Knox,  ii. 

202. 
Discipline  of  the  Secret,  i.  66, 

111  sii-,  199. 
Dissenters,  ii.  420. 
Diuma,  i.  229. 
Dodwell,  i.  62. 
Dogmatic    teachers,    ii.   2.57, 

408. 
Doketism,  i.  91. 
Dolcino,  ii.  98. 
Dollinger,  i.  23;  ii.  406,  410, 

424."^ 
Dombrowka,  i.  244. 
Dominic,  ii.  65  sqq.,  101. 
Domitian,   Bp.  of  Ancyra,  i. 

188;  Emperor,  i.  55. 
Domnus  ot'Antioch,  i.  182. 
Domnus,  Pope,  i.  148. 
Donatio  Constantini,  i.  252. 
Donatists,  i.  159  sq. 
Donatus,  Bp.  of  Casai  Nigra', 

i.  160;  of  Carthage,  i.  160; 

of  Dublin,  i.  279. 
Dordrecht,  Synod,  ii.  269. 
Dorner,  ii.  414. 
Dorotheus,  i.  152. 
Dorovernum  (Canterbury),  i. 

227. 
Dorsch,  i.  301. 
Dositheus,  i.  90. 
Douay,  ii.  200,  .399. 
Dovin,  Synod,  i.  118. 
Doyle,  ii.  -391. 
Drahomira,  i.  244. 
Drexelius,  ii.  258. 
Drontheim,      metropolis,     i. 

242. 
Droste-Yiscliering,  Bishop,  ii. 

340. 
Druillettes,  ii.  1.50. 
Dubois,  ii.  313  sq. 
Dubourg,  ii.  313  sq. 
Dubricius,  St.,  i.  227. 
Ducreux,  i.  22. 
Dumont,  ii.  383. 
Dungal.  Monk.  i.  295. 
Dunin,  Martin,  ii.  349. 
Duns  Scotus,  ii.  82. 
Dnnstan   of    Canterbury,    i. 

278,  290. 
Dupin,  ii.  307. 
Durandus  of  St.  Pourrain.  ii. 

85. 
Diirer,  Albert,  ii.  124. 
Duserres,  ii.  191. 


T?ADBALI)of  Kent,  i.  228. 
I^J     Easter,  i.  112  sq. 
Ebho.  of  Grenoble,  i.  -302;  of 

Kheims,  i.  239,  276. 
Eberhard,  of  Friuli,  i.  .300; 


460 


GENERAL   INDEX. 


John  Augustus  (Professor), 
ii.  298. 
Ebionites,  i.  89. 
Eccehard    (I.,    II.),    i.    289; 

(IV.),  i.  290. 
Eccleston,  ii.  31G. 
Eck,  Jolin,  ii.  157  sq. 
Eckhart.  Master,  ii.  80. 
Edbert,  i.  229. 
Edelmaiin,  ii.  299. 
Edessa,  Cliristianity  in,  i.  50; 

School,  i.  152. 
Edgar,  King,  i.  278. 
Edward,  the  Confessor,i.  278; 
(I.,  II.),  ii.  15  sqq.;  (VI.), 
ii.  199  sqq. 
Edwin  of  Northumbria,  i.  228. 
Egalite,  Philip,  ii.  3.36. 
Egan,  ii.  313. 
Egmont,  ii.  193. 
Eichhorn,  ii.  298,  415. 
Einhard,  i.  288. 
Ekebolis,  i.  121. 
Ekthesis  of  Heraclius,  i.  193. 
Elesbaan,  i.  118. 
Eleutherius,  Pope,  i.  79. 
Elias,  of  Cortoaa,  ii.  69;  of 

Jerusalem,  i.  185. 
Eligius  of  Novon,  i.  233. 
Elipauduscf  Toledo,  i.  29Q. 
Elizabeth,   ii.   129;    of   Eng- 
land, ii.  198  sqq. 
Elkesaites,  i.  89. 
Elvenich,  ii.  409. 
Elvira,  Synod,  i.  50,  135. 
Emancipation  of  the  Catho- 
lics, ii.  388  sqq. 
Emery,  ii.  313. 
Emmei'an,  St.,  i.  2.32. 
Emmeric,    Joseph,    Arclibp., 

ii.  2.53. 
Emmerich,  Catherine,  ii.  428. 
Ems,  Punctuation,  ii.  254. 
Emser,  ii.  157. 
Endura,  ii.  100. 
Engelbert  of  Admont,  ii.  21. 
Engelhardt,  i.  25. 
England,  John,  ii.  314. 
English  YouuL'  Ladies,  ii.  239. 
Enkratites,  i.  83,  94. 
Enlightenment,  false,  ii.  291, 

407. 
Ennodius  of  Pavia,  i.  146. 
Eparchies,  i.  137. 
Ephesus,  Council,  i.  176,  179. 
Ephraeni,  of  Antioch,  i.  188; 

of  Syria,  i.  155. 
Epigonus,  i.  97. 
EpikJesis,  ii.  96. 
Epiphanes,  Gnostic,  i.  93. 
Epiphanius  of  Salamis,  i.  155, 

188. 
Epiphany,  i.  112. 
Episcopal    Church,    ii.    197 

sqq.,  419. 
P'piscopius.  ii.  268. 
Episcopus  in  partibus,  i.  272. 
Erasmus,  ii.  92,  164  sq. 


Erich,  (I.)  i.  240;  (II.),  i.  240; 

(III.),  i.  240. 
Erigena  (.-set  Scotus). 
Erimbert,  i.  241. 
Ernest,  of  Bavaria,  ii.233;  of 

Mengerdorf,  ii.  233. 
Ernesti,  ii.  297. 
EskyI  of  Lund,  i.  3.36. 
Espartero,  ii.  372. 
Espen,  Van,  ii.  249. 
Essenes,  i.  31. 
Essex,  i.  228. 
Este,  ii.  232. 
Esthonians,  i.  319. 
Estius,  ii.  257. 
Ethelbert  of  Kent,  i.  227. 
Ethelburga,  i.  228. 
Ethelwald,  Bp.  of  Winches- 
ter, i.  278. 
Etherius,    Bp.    of    Osnia,    i. 

.300. 
Eucharist,  i.  106  sq.,  302  sq., 

349. 
Euchites,  i.  212. 
Eudokia,  i.  182. 
Eudoxia,  i.  154. 
Eudoxius,  of  Antioch,  i.  169; 

of  Constantinople,  i.  170. 
Eugene,    Pope   (I.),    i.    148; 
(II.),  i.  254;   (III.),  i.  .334; 
(IV.),  ii.  32  sqq. 
Eugenius,  Emperor,  i.  124;  of 

Ephesus,  ii.  94,  97. 
Eulogius  of  Corduba,  i.  .321. 
Eulogy,  i.  108. 
Eunapius,  i.  125. 
Eunomians,  i.  167. 
Eurie,  i.  219. 
Eusebians,  i.  164. 
Eusebius,  Bp.  of  Ca-sarea,  i.  20, 
127, 152, 163, 187  :  of  Dory- 
la?um.  i.  182;  ot  Emesa,  i. 
154;  of  Nicomedia,  i.  120, 
103  sq.;  of  Vercelli,  i.  167, 
213. 
Eustathius,  of  Antioch,  i.  164; 
of    Sebaste,    i.    1.35,    212; 
Pope,  i.  80. 
Euthvmius     Zigabeuus,      i. 

299. 
Eutropius,  i.  154. 
Eutyches,  i.  181  sqq. 
Eutychianus,  Pope,  i.80. 
Evagrius,  i.  20. 
Evangelicals,  ii.  419. 
Evaristus,  Pope,  i.  78. 
Evremonde,  ii.  295. 
Ewald,  i.  237. 
Exarchs,  i.  1.37. 
Excommunication,     i.     204, 

306. 
Exegesis,  i.  152;    ii.  87,  257, 

411. 
Exemptions,  i.  284. 
Exomologesis,  i.  109. 
Exorcists,  i.  72. 
Extravagants,  ii.  54. 
Eybel,  ii.  251. 


Eyk,  ii.  124. 
Eyre,  ii.  399. 
Ezzelino,  i.  351. 


FABER,   of  Constance,  ii. 
177;    convert,    ii.    397: 
.Jesuit,  ii.  235. 
Fabian,  Pope,  i.  50,  79. 
Fagnani,  ii.  259. 
Farel,  ii.  178,  182. 
Farnese,  ii.  232. 
Farrars,  ii.  419. 
Fast  days,  i.  114. 
Fathers"  of  the  Church,  i.  151 

sqq. 
Fausta,  i.  120. 
Faustus.  i.  120;  Bp.  of  Riez, 

i.  177! 
Feasts,  i.  112. 
Febronius,  ii.  249  sq. 
Felicissimus,  i.  110. 
Felicitas,  i.  57. 
Felinski,  ii.  387. 
Felix,  of  Aptunga,  i.  159;  of 
Burgundy,  i.  229;  of  Urgel, 
i.  299;  of  Valois.  ii.  64. 
Felix,  Pope  (I.),  i.  80;  (IIL 
or  IT.),  i.  145;  (IV.  or  III.), 
i.  146. 
Fenelon,  ii.  259,  285. 
Fenwick,    P.dward,    ii.    313; 

Benedict,  ii.  313. 
Ferdinand  (I.),   ii.   233;   the 

Catholic,  ii.  105. 
Ferrara,  Council,  ii.  37,  94. 
Fesch,  Cardinal,  ii.  340. 
Fichte,  ii   298. 
Fiesole,  ii.  123. 
Filastre,  ii.  29. 
Filioque,  i.  170;  ii.  96. 
Finland,  i.  318. 
Firmian,  ii   286. 
Firmieus  Maternus,  i.  127. 
Firniilian  of  Ca^sarea,  i.  76  sq. 
Fisher,  Bp.  of  Rochester,   ii. 

93,  195. 
Fistula  eucharistica,  i.  -305. 
Flacius    Illyricus,    i.    24;    ii. 

266. 
Flagellants,  ii.  121. 
Flaget,  ii.  313. 

Flavian,    Pt.   of  Antioch,    i. 
185;  of  Constantinople,    i. 
182  sq. 
Flavins  Clemens,  i.  85. 
Flentes,  i.  110. 
Fletcher,  ii.  27.3,  .394. 
Fleurv,  i.  22. 
Flodoard,  i.  259,  290. 
Florence,  ii.  95. 
Florinus,  heretic,  i.  84. 
Floras,  Gessius,  i.  47;  Magis- 

ter,  i.  ,302 
Flotte,  Peter,  i.  363. 
Fonseca,  ii.  277. 
Fontainebleau,  ii.  341. 
Fontevrault,  Order,  ii.  62. 


GENERA  L    INDEX. 


461 


Forbin-Janson,  Bp.  of  Nancv, 
ii.  311. 

Form  of  Concord,  ii.  2G7. 

Forinosus,  Fope,  i.  257. 

Formula  Hormisihi;,  i.  141. 

Foniiiilaritis,  i.  30G. 

Fortuiiatus,  i.  111. 

Fossors,  i.  133. 

Fox,  ii.  274. 

Fra  Bartolomeo,  ii.  123. 

Frances,  St.,  ii.  239. 

Francis,  of  Assisi,  ii.  65  sq.; 
(I.)  of  France,  ii.  182; 
(II),  ii.  183;  (II.,  Emperor), 
ii.  353  ;  .Joseph,  Emperor, 
ii.  357;  of  Mayronis,  ii.  82 ; 
of  Paula,  ii.  65  ;  de  Sales, 
ii  233,  239  ;  Solanus,  ii. 
143;  of  Xavier,  ii.  1-35. 

Franciscan  Orders,  ii.  65  sq. 

Francisca  Romana,  ii.  63. 

Franyipani,  C'encius,  i.  3-32. 

Franke,  ii.  271. 

Frankenberg,  Cardinal,  ii. 
253. 

Frankfort,  Diet,  ii.  21 ;  Svnod, 
i.  294,  300. 

Franks,  i.  223. 

Fransoni,  Archbp.  of  Turin, 
ii.  375. 

Fratricelli,  ii.  17,  70,  132. 

Fravssinous,  ii.  366. 

Fredegar,  i.  286. 

Frederic,  of  Denmark,  ii.  215 ; 
(I.)  E  nperor,  i.  313,  336 
sq. ;  (11.).  i.  314,  347;  of 
Prussia  (II.),  ii.  297;  Wil- 
liam (I.),  ii.  286;  (III.),  ii. 
415;  (IV.),  ii.  416;  of  the 
Palatinate,  ii.  220;  of  Sax- 
ony, ii.  156. 

Free  Kirk  of  Scotland,  ii.  420. 

Freemasonry,  ii.  248  sq.,  294. 

Free-thinkers,  ii.  293. 

Friars,  Minor,  ii.  65  sq.; 
Preachers,  ii.  66  sq. 

Fridolin,  St.,  i.  231. 

Friends  of  God,  ii.  86. 

Frint,  ii.  354. 

Frohschammer,  ii.  409. 

Fructus  medii  temporis,  ii.  51. 

Frumentius,  i.  119. 

Fuessen,  Monastery,  i.  232. 

Fulbert  of  Chartres,  i.  290. 

Fulda,  Monastery,  i.  2-36; 
School,  i.  288.  ' 

Fulgentius  of  Ruspe,  i.  177, 
220. 

Fullo,  Peter,  i.  184, 

Funk,  ii.  265. 


GABOR,  ii.  218. 
Gaetano    (Cajetan)    of 
Thiene,  ii.  238. 
Galerius,  i.  58. 
Galileans,  i.  31. 
Galileo,  ii.  244. 


Gall.  St.,  i.  232,  288,  290. 
(iallican  Articles,  ii.  246. 
Gallienus,  i.  58. 
Gallitzin,  ii.  313. 
Gallus,   Cestius,    i.  47;    Em- 
peror, i.  58. 
Gams,  i.  23. 
Gangra,  S^-nod,  i.  135. 
Garcia  Moreno,  ii.  329. 
Gardine,  ii.  197. 
Garibaldi,  ii.  403 
Garnet,  .Jesuit,  ii.  204. 
Gaston,  ii.  63. 
Gaunillo,  ii.  76. 
Gau/.bert,  i.  241. 
Gavazzi,  li.  321. 
Geilana,  i   233. 
Geiler  of  Kaisersberg,  ii.  129. 
Geisa,  i.  246. 
Geissel,  Archbp.  of  Cologne, 

ii.  349,  .356. 
Gelasius    (I.),    i.   145;    (II.), 

i.  332. 
Gelimer,  i.  221. 
Gemistius  Pletho,  ii.  91. 
General  seminaries,  ii.  252. 
General  Synod.  Prussian,  ii. 

416. 
Geneva,  ii.  179  sq. 
Gennadius,  ii.  95. 
Genseric,  i.  220. 
Genutlectentes,  i.  110. 
George,  of  Cappadocia,  i.  167; 

of  Saxonv,  ii.  157. 
Gerbert,  i.  290,  302. 
Gerhard,  ii.  70. 
Gerizim,  i.  32. 
German  Mysticism,  ii.  86. 
"German  Theology,"  ii.  87. 
Germanus,  Bp.  of  Auxerre,  i. 

224;  of  Constantinople,    i. 

291. 
Gersen,  ii.  87. 
Gerson,  ii.  30,  86,  87. 
Gesta  regum    Francorum,    i. 

286. 
Gewilieb,  i.  236. 
Ghibellines,  i.  .345. 
Ghiberti  of  Florence,  ii.  124. 
Gibault,  ii.  152. 
Gibbons,  ii.  326. 
Giberto,  ii.  2.32. 
Gichtel,  ii.  270. 
Gieseler,  i.  24. 
Gilbert  de  la  Porre,  ii.  77. 
Gildas,  i.  285. 
Giotto,  ii.  123. 
Gizzi.  ii.  401. 

Gladiatorial  combats,  forbid- 
den, i.  128. 
Gladstone,  ii.  398. 
Gmeiner,  i.  23;  ii.  244. 
Goa,  Archbishopric,  ii.  310. 
Goch,  .John,  ii.  132. 
Godeau,  i.  22. 
Godfrey  de  Bouillon,  i.  312; 

Lukina,  i.  319. 
Goethe,  ii.  298. 


Goffine,  ii.  260. 
Golden  Bull,  ii.  22. 
Goldhagen,  ii.  260,  302. 
Gomarus,  ii.  268. 
Gonzaga,  ii.  228. 
Gonzatez  Tellez,  ii.  259. 
Gordian,  i.  57. 
Gorham.  ii.  420. 
Gorm,  the  Elder,  i.  240. 
Gc.rres,  ii.  346,  427. 
Gospel,  Everlasting  {see  In- 

troductorius,  liber). 
Gothjr,  ii.  394. 
Gottschalk,  Duke,  i.245,  318; 

heretic,  i.  301. 
Giitze  in  Hamburg,  ii.  299. 
Gonban,  ii.  381. 
Goupil,  ii   151. 
Gozbert,  Duke,  i.  233. 
Granmiont,  Order,  ii.  60. 
Granvella,  Cardinal,  ii.  192. 
Gratian,     Emperor,     i.    123; 

John,  ii.  89. 
Grattan,  ii.  389. 
Greek  refugees  in  the  West, 

ii.  90. 
Greek  Schismatic  Church,  ii. 

93. 
Gregorian  Chant,  i.  206. 
Gregory,  Asbestas,  i.  295  ;  of 

Cappadocia,     i.    165;     the 

Illuminator,      i.     118;     of 

Nazianzen,  i.  127,  153;  of 

Nyssa,  i.  154;  Thaumatur- 

gus,  i.  86  sq. ;  of  Tours,  i. 

21,  22.3,  286;  of  Utrecht,  i. 

2.36;  of  Valencia,  ii.  257. 
Gregory,  Pope,  the  Great,  i. 

138, '147.    190,    227,    285; 

(II.),  i.  234,  291;  (III.),  i. 

23.5,    292;    (IV.),    i.    254; 

(V.),  i.  263;  (VI.),  i.  264; 

(VII.),     i.    282,     .323   sq.; 

(VIII.),    i.    .332;    (IX.),    i. 

350  sq.;  (X.),  i.  .3,55;  (XI.), 

ii.23;  (XII.),ii.27;  (XIII.), 

ii.  188,  220,241;  (XV.),  ii. 

243;  (XVI.),  ii.  400  sq. 
Greith,  Bp.  of  St.  Gall,  ii..378. 
Gretser,  i.  257. 
Grey,  ii.  198. 
Grievances   of    the    German 

nation,  ii.  161. 
Grimoald.  i.  223. 
Groot,  ii.  65. 
Grotius,  ii.  269. 
Gualbertus,  i.  284. 
Gualo,  i.  .351. 
Guerike,  i.  25. 
Gueux,  ii.  193. 
Guibert  of  Ravenna,  i.  326. 
Guido,  husband  of  Marozia, 

i.  260;  of  Malesee,  ii.   28; 

of  Milan,    i.    281   sq.;    of 

Montpellier,  ii.  63;  of  Spo- 

leto,  i.  257. 
Guilbertines,  ii.  62. 
Guises,  ii.  183  sq. 


462 


GENERAL    IXDEX. 


Gundobald,  i.  221. 
Guntamund,  i.  220. 
GUnther.   Anthony,    ii.    409; 

Bp.  of  Cologne,  i.  277. 
Gustaviis  Adolphus,  ii.  221; 

Association,  ii.  417. 
Guyon,  Joanna,  ii.  285. 


TT  ADRIAN,  Emperor,  i.48, 

Hadrian."  Pope  (I.),   i.   293, 

:«)0;  (II.),  i.  297;  (III.),  i. 

256,277;  (IV.),  i. -336,  34.3; 

(VI.),  ii.  161,  176;  (VII.), 

ii.  280. 
Hadumar,  Bishop,  i.  239. 
Hakou,    the    Good,    i.    242; 

Yarl,  i.  242. 
Hales,  ii.  269. 
Halitsar,  of  Carabray,  i.  288 ; 

Monk,  i.  2.39. 
Haller,  Berthold,  ii.  178. 
Hamburg,  Bishopric,  i.  240. 
Hamelius,  ii.  277. 
Hamilton,  ii.  201. 
Hampden,  ii.  420. 
Haneberg,  ii.  410. 
Hanno  of  Cologne,  i.  267. 
Harless,  ii.  414. 
Hannoniiis,  Gnostic,  i.  94. 
Harms,  Clans,  ii.  413. 
Harold,  King,   i.   2.39;    Bla- 

taand,  i.  241. 
Hartniann,  ii.  413. 
Hartwig,  i.  318. 
Hase,  i.  25. 
Hasse,  i.  25. 
Hassmi,  ii.  3-32. 
Hatti-Humavun,  ii.  332. 
Haute ville,  i'i.  258. 
Haymo,  i.  21,  288. 
Hebrews,  i.  39. 
Hecker,  I.  T.,  ii.  .324. 
Hedderich,  ii.  .301. 
Heddo  of  Strasburg,  i.  272. 
Hefele,  i.  23. 
Hegel,  ii.  408.  413. 
Hegesippus,  i.  20. 
Heiss,  ii.  -325. 
Held.  ii.  170. 
Heliand,  i.  288. 
Heliogabalus,  Emperor,  i.  57. 
Hellenists,  i.  39. 
Heloise,  ii.  78. 
Helsen,  ii.  423. 
Helvetius.  ii.  296. 
Helvidius,  i.  208,  212. 
Hengstenberg,  ii.  413. 
Henke,  i.  24;  ii.  298. 
Henni,  ii.  318  sq. 
Hennuyer,  ii.  188. 
Henoticon,  i.  145,  185. 
Henricians,  ii.  98. 
Henrion,  i.  22. 
Henrv,  of  Anjou,  ii.  188;  of 

England  (II.),  i.  342;  (I.). 

Emperor,   i.  240;   (II.),    i. 


262;  (III.),   i.  264;  (IV.), 

i.  267,  324  sq. ;  (V.),  i.  331; 

(VI.),    i.    344;   (VII.),    ii. 

15  sq.;  (VIII.),  ii.  194 sqq.; 

of    France,    ii.    182,    227; 

(IV.),  i.  220;  of  Lausanne, 

ii.  !)8;  of  Navarre,  ii.  187. 
Hepidanus,  i.  290. 
Heraclas,  i.  87. 
Heracleon,  Gnostic,  i.  93. 
Heraclius,  Emperor,  i.  191  sq. 
Herbert  of  Cherburv,  ii.  292. 
Herder,  ii.  98. 
Hereford,  i.  110. 
Hergenrbther,  i.  23. 
Heribert,  Bishop,  i.  2.39. 
Herlembald,  i.  282. 
Herman,  Contractus,  i.  290; 

of  Cologne,  ii.  171. 
Hennas,  Pastor,  i.  82. 
Hermenegild,  i.  219. 
Hermeneuti,  i.  132. 
Hermes,  ii.  408. 
Hermias,  Apologist,  i.  84. 
Hermits,  i.  116,  213. 
Hermogenes,  i.  93. 
Herod,  i.  37;  Agrippa  (I.),  i. 

40. 
Herodians,  i.  31. 
Heros,  Bishop,  i.  175. 
Herrnhuters,  ii.  271. 
Hess,  ii.  217. 
Hesychasts,  ii.  96. 
Hetzer,  ii.  177. 
Hieracas,  Gnostic,  i.  99. 
Hierocles,  i.  65. 
Hieronjanites,  ii.  64,  2.38. 
Hierotheus,  i.  246. 
Hilarion,  i.  213. 
Hilary,  Pope,  i.  144;  of  Poi- 
tiers, i.  155  sq.,  167;  laj'- 

man,  i.  177. 
Hilda,  i.  230. 
Hildebrand,  Monk  (Gregory 

VII.),  i.  265. 
Hildcijardis.  ii.  129. 
Hilderic,  i.  221. 
Hildesheim.  Bishopric,  i.  2-39. 
Himerius,  Bp.,  i.  136. 
Hincmar,  of  Laon,  i.  256;  of 

Rheims.    i.   256,  276,  289, 

295,  .302. 
Hindoos,  ii.  135  sq. 
Hippolvte,  i.  87. 
HirsanJ  Abbey,  i.  284. 
Hirscher,  ii.  411. 
Hobbes,  ii.  292. 
Hofbauer,  ii.  355. 
Hofmann,  ii.  268,  414. 
Hofmeister,  ii.  177. 
Hogstraten,  ii.  156. 
Hohenlohe,  ii.  406. 
Hohen.^taufens,  i.  3-36. 
Hoi  bach,  ii.  2il6. 
Holbein,  ii.  124. 
Holtzendorf,  ii.  415. 
Homagium,  i.  267,  333. 
Homerites,  i.  118. 


Honorius,  Emperor,  i.  124. 
Honorius,   Pope  (I.),    i.   147, 

192 sq.;  (II.),  i.333;  (III.), 

i.  314,  3.50;  (IV.),  i.  357. 
Honter,  ii.  218. 
Hontheim  {.<(e  Febmnius). 
Hoorne,  ii.  193. 
Horebites,  ii.  115. 
Hormisdas,  Pope,  i.  146,  177, 

185  sq. 
Horner,  ii.  331. 
Hornstein,  ii.  351. 
Hortig,  i.  23. 
Hosius,  of  Corduba,   i.    163, 

167;    Stanislaus,    ii.    216, 

228,  257. 
Hospitallers,  ii.  63. 
Hosts,  i.  305. 
Hottinger,  i.  25. 
Howard,  ii.  394. 
Huetius,  ii.  296. 
Hugh,  of  Langres,  i.  304;  of 

Provence,    i.    260  ;    of    St. 

Caro,  ii.  88;  of  St.  Victor, 

ii.  84. 
Hughes,  ii.  317. 
Huguenots  in  France,  ii.  183 

sq. 
Humanists,  ii.  89  sqq. 
Humbert,  Cardinal,  i.  291. 
Hume,  ii.  294. 
Humiliati,  ii.  64. 
Hunerie,  i.  220. 
Hunni,  Archbp.  of  Hamburg, 

i.  241. 
Huns,  i.  221. 
Huschke,  ii.  416. 
Huss,  John,  and  his  sect,  ii. 

Ill  sq. 
Hutten  (^-et  Ulric). 
Hygin,  of  Corduba,  i.  171. 
Hyginus,  Pope,  i.  78. 
Hymns,  sacred,  i.  207;  ii.  124. 
Hypatia,  i.  126. 
Hypsistarians,  i.  212. 


TBAS  of  Edessa,  i.  181,  189. 
JL     Iconium.  Synod,  i.  105. 
Iconoclasm,  i.  291  sq. 
Idacius  of  Emerita,  i.  171. 
Ignatius,  of  Antioch,  i.  50,  55, 

81;    of    Constantinople,    i. 

295;ofLoyola,  ii.  2.34.  258. 
Ildephonse  of  Toledo,  i.  285. 
Illuminati,  ii.  -300,  302. 
Images,    of    Christ,    i.    210; 

symbolical,    ii.   122:    ven- 
eration, i.  209  sq. 
Immunities  of  the  Church,  i. 

129. 
Imperium  mundi  of  the  West, 

i.  253  sq. 
Incarnation,  i.  178  sq.,  299  sq. 
In   coena   Domini,    Bull,    ii. 

241. 
Independents  in  England,  ii. 

205. 


GENERAL    INDEX. 


463 


Iiukx  libr.  prohibit.,  ii.  2-'30. 
Iiuliiljri'iicc's,  ii.  2'2!). 
Infallibility,  ii.  406. 
Iiitralaiisarians,  ii.  209. 
Inge,  i.  241. 
Ingolstaclt,     University,     ii. 

157,  344. 
lunocent.    Pope   (I.),   i.    143, 

175;    (II.),   i.  333;    (III.), 

i.   313,    345   sq.  ;   ii.    101  ; 

(IV.),  i.  31.i,  353s(i.:  (VI.), 

ii.     22;      (VII.),     ii.     27; 

(VIII.),  ii.  106;    (X.).    ii. 

222,244,279;  (XI.),  ii.  244, 

284;    (XII.),  ii.  247,  285; 

(XIII.),  ii.  248. 
Inquisition,  EccL,  ii.  103,  242, 

308;  Spanish,  ii.  103. 
Instantius,  Bishop,  i.  171. 
Insula  Sanctorum  {see  §  79). 
Intercession,     right    of    the 

bishops,  i.  ].30. 
Interdict,  i.  306. 
Introductorius,  liber,  ii.  70. 
Investiture,  i.  269,  324. 
lona,  i.  226. 
Ireland,  i.  224  sqq.,  278;  ii. 

207,  388. 
Irena'us,  Bp.  of  Lj'ons,  i.  57, 

74,  79,  84. 
Irene,  Empress,  i.  293. 
Irmin,  Column  of,  i.  237. 
Irvingites,  ii.  421. 
Isaac  of  Antioch,  i.  207. 
Isabella  of  Spain,  (I.)  ii.  105; 

(II.),  ii.  .373. 
Isenbiehl,  ii.  .300. 
Isidorean   Collection,    i.  150, 

273  sq. 
Isidore,    Gnostic,    i.    92:    of 

Kiew.  ii.95;  of  Seville,  i. 

273,  285. 
Islam,  i.  247  sq. 
Isleif,  Bishop,  i.  242. 
Isochristoi,  i.  188. 
Issy,  Conference,  ii.  285. 
Italian  Question,  ii.  402. 
Ithacius  of  Ossonnba,  i.  171. 
Ivo  of  Chartres,  ii.  48. 
Ixkuell  {see  Y.). 


JABLONSKY,  W.,  i.  25: 
in  Berlin,  ii.  271. 

Jacobins,  ii.  335. 

Jacobites,  i.  187;  ii.  95. 

Jagello,  i.  320. 

Jamblichus,  i.  64. 

James,  of  Aragon,  ii.  63;  (I.) 
of  England,  ii.  200,  203; 
(II.),  ii,  206;  of  Scotland 
(V.,  VI.),  i.  202  sq. 

Jansenism,  ii.  278  sqq. 

Jansenius  of  Ypern,  ii.  278. 

Japanese  Martyrs,  ii.  404. 

Jeremias,  Pt.  of  Constantino- 
ple, ii.  289  sq. 


Jerome,  St.,  i.  140  s(|  ,  156  s(i., 
187;  of  Prague,  ii.  112  scj. : 
of  Salzburg,  ii.  254. 

Jerusalem,  Anglo  -  Prussian 
Bishopric,  ii.  334  ;  de- 
stroyed, i.  47;  Julian's  at- 
tempt to  rebuild  the  city, 
i.  122  ;  conquered  by  the 
Crusaders  and  by  the  Sara- 
cens, i.  313;  Patriarchate, 
i.  137 ;  Synod,  i.  175. 

Jesuates,  Order,  ii.  63. 

Jesuits,  Order,  fotinded,  ii. 
234;  suppressed,  ii.  303  sq. 

Jesumi,  ii.  139. 

Joachim  of  Floris,  ii.  70. 

Joasaph,  Pt.  of  Constantino- 
ple, ii.  289. 

.Jogues,  ii.  150. 

Johanna,  d'Albret,  ii.  185;  of 
Arc,  ii.  129;  of  Naples,  ii. 
24  sq. ;  pretended  female 
Pope,  i.  258. 

John  and  .John  Frederic  of 
Saxonv,  i.  165,  171,  174. 

John,  Pope  (I.),  i.  146,  222; 
(II.),  i.  146,  186:  (III.,  IV.), 
i.  147,  193,  196;  (VIII.),  i. 
256,  297  sq.;  (IX.),  i.  258; 
(X.),  i.  260;  (XL),  i.  260; 
(XII.),  i.  261;  (XIII.),  i. 
262;  (XIV.),  i.263;  (XV.), 
i.  263,  276:  (XVI.),  i.263; 
(XXL),  i.  3.56  sq.:  (XXIL), 
ii.  16sqq.;  (XXIII. ),  ii.  29. 

John,  Pt.  of  Antioch,  i.  179 
sq.;  Baliol,  ii.  15  ;  of  the 
Cross,  ii.  232,  240;  of  Da- 
mascus, i.  292,  ii.  76;  the 
Faster,  i.  138;  of  God,  ii. 
239;  Grammaticus,  i.  293; 
Lackland,  i.  347;  of  Matha, 
ii.  64;  of  Meda,  ii.  64;  of 
Monte  Corvino,  i.  316 ;  of 
Oliva,  ii.  70;  Paheologus 
(V.),  ii.  94;  of  Raijusa,  ii. 
94;  of  Samosata,"  i.  172; 
Scholasticus,  i.  1.50;  Toh)- 
mei,  ii.  62;  of  Vincenza, 
ii.  129. 

John  Prester,  i.  316. 

Jolly,  ii.  363. 

Jonas,  Bp.  of  Orleans,  i.  295. 

.Jordanus,  ii.  129. 

Joseph,  Emperor  (I.),  ii.  248; 
(II.),  ii.  2.51  sq.  ;  Pt.  of 
Constantinople,  i.  94. 

.Tosephinism,  ii.  251  scj. 

.Tosephus,  Flavins,  i.  38. 

Jouen,  ii.  331. 

Journalism,  ii.  412. 

Jovian,  Emperor,  i.  123. 

Jovinian,  i.  208,  212. 

Jowett,  ii.  419. 

Juan  d"  Austria,  ii.  193. 

Juarez,  ii.  328. 

.Tubilee,  ii.  121. 

Judaizing  heresies,  i.  89. 


Judicatum  of  Pope  Vigilius, 

i.  189. 
Juliana  of  Liege,  ii.  119. 
Julian,   the   Apostate,   i.   121 

sq. ;     of    Halicarnassus,    i. 

18G;  Presbvter,  i.   119;  of 

Toledo,  i.  285. 
Julius,  Pope  (I.),  i.  143,  165; 

(II.),  ii.  45;  (III.),  ii.  227, 

240. 
Juniper  Serra,  ii.  148. 
Jus,  canonicum,  ii.  54;  refor- 

mandi,   ii.   222;    spolii,   ii. 

270. 
Justin,  Emperor  (I.),  i.  185; 

the  Martyr,  i.  67,  83,  107. 
Justina,  Empress,  i.  171;  of 

Padua,  ii.  72. 
Justinian,    Emperor    (I.),    i. 

126,    136,    147,    185,    188; 

(II.),  i.  194  sq. 
Justus,  Bp.  of  Rochester,  i. 

228. 
Juvavia,  i.  2-32. 
Juveualis,  i.  137,  184. 


K 


AHNIS,  ii.  414. 
Kainites  (Cainites),   i. 

93. 
Katerkamp,  i.  23. 
Kaulbach,  ii.  427. 
Kaunitz,  ii.  251  sq. 
Keble.  ii.  -395. 
Keller,  Bishop,  ii.  352. 
Kelly,      Patrick,      ii.      314; 

Thomas,  ii.  391. 
Kenrick,  F.  P.,  ii.  315;  P.  R., 

ii.  318. 
Kent,  i.  227. 
Kerz,  i.  23. 
Ketteler,    Bp.   of  Mentz,    ii. 

363. 
Kettler,  Gotthard,  ii.  216. 
Kiew,  Bishopric,  i.  246. 
Kildare,  i.  225. 
Kilian,  St.,  i.  2-33. 
Kirk,  ii.  394. 

Kiss  of  peace,  i.  107,  201. 
Klee,  ii.  -346. 
Klein,  i.  23. 
Klesel,  ii.  233. 
Kliefoth,  ii.  414. 
Knights,  Orders,  ii.  56  sqq. 
Knoblecher,  ii.  330. 
Know-Nothings,  ii.  322. 
Knox,  John,  ii.  202. 
Knud  (Canute),  i.  241. 
Koehler,  i.  25:  ii.  301. 
Kopiati,  i.  133. 
Koran,  i.  248. 
Kranach,  Lucas,  ii.  162. 
Kublai,  i.  316. 
Kuehn,  ii.  148. 
Kuenzer,  ii.  352. 
Kuhn,  ii.  410. 
Kupelian.  ii.  332. 
Kurz,  i.  25. 


464 


GENERAL   INDEX. 


L ACHAT,  ii.  379. 
La  Combe,  ii.  285. 
Lacordaire,  ii.  -307. 
Lactam  ins,  i.  89,  127. 
Ladeiiberg,  ii.  359. 
Laderchi,  James,  i.  22. 
Ladislaus,   of  Naples,   ii.  28 
sq.;  of  Polaml,  ii.  216;  St., 
i.  246. 
Lainez,  ii.  184. 
Laitv,   i.   67  sq. ;  chalice  for 

the,  ii.  115  sq.,  231. 
Lambei-t,  of  Avignon,  ii.  164; 
Emperor,  i.  257;  Monk,  i. 
291. 
Lambruschini,  ii.  386,  401. 
Lamennais,  De,  ii.  367,  409. 
Lando,  Pope,  i.  260. 
Landpert,  i.  232. 
Landulph,  i.  282. 
Lanfranc   of  Canterbury,    i. 

291;  ii.  76. 
Langenstein,  i.  53.  _ 
Langton,  Stephen,  i.  347. 
Lanigan,  ii.  394. 
Lapland,  i.  320. 
Lapsi,  i.  110. 
La  Salette,  ii.  428. 
Lasare,  ii.  418. 
Laski,  ii.  216. 
Lasso  Orlando,  ii.  309. 
Lateau,  Louise,  ii.  428. 
Lateran  Svnods,  i.  331,  333, 

334,  339^  349. 
Latimer,  ii.  198. 
Latitudinarians,  ii.  269. 
Laurent,  ii.  384. 
Laurentius.  of  Canterbury,  i. 

2-28;  St.,  i.  .58. 
Laval,  ii.  15-3.  327. 
La  Valette,  ii.  304  sq. 
Lay-abbots,  i.  268. 
Lazarists,  ii.  238. 
Lazarus,  Bishop,  i.  175. 
League,   Holv,   ii.  170,  220; 

Lombard,  f.  339. 
Leander  of  Seville,  i.  285. 
Lebuin,  i.  237. 
Lectors,  i.  72. 
Leely,  ii.  420. 
Legates  a  latere,  i.  276. 
Legend,  Golden,  ii.  125. 
Legio  fulminatrix,  i.  56. 
Legislation,     intlueneed    by 

Christianitv,  i.  128  sq. 
Leibnitz,  ii.  287. 
I.eidrad,  i.  300. 
Leif,  i.  242. 
Leipsic,  disputation,  ii.  157; 

Interim,  ii.  175. 
Lejeune,  ii.  259. 
Lennig,  A.  F.,  ii.  356. 
Leo,  Pope(L),  i.  144, 159, 182 

sq.,  221;  (IL),  i.  194  sq.; 

(IIL),  i.  252  sq.;  (IV.),  i. 

2.55;  (V.),  i.  259;  (VI.),  i. 

260;  (VII.),  i.  260;  (VIII.), 

i.  262;  (IX.),  i.  265,  280; 


(X.),  ii.  154;  (XL),  ii.242; 
(XII.),  ii.  400;  (XIII.),  i. 
404  sqq. 

Leo,  of  Achrida.  i.  298;  Em- 
peror (L),  i.  184;  the  Isau- 
rian,  i.  291  sq.  ;  (VI.),  i. 
298. 

Leonardo  da  Vinci,  ii.  123. 

Leonidas,  i.  57. 

Leonists,  ii.  102. 

Leontius,  Monk,  i.  188. 

Leopold.  II.  of  Tuscany,  i. 
254  sq.;  Emperor  (II.),  ii. 
219,  286. 

Leovigild,  i.  219. 

Leporius,  i.  178. 

Lerins,  i.  286. 

Lessing,  ii.  298. 

Lessius,  ii.  277. 

Lesson-books,  i.  202. 

Lettis,  i.  319. 

Leu,  Joseph,  ii.  377. 

Leutizians,  i.  317. 

Lex  Julia,  etc.,  i.  129. 

Libanius,  i.  121. 

Libellatics,  i.  76. 

Libelli,  i.  110. 

Liberius,  i.  161,  166,  168. 

Licinius.  i.  60,  119. 

Light,  Friends  of,  ii.  417. 

Liguori,  St.  Alphonsus,  ii. 
238,  411. 

Lilly,  ii.  93. 

Lindauus,  ii.  257. 

Lindisfarne,  i.  229. 

Lindner,  i.  25. 

Lingard,  John,  ii.  394. 

Liuus,  Pope,  i.  78. 

Lioba,  St.,  i.  2-36. 

Lippomano,  ii.  232. 

Lisco,  ii.  423. 

Litanies,  i.  211. 

Lithuania,  i.  318. 

Litur£;ical  vestments,  i. 
207"  sq. 

Liturgies,  ii.  119;  Clemen- 
tine, i.  108;  various,  i.  200. 

Liturgy-book,  i.  202  sq. 

Livin,  St.,  233. 

Livonia,  i.  318. 

Llorente,  ii.  106. 

Locherer,  i.  23. 

Locke,  i.  292. 

Liihe,  ii.  414. 

Lollards,  ii.  111. 

Lombards,  i.  222. 

Lombardus,  Peter,  ii.  97. 

Loos,  Cornelius,  ii.  127. 

Lope  de  Vega,  ii.  309. 

Loreto,  ii.  125. 

Lothaire,  Emperor,  i.  254 
of  Lorraine,  i.  255,  276 
of  Saxony,  i.  333. 

Louis,  the  iMild,  i.  254,  287 
(IL),  i.  255;  (VII.),  i.  313 
(IX.),  i.  315;  (XIV.),  ii 
191.  244;  (XV.),  ii.  305 
(XVI.),   ii.   192,   334   sq. 


(XVIIL),  ii.365;  Bertrand, 

St.,   ii.   145;  of  Conde,   ii. 

183;  de  Ponte,  ii.  258;  of 

Provence,  i.  258. 
Louvain,  ii.  382. 
Louvois,  ii.  191. 
Lucaris,  Cyril,  ii.  289. 
Lucas,  Frederic,  ii.  394. 
Lucian,   of  Antioch,   i.  152; 

of  Samosata,  i.  63. 
Lucidus,  Presbyter,  i.  178. 
Lucifer  of  Calaris,  i.  167  sq. 
Luciferian  Schism,  i.  169  sq. 
Lucilla,  i.  159. 
Lucius,  Pope  (I.),  i.79;  (II.), 

1.334;  (IIL),  i.  334,  ii.  102, 

104. 
Ludgerus,  Bishop,  i.  2.39. 
Ludmilla,  i.  243. 
Luitprant,  of  Cremona,  i.  259 

sq.,  290;  King,  i.  251. 
LuUus,  Archbp.  of  Mentz,  i. 

2.36. 
Luneville,  Peace,  ii.  342. 
Lupoid  of  Bebenburg,  ii,  21. 
Lupus,  i.  301. 

Luther,  i.  154  sqq.,  260  sqq. 
Lutherans,  ii.  414,  416. 
Luxeuil,  i.  224. 
Lydda,  Synod,  i.  175. 
Lyons,  i.  56;  Council,  i.  353, 

"355;  Poor  of,   ii.   102;  So- 
ciety, ii.  310. 
Lyons,  William,  ii.  293. 
Lyra,  N.,  ii.  88. 


"]\  1  ACARIUS  of  Antioch,  i, 

Macaulay,  ii.  394. 
Macedonius   and  his  sect,  i. 

170  sqq. 
Maceta,  ii.  145. 
Machiavelli,  ii.  92. 
Mack,  ii.  352. 
Macrian.  i.  58. 
Madeville,  ii.  293. 
Magdeburg,  ii.  221. 
Matrna  Charts    libertatis,   1. 

348. 
Magnentius,  i.  166. 
Magnus,   Albert,    ii    80;    of 

Fiisi-en,  i.  232. 
Maguire,  ii.  397. 
Magyars,  i.  246. 
Mahomet,  i.  247  sqq. 
!Mai,  Angelo,  ii.  401. 
Maidalchini.  Olj-mpia,  ii.  244. 
Maigro,  ii.  138. 
Mainotti,  i.  245. 
Maistre,  De,  ii.  366. 
Major,  George,  ii.  265. 
Majorian  Conflict,  ii.  265. 
Majorinus  of  Carthage,  i.  160. 
Malabar  Customs,  ii.  136. 
Malchion,  Presbyter,  i.  96 
Maldonat,  ii.  257,  411. 
Malon,  ii.  383. 


GENERAL  INDEX. 


465 


Mainachi,  ii.  259. 
Mamertus  of  Vienne,  i.  211. 
Manes,  i.  'J4. 
Manfred,  i.  354  sq. 
Manicheans,  i.  94  sq. 
Manning,  Cardinal,  ii.  .398. 
Mantna,  Synod,  ii.  226. 
Map,  Walter,  ii.  85. 
Maranos,  ii.  105. 
Marca,  Peter  de,  ii.  24G. 
Mareelliniis,  Pope,  i.  78. 
Marcellus  of  Aiicyra,  i  1(55  sq. 
Marcelhis,    Pope   (I.),   i.    78; 

(II.),  ii.  228. 
Marcia,  i.  56. 
Marcion,  Gnostic,  i.  94. 
Marcus,  of  Aretliusa,  i.    168; 

Aurelius,   Emperor,    i.    56; 

Gnostic,  i.  93. 
Marcus,  Pope,  i.  143. 
Mareclial,  ii.  314. 
Margaret,  of  Parma,  ii.    192 

sq.;  von  der  Saal,  ii.  170; 

de  Valois,  ii.  182.  187. 
Marian  Priests,  ii.  331. 
Maria  Theresa,  ii.  250  sq. 
Marilley,  ii.  378. 
Marinns,    Pope    (I.),    i.   256; 

(il.),  i.  260. 
Maris,   Bp.  of  Hardashir,    i. 

181. 
Marius  Mercator,  i.  176. 
Mark  of  Nice,  ii.  147. 
Marmoutier,  i.  214;  ii.   76. 
Maronites,  ii.  95,  291. 
Marozia,  i.  258  sq. 
Marquette,  ii.  152. 
Marriage,  clandestine,  ii.  121, 

230. 
Marsilins,  Ficinus,  ii.   91;  of 

Padua,  ii.  18. 
Martialis,  Libcllatic,  i.   76. 
Martin  of  Tours,  i.  172,   213. 
Martini,  ii.  138. 
Martyrius  of  Antioch,    i.  184. 
Martyrologies,  i.  307. 
Martvr,    Peter   Verniilio,     ii. 

184. 
Martvrs,  i.  61. 
Maru'thas,  i.  117. 
Mary,  Blessed  Virgin,    i.   34, 

47:  feasts  in  her  honor,    i. 

20),   ii.   125;    Sodalitv,     ii. 

3  SO. 
Marv.  of  England,  ii.  198  sq.; 

Stuart,  ii.  199,  202. 
Massalians,  i.  212. 
Jlassilians,  i.  176. 
Massillon,  ii.  259. 
Mathurins,  ii.  64. 
Matilda  of  Tuscanv,    i.  .325, 

3-30,  3.32. 
Matrimoii}-,  i.   111. 
Matter,  i.  25. 
Matthew,  ii.  391. 
Maur,  St..  i.    283;  Congrega- 
tion, ii.  240,  2.59. 
Maurevert,  ii.  188. 


Maurice,  of  Orange,  ii.  194, 

269;  of  Saxony,  ii.  174  sq. 
Mauritius  Burdinus,  i.  332. 
Maxentius,  i.  60. 
Maximian  Ilerculius.  i.  58. 
Maximilian,    of   Bavaria,    ii. 

220;  Emperor,   ii.  155  sq.; 

Frederic,    Archbishop,    ii. 

253;    of    Mexico,    ii.    328; 

St.,   i.  51. 
Maximinus,     Daja,     i.     60; 

Thrax,  i.  57. 
Maximus,  Abbot  of  Constan- 
tinople,  i.  193;  Theurgist, 

i.l21;  usurper,  i.  156,  172. 
Mayence  (Mentz),  i.  50,  236. 
iNIav-laws,  ii.  359  sq. 
MeCabe,  ii.  393. 
McCloskej',  ii.  318  sq. 
McHale.  ii.  341  sq. 
Mechtildis,  Sts.,  ii.  87. 
Medicis,  Catherine  de,  ii.  188 

sq. 
Meindarts,  ii.  284. 
Meinhard,  i.  318. 
Meiuwerk,  i.  290. 
Melanchthon,     ii.     156     sq., 

206. 
Melchiades,  Pope,  i.  80. 
Mekhites,  i.  186. 
Meletian  Schism,  of  Antioch, 

i.  169;  of  Egypt,  i.  161  sq. 
Mek'tius  of  Lycopolis,  i.  161. 
Melito,  Apologist,  i.  67. 
Mellitus,  Bp.   of   London,  i. 

228. 
Memnon,  Bp.  of  Ephesus,  i. 

180. 
Menander,  i.  90. 
Mendicants,  ii.  65  sqq. 
Mennas,    Pt.    of    Constanti- 
nople, i.  188  sq. 
Mennonites,  ii.  269. 
Mensurius,  Bp.  of  Carthage, 

i.  1.59. 
Mermillod,  ii.  378. 
Mesrop,  i.  118. 
Methodists,  ii.  272  sq. 
Methodius,  of  Constantinople, 

i.294;    Monk,    i.   243;    of 

Tvre,  i.  187. 
Metropolitans,  i.  72  sq.,  136 

sq. 
Metternich,  ii.  351. 
iMettrie,  De  la,  ii.  296. 
Metz,  singing-school,  i.  287. 
Mezzofanti,  ii.  401. 
Michael,  Angelo.  ii.  123;  Ce- 

rularius,  i.  298;  of  Cesena, 

ii.  18;  Emperor  (I.,  II.),  i. 

293;   (III.),  i.  295;  St.,  i. 

209. 
Michaelis,  ii.  297. 
INIiezislaw,  i.  244. 
Miiiuel,  Infant,  ii.  .373. 
Milan,  Edict,  i.  60. 
Mileve,  Svnod,  i.  176. 
Militia  Christi,  ii.  67. 

30 


Milner,  ii.  .394. 

Miltitz,  ii.  156. 

Minims,  ii.  65. 

Miiujrites,  ii.  65  sq. 

Minutius  Felix,  i.  67,  88. 

Mirabeau,  ii.  335. 

Misopogon,  i.  125. 

Missa,  i.  200. 

Missale,  i.  202. 

Missaticum,  i.  270. 

Missi  Dominici,  i.  269. 

Mitre,  i.  208. 

Moehler,  i.  23;  ii.  346. 

Molanus,  ii.  286. 

Molay,  James,  ii.  59. 

Molina,  ii.  277. 

Molinus,  ii.  284. 

Molyneux,  ii.  313. 

Momiers,  ii.  421. 

Monarchia  Sicula  {see  Si- 
cilian). 

Monarchians,  i.97. 

Monasticism,  i.  213. 

IMongus,  Peter,  i.  184  sq. 

Monica,  St.,  i.  157. 

Monita  secreta  of  the  Jesuits, 
ii.  237. 

Mi>nnichhausen,  ii.  216. 

Monophvsites,  i.  181  sq. ;  ii. 
140. 

Monothelites,  i.  191  sq. 

Jlontalembert,  ii.  367  sq. 

Montanus,  i.  98. 

Monte  Casino,  i.  282. 

Montesquieu,  ii.  295. 

Montgelas,  ii.  344. 

Monttosier,  ii.  .366. 

iSIoore,  Thomas,  ii.  391. 

Morales,  ii.  1.38,  .309. 

Moralists,  ii.  411. 

Moravian  Brethren,  ii.  271. 

Moreno,  Bishop,  ii.  319; 
President,  ii.  329. 

More,  Thomas,  ii.  195. 

Morgan,  ii.  293. 

Jloriscoes,  ii.  105. 

Mori,  Mary,  ii.  428. 

Morlin,  Joachim,  ii.  265. 

Mormons,  ii.  421. 

Morone,  ii.  240. 

Mosheim,  i.  24. 

Movmir,  i.  243. 

INIiihlberg,  battle,  ii.  174  sq. 

Muenscher,  i.  25. 

Mulieres  subintrodnctae  (spir- 
itual sisters),  i.  135. 

jMiinzer,  Thomas,  ii.  160. 

Muratori,  ii.  259. 

Murillo,  ii.  .309. 

Mutian,  ii.  92. 

Mysticism,  ii.  7.5.  84,  86; 
Protestant,  ii.  270. 


IVTAKATENUS,  ii.  260. 
i^      Nantes,  edict,  ii.  191. 
Naples,  ecclesiastical  affairs, 
ii.  .375. 


466 


GENERAL   INDEX. 


Xapoleon   (I.).    »•    337    sq.; 

(III.),  ii.  368  sq. 
Xarses,  i.  Hi. 
Narvaez,  ii.  373. 
Natalis,     Alexander,    i.    22; 

Confessor,  i.  96;  Hervieus, 

ii.  8-2. 
National  Assembly,  French, 

ii.  335. 
Nausea,  ii.  257. 
Nazarenes,  i.  89. 
Neale.  ii.  313. 
Neander,  i.  24. 
Nectarius,  Pt.  of  Constanti- 
nople, i.  203. 
Nefried  of  }^arbonne,  i.  300. 
Neo-Flatonisni,  i.  63  sq.,  127 

sq. 
Neri,  St.  Piiilip,  ii.  232,  2-38. 
Neriucks,  ii.  314. 
Nero,  I->niperor,  i.  48,  54. 
Nerva,  Emperor,  i.  55. 
Nestoriiis,  i.  178  sqq. 
Netherlands,  ii.  192. 
Neuma,  i.  206. 
Neumann,  ii.  320. 
New  Corvey,  i.  239. 
Newman,  ii.  396  sq. 
Nice,    Council    (I.),    i.    135, 

138;  (II.),  i.  293. 
Niceplioriis,  Emperor,  i.  293; 

Callisti,  i.  21. 
Nice-Rimini,  i.  169. 
Nicetas,  ii.  93. 
Nicholas,    Tope  (I.),  i.   2.55, 

276  sq.,  296;  (II.),  i.  265, 

281;  (III.),  i.  357;  (V.),  ii. 

95. 
Nicholas,  of  Clemange,  ii.  26, 

86;  of  CusH,  ii.  34,  38,  89; 

of  Fliie,  ii.  130 ;  of  Lyra, 

ii.  88. 
Nicolai,  ii.  299. 
Nicolaitanes,  i.  89. 
Nicole,  ii.  258,  279. 
Niem,  Tiieodore,  ii.  24. 
Nieremberr,',  ii.  258. 
Niketas,  PW'toratus,  i.  298. 
Ninian,  St.,  i.  226. 
Ninians,  i.  226. 
Niobites.  i.  186. 
Nisibis,  School,  i.  152. 
Nitzsch,  ii.  414,  416. 
Noailles,  Cardinal,  ii.  281. 
Nobili,  ii.  136. 
Nobretra,  ii.  144. 
Noetus,  i.  97. 
Noffaret,  i.  363;  ii.  14. 
Noiasci.  ii.  63. 
Nominalism,  ii.  77. 
Ndmncanon.  i.  1.50,  299. 
Nonconformists,  ii.  199. 
Nonnus,  Monk,  i.  188. 
Norbert,    Capuchin,    ii.   140; 

St.,  ii.  61,  98. 
Nordliufjen,  battle,  ii.  222. 
Noricum,  i.  50. 
Normans,  James  of,  i.  361. 


Northcote,  ii.  397. 
Notaries,  i.  132. 
Noting  of  Verona,  i.  301. 
Notker,  Balbulus,  i.  288;  La- 

beo,    i.   289;    Physicus,   i. 

289. 
Novatian,  i.  111. 
Novatusof  Carthage,  i.  111. 
Novgorod,  Bishopric,  i.  246. 
Nubia,  i.  119. 
Nunciatures,  ii.  241,  253. 
Nunia,  i.  118. 
Nuremberg,  Diet,  ii.  161. 


OATES,  ii.  206. 
Oblates,  of  St.  Ambrose, 

ii.  238;    of   Friincisca   Ro- 

mana,  ii.  63. 
Obotrites,  i.  317  sq. 
Occam  (»i-t  William). 
Ochino,  ii.  2.36. 
O'Connell.  ii.  398  «i. 
Odoacer.  i.  144,  217,  222. 
Odo  of  Clugny,  St.,  i.  260. 
Gicolampadius,  ii.  177. 
(Ecumenical  Councils,  i.  149. 
Othcials,  ii.  55. 
Otiicium  B.  M.  Y.,  i.  307. 
Offrov  dela  Mettrie,  ii.  296. 
O'Hagan,  ii.  391. 
Olaf,  St.,  i.  242 ;  Skotkonung, 

i.  241:  Trvgvesen,  i.  242. 
Olahus,  ii.  218. 
Old  Catholics,  ii.  407. 
Olier,  ii.  2.58. 
Olivetans,  ii.  162. 
Olmutz,  i.  243. 
'Oixvio^,    6/oioi.ov(7ios,   bii.oov(Tio^, 

i.  167  sqq. 
Ophites,  i.  93. 
Optatns,  i.  161. 
Orange,  Council,  i.  177. 
Orarion,  i.  207. 
Oratorians,  ii.  238. 
Ordeals,  i.  310. 
Ordericus  Vitalis,  i.  21. 
Ordinationes  absolutae,  i.  271. 
Organ,  i.  305;  ii.  177. 
Organic  Articles,  ii.  339. 
Origen,  i.  67,  86  sq. 
Orlando  di  Lasso,  ii.  309. 
Orosius,  i.  20,  127,  175. 
Orsi,  i.  22. 

Orthodoxy,  feast,  i.  307. 
Osiander,"ii.  265. 
Ostiarii  (janitors),  i.  72. 
Ostrogoths,  i.  218  sq. 
Oswald,  Bp.  of  Worcester,  i. 

278;  King,  i.  229. 
Oswy,  King,  i.  229  sq. 
Otfried    of    Weissenburfir,    i. 

288.  *" 

Othlo,  i.  290. 
Otho.    Emperor   (I.),  i.    241, 

260;  (II.).  i.  262:  (III.),  i. 

263;  (IV.).  i.  386;  St.,   i. 

317. 


Oxenstiern,  ii.  222. 
Oxford,  ii.  395. 


PACCA,  Cardinal,  ii.  254 
Pachomius,  i.  213. 

Pack,  Otho.  ii.  165. 

Pactum  Calixtinum,  i.  332. 

Pagi,  Anthony,  i.  21. 

Painters,  ii.  123,  427. 

Palafox,  ii.  145. 

Palestrina,  ii.  307. 

Palladius,  i.  224. 

Pallavicini,  ii.  226. 

Pallium,  i.  142. 

Palma,  i.  22. 

Palm  Sunday,  i.  211. 

Palmer,  ii.  396. 

Pamphilus,  i.  187. 

Pandulph,  i.  348. 

Pannonia,  i.  50. 

Pantai-nus,  i.  85. 

Papal  election,  i.  265  sq., 
3.56;  ii.  28,  31,  243. 

Paphnutius.  i.'135. 

Papias,  i.  46,  82,  99. 

Parabolani,  i.  132. 

Paracelsus,  ii.  270. 

Para-us,  ii.  286. 

Pardulus,  i.  301. 

Paris,  Congress,  ii.  402;  Fran- 
cis de,  ii.  282;  University, 
ii.  73. 

Parker,  ii.  201. 

Parmenian,  i.  161. 

Pascal,  ii.  279:  Pope  (I.),  i. 
254;  (II.),  i.  331. 

Paschasius,  Quesnel,  ii.  281 
sq. ;  Radbertns,  i.  288,  302. 

Passagians,  ii.  99. 

Passau,  Treaty,  ii.  175. 

Passionists.  ii'  238. 

Pataria.  i.  281. 

Paten,  i.  208. 

Paternus,  St.,  i.  227. 

Patriarchs,  i.  137. 

Patricius,  St.,  i.  224  sq. 

Patripassionists,  i.  97. 

Patristic  literature,  i.  151. 

Patronage,  i.  131.  271. 

Paulicians,  i.  171  sq.;  ii.  95, 
99. 

Paulinus,  of  Aquileia,  i.  286; 
of  Treves,  i.  167;  of  York, 
i.  228. 

Paul,  Pope  (II.),  ii.  41; 
(III.),  ii.  196,  226,  232; 
(lY.),  i.  228sq.,  240;  (V.), 
ii.  242,  278. 

Paulus,  Apostle,  i.  40  sq. ;  of 
the  Cross,  ii.  238;  Diaro- 
nus,  i.  286 ;  of  Emesa,  i. 
180;  of  SHmosata,  i.  96, 
172;  of  Thebes,  i.  116. 

Pavia,  Synod,  i.  264;  Pseudo- 
Synod,  i.  338. 

Pazmann,  ii.  218. 

Peada,  King,  i.  229. 


GENERAL   INDEX. 


467 


Peasants'  War,  ii.  162. 
Pedro,  ii.  373. 
Peel,  Robert,  ii.  390. 
Pehom,  ii.  251. 
Pelagianism,  i.  172  sq. 
Pelaijius.   Pope    (I.),    i.   147, 

l!(b;  (II.),  i.  138,  190. 
Pelagius,  Apocrisiarius,  i.  18S ; 

Monk,  i.  172  sq. 
Pelbart,  ii.  129. 
Pella,  i.  48. 
Pelhcia,  ii.  259. 
Pellison,  ii.  288. 
Penance,  sacrament,  i.  108  S(i. 
Pencla,  King,  i.  229. 
Penitential  books,  i.  203  sq; 

discipline,  i.  108  sq. 
Penitentiaries,  ii.  55. 
Penn,  ii.  149,  274. 
Pentecost,  i.  112. 
Pepin,  i.  249  sq. 
Pepuzians,  i.  98. 
Peraldus,  ii.  89. 
Percy,  ii.  108. 
Peregrinus  Proteus,  i.  63. 
Periarchon  (On  First  Princi- 
ples), i.  87,  187. 
Perpetua,  St.,  i.  57. 
Perpignan,  ii.  27. 
Perron,  Dii,  ii.  257. 
Persecution,  of  Christians,  i. 

54  sq.;  of -Jews,  i.  321. 
Persia,  i.  117. 
Per    Venerabilem,    Decretal, 

ii.  49. 
Petavius,  ii.  257. 
Peter,  d'Ailly,  ii.  26,  86;  of 
Aragon,  ii.  102;  Aureolus, 
ii.  So;  of  Bruvs.  ii.  98;  of 
Castelnau,   ii.'lOl;  Flotte, 
i.  361 ;  the  Great,  of  Russia, 
ii.  290;  the  Hermit,  i.  312; 
of  Limoges,  ii.  60;  de  Luna, 
ii.  23;  of  Murrone,  ii.  61; 
Xolascus,  ii.  63;  de  Palude, 
ii.  18;  of  Pisa,   i.  286;  de 
Vinea.  i.  351;  Waldus,  ii. 
102. 
Peterson,  ii.  213. 
Peter's  pence,  ii.  51. 
Petit,  ii.  237. 
Petrarca,  ii.  90. 
Petrobrusians,  ii.  98. 
Petriis,  Apostle,  i.  44  sq.,  50; 

of  Constantinople,  i.  194. 
Peucer,  ii.  266. 
Pfaff.  ii.  2S6. 
Pfeffeikorn,  ii.  155. 
Ptiug,  Julius,  ii.  171. 
Phantasiasts,  i.  186. 
Pharisees,  i.  30. 
Philip,    Arabs,    i.    57 ;    Au- 
gust, of  France,  i.  318,  348; 
the    Fair,    i.   359    sq.  ;    of 
Hesse,  i.  164  sq.,  170;  of 
Spain  (II.),  ii.  106.  192  sq., 
2.J1. 
Pliilippists,  ii.266. 


Phillips,  ii.  346. 
Philo,  i.  31. 
Philopatris,  i.  125. 
Philoponus,  i.  186. 
Piiilosopluimena,  i.  87. 
Philostorgius,  i.  20. 
Philostratus,  i.  64. 
Philoxenus,  i.  185. 
I'hotinus,     of     Sirmium,     i. 

166. 
Photius,  of  Constantinople,  i. 

295  sq. 
Physiocrats,  ii.  296. 
Piacenza,  Synod,  i.  312. 
Piarists,  ii.  239. 
Picpus,  Congregation,  ii.  331. 
Picts,  i.  22(j. 
Piedmoutese,  ii.  407. 
Pietism,  ii.  270. 
Pilgrim  of  Passau,  i.  246. 
Pilgrimages,  i.  208. 
Pirminius,  St.,  i.  232. 
Pisa,  Synod,  ii.  28  sq. 
Pistoja,  Synod,  ii.  255. 
Pistus,  i.  165. 
Pithon,  ii   246. 
Pitt,  ii.  .308. 

Pius,   Pope  (I.),  i.  78;  (II.), 
ii.  41:  (HI.),  li.  45;  (IV.), 
ii.   228  s(i.,   240;    (V'.),    i. 
240;    (VI.),     ic     251    sq.; 
(VH.),  ii.  400;  (VIII.),  ii. 
400;  (IX.),  ii.  401  sq. 
Pizarro,  ii.  143. 
Placidus.  St.,  i.  283. 
Planck,  i.  24. 
Platiua,  ii.  41. 
Plato,  i.  32. 
Plenaries,  ii.  128. 
Plettenburg,  ii.  215. 
Plinius,  the  Younger,  i.  55. 
Plotinus.  i.  64. 
Plymouth  Brethren,  ii.  421. 
Pneumatics,  i.  91. 
Pneumatomachoi,  i.  170. 
Poetry,  ecclesiastical,  i.  207. 
Poissv,  Religious  Conference, 
ii.  184. 

Pole,  Cardinal,  ii.  198,   201, 
227,  232. 

Polemics  of    the   Pagans,  i. 
62  sq.,  124  sq. 

PoligUMc,  ii.  .366. 

Polo,  Marco,  i.  316. 

Poltrot  de  Mere,  ii.  186. 

Polycarp,  St..  i.  82,  113. 

PolVcrates     of     Ephesus,     i. 
li3. 

Polyglot,   Complutensian,  ii. 
88. 

Pomhal.  ii.  144,  303. 

Pompadour,  ii.  296. 

Pompouatus,  ii.  91. 

Pons  Milvius,  battle,  i.  60. 

Pontianus,  i.  79. 

Pontifex    Maximus,    i.    120, 
123;  ii.  133. 

Poor  Clares,  ii.  66. 


Poor  Man's  Bible,  ii.  128. 
l^or  of  Lj'ons,  ii.  102. 
Populicans,  i.  172. 
Porphyrins,  i.  64. 
Portier,  ii.  314. 
Port  Royal,  ii.  280. 
Positivism,  ii.  410. 
Possessor,  i.  177. 
I'osseviu,  ii.  214,  290. 
Potamiaua,  i.  57. 
Pothinus,  i.  56. 
Pourney.  ii.  110. 
Praedesiinatus,  i.  177. 
Praefaiio.  i.  201. 
Pragmatic    Sanction,   ii.   39, 

245. 
Prague,    Bishopric,    i.    244; 

Peace,  ii.  222. 
Praxeas,  i.  97  sq. 
Preaching,  ii.  127. 
Predestination,  i.  178. 
Premonstratensians,  ii.  61. 
Presbyterians,    ii.    199,    203, 

205;!  418,  420. 
Prierias,  Sylvester,  ii.  156. 
Priests,    distinguished    from 

bishops,  i.  67  sq. 
Primacy  of  the  Roman  bishop, 

i.  73  sq.,  139  sq.,  275  sq. 
Priscillian,  i.  171  sq. 
Private  Oratories,  i.  271. 
Privatu?,  i.  75. 
Privilegium  Fori.  i.  243,  342; 

of  Henry  V.,  .331. 
Probabilismus,  ii.  258. 
Processions,    i.   211;    on   St. 

Mark's  Day,  i.  211. 
Proclus,  i.  126. 

Pi'ocope,  ii.  115. 

Prodieians,  i.  93. 
Profession  of  Faith,  Triden- 
tine,  ii.  230. 

Propaganda,  i.  135. 

Proselytes,  i.  134. 

Prosper  of  Aquitania,  i.  177. 

Proterius,  Pt.  of  Alexandria, 
i.  184. 

Protestantism,  ii.  166  sq. 

Protestants,  Free,  ii.  413. 

Protestant  Union,  ii.  414  sq. 

Protoktistoi,  i.  188. 

Provincial  Synods,  i.  149;  ii. 
229. 

Prudentius,  i.  207 ;  of  Troyes, 
i.  301. 

Pseudo-Clementines,  i.  89. 

Pseudo-Isidorean     Decretals, 
i.  273. 

Psj'chics,  i.  91. 

Ptolemsus,  de  Fiadonibus,  i. 
21 :  Gnostic,  i.  93,  173. 

Publicans,  i.  172. 

Pugin,  ii.  427. 

Puicheria,  i.  183. 

Purcell,  .1.  B.,  ii.  315. 

Puritans,  ii.  194. 

Pusey,  ii.  396  sq.,  419. 

Pythagoras,  i.  65. 


468 


GENERAL   INDEX. 


QUADRAPtESIMA  (Lent), 
i.  114.  -209. 
Quadratus,  Bp.  of  Athens,  i. 

67. 
Quadrivium,  i.  287. 
Quaker,  ii.  274. 
Quart o-decimaiis,  i.  113 
Quesnay,  ii.  2'JG. 
Quesnel,  ii.  281  sq. 
Quickenborne,  ii.  315. 
Quiercy,  .SyiKid,  i.  301  sq. 
Quietism,  ii.  2ft4  sq. 
Quill,  ii.  3'Jl. 
Quinisextuin,  i.  194. 
Quiriuus,  St.,  i.  51. 


RABANUS  Maurus,  i.  288, 
301  sq. 

Rabulas,  Bp.  of  Edessa,  i. 
180. 

Kacine,  Bonaventure,  i.  22. 

Racow,  Catechism,  ii.  2~ii. 

Radbertus,  i.  288,  302. 

Radbot,  i.  233. 

Rahosa,  ii.  290. 

Rale,  ii.  150. 

Ranee,  Boutliillier,  ii.  240. 

Raoul,  ii.  101. 

Rapert,  i.  288. 

Raskohiiks,  ii.  291. 

Rasoherina,  ii.  331. 

Rathevius,  Bp.  of  Verona,  i. 
290. 

Rationalism,  protest,  ii.  297. 

Ratisbon,  i.  232,  234;  Alli- 
ance, ii.  161;  Diet,  ii.  172; 
Interim,  ii.  170. 

Ratramnus  of  C'or\  cv,  i.  288, 
301. 

Ranscher,  i.  23. 

Rauteiistrauch,  ii.  251,  300. 

Ravaillac,  ii.  236. 

Raymond  {VI.,  VII.),  ii. 
101,  102;  Lullus,  ii.  83;  of 
Pennaforte,  ii.  63,  89;  of 
Sabunde,  ii.  86. 

Raynaldus,  i.  21. 

Rayneval,  ii.  403. 

Realism,  ii.  77. 

Reccared.  i.  219,  285. 

Receveur.  i.  22. 

Rechberger,  ii.  354. 

Redemptorists.  ii    238. 

Reflections,  moral,  ii.  281. 

Reformers,  ii.  260  sq. 

Regalia,  ii.  244. 

Reginald,  i.  347. 

Regino,  Abbot,  i.  289. 

Reichenau.  Abbev,  i.  232. 

Reichlin-Meldegg,  i.  23;  ii. 
3.52. 

Reifteiistuel.  ii.  2.59. 

Reinal  of  Dassul,  i,  337  sq. 

Reinbern,  i.  317. 

Reinkens,  ii.  424. 

Keisach,  Cardinal,  ii.  362. 

Relics,  veneration,  i.  11,5,  210. 


Rembert,  i.  240. 

Remigius,  of  Auxerre,  i.  223, 

290;  of  Lyons,  i.  302. 
Remoboth,  i.  214. 
Remonstrance  of  Arminians, 

ii.  268. 
Renan,  ii.  410. 
Renata,  ii.  219. 
Renaudie,  De  la,  ii.  183. 
Requesens,  ii.  193. 
Reservatum     ecclesiasticum, 

ii.  176,  222. 
Residence,  dntv,  ii.  229. 
Restitution,  Edict,  ii.  221. 
1  Reuchlin,  ii.  88,  92,  155. 
'  Rh*tia,  i.  50. 
Rheinis,   English    Seminary, 

i.  200. 
I  Rhense,  Diet,  ii.  20  sq. 
j  Rhetoricians,  i.  212. 
j  Rhinocorura,  School,  i.  152. 
Rhynsburger       (see      Colle- 

giants). 
Ricci,  Lorenzo,  ii.  306;  Mat- 

teo,  ii.  137;  Scipio,  ii.  255. 
Richard,      ot     Cornwall,     i. 

356  sq. ;  the  Lion  Heart,  i. 

313;  of  St.  Victor,  ii.  84. 
Richelieu,  ii.  191. 
Richer,  Edinond,  ii.  246. 
Richter,  ii.  415. 
Ridley,  ii.  197. 
Rieiizi,  Cola  di,  ii.  22. 
Riffel,  ii.  352. 
Riga,  i.  319. 

Rimini,  Synod,  i.  168;    Ma- 
donna, ii.  428. 
Ring  and  crosier,  i.  208,  269. 
Ritter,  historian,  i.  23. 
Ritualists,  ii.  419. 
Rituals,  i.  306. 
Robber  Synod,  i.  183. 
Robbia,  Luca  della,  ii.  124. 
Robert,  of  Abrissel,  ii.  62;  of 

Geneva,  ii.   23;    Guiscard, 

i.  260,   327;    of  Melun,   i. 

266,  327;  of  Naples,  ii.  15; 

Pulleyne,    ii.   79;    of  Sor- 

bonne,  ii.  74. 
Rodoald,  i.  296. 
Rodriguez,  ii.  258. 
Rogations,  i.  21. 
Roger,  B.-ieon.  ii.  83;  of  Nor- 

maiivdy,  i.  330. 
Rolirbaclier.  i.  22. 
Rokvczana,  ii.  115. 
Rola"nd,  i.  325,  337. 
Romanus.  Pope,  i.  258. 
Romuald.  St.,  i.  284. 
Roncaglia,  i.  337. 
Ronge,  ii.  423  sq. 
Rosa,  St.,  ii.  144. 
Rosarv,  i.  307. 
Rosati",  ii.  314. 
Roscelin,  ii.  77. 
Rosicrncians,  ii.  270. 
Rossi,  Minister,  ii.  402. 
Roswitha,  i.  289. 


Rothad  of  Soisson,  i.  276. 

Rothe,  ii.  414. 

Rousseau,  ii.  296. 

Roverella.  ii.  341. 

Royko,  i.'23. 

Riidigier,  Bp.  of  Linz,  ii.  3.;8 

Rudolph,  of  Hapsburg,  i.  35(i : 
of  Suabia,  i.  326. 

Ruegen,  i.  318. 

Rufinus  of  Aquileia,  i.  l."i'. 
187. 

Rule  of  Faith,  i.  99. 

Rupert,  of  Deutz,  ii.  85,  88  •. 
of  Worms,  i.  232. 

Rupp,  ii.  417. 

Rural  bishops,  i.  72;  chap- 
ters, i.  272. 

Russian  Church,  ii.  289,  425. 

Ruttenstock,  i.  23. 

Ruysbroek,  ii.  87. 

Ryswick,  Clause,  ii.  222. 


C  ABAITES.  i.  188. 

^     Sabas,  St.,  i.  188. 

Sabeans,  i.  118. 

Sabellius,  i.  97. 

Sabereth  of  Essex,  i.  228. 

Sabeti,  ii.  411. 

Sabinian,  Po|  e,  i   147. 

Sacarelli,  i.  22. 

Sachoni,  ii.  100. 

Sacranifiitariuni,  i.  202;  Gre- 
gorianuni,  i.  204. 

Sacraments,  controversy  on, 
ii.  160, 166. 

Sacred  Heart,  of  Jesus,  ii.  307, 
426;  of  Mary,  ii.  330. 

Sacrilege,  law  on.  ii.  L66. 

Sadducees,  i.  30. 

Sadolet,  ii.  232. 

Sailer,  ii.  411. 

Saisette,  Bp.  of  Pamiers,    i. 
360. 

Saladin,  i.  313. 

Saldanha,  ii.  303. 

Sales.  St.  Francis,  ii.  233,  239. 

Salisbury,  J.,  ii.  84. 

Salle,  J."B.  dela,  ii.  239. 

.''almeron,  Alphonsus,  ii.  257. 

Salvatierra,  ii.  148. 
Salvation  Army,  ii.  422. 
Salvianus,    Bishoji.    i.     171; 
Presbyter,  i.  128. 

Salza,  James,  ii.  217. 
Salzburg,  i.  235;  emigration 

from,  ii.  286. 
Salzmann,  ii.  325. 
Samaritans,  i.  31. 
Samson,  Bernhardin,  ii.  176. 
San  benito,  ii.  106. 
Sancho  (I.),  i    348. 
Sandoval,  ii.  144. 
Sanzio,  ii.  123. 
Sapienza  at  Rome.  ii.  364. 
Sarabaites.  i    214. 
Saragossa,  Synod,  i.  171. 
Sarbiewski,  ii.  309. 


GENERAL   INDEX. 


469 


Sardica,  Council,  i.  142,  166. 

Sarpi,  Paul,  ii.  243. 

Sarzana,  ii.  3!J. 

Saturday,  i.  114. 

Saturniuus,  Gnostic,  i.  93. 

Savonarola,  ii.  129,  132. 

Sbinko,  ii.  111. 

Scepticism,  ii.  292  sq. 

Scliaezler,  ii.  410. 

Sclmi^f,  i.  25. 

Schall,  Adam,  ii.  138. 

Sclia|)ur,  ii.  117. 

Seheliing,  ii.  408,  413. 

Schenkel,  ii.  413. 

Schiller,  ii.  298. 

Schle.nel,  ii.  3.54. 

Sclileiennacher,  i.  25;  ii.413. 

Sclunalfuss,  i,  23. 

Schnialkakl,  Articles,  ii.  169; 
League,  ii.  168;  war,  ii. 
174. 

Schmidt,  i.  24. 

Schneider,  Eulogius,  ii.  301. 

Schola  Palatina,  i.  286. 

Scholasticism,  ii.  75  sc[q.,  85. 

Schools,  cathedral  and  clois- 
ter, i.  286  s(|. 

vSclionborn,  ii.  286. 

Schreiber,  ii.  3.52. 

Schrukh,  i.  24. 

Sehulte,  ii.  407. 

Schwabach,  Articles,  ii.  166. 

Schwarz  in  Gotha,  ii.  417. 

Schwenkfeld,  ii.  217,  270. 

Sciarra  Colonna,  i.  363. 

Scotists.  ii.  82,  125. 

Scotus  Erigena,  i.  289,  301; 
ii.  76. 

Scupoli,  ii.  258. 

Scythian  Monks,  i.  186. 

Secretarium.  i.  206. 

Sects,  teaching  false  mysti- 
cism, ii.  417. 

Secularization,  ii.  342. 

Secundus,  Gnostic,  i.  93;  of 
Tigisis,  i.  159. 

Sedlnitzki.  ii.  349. 

Sedulius,  i.  207. 

Segarelli,  ii.  98. 

Segliers,  ii.  324. 

Segneri,  ii.  259. 

Seleucia-Ctesiphon,  i.  117. 

Seleucia,  Synod,  i.  168. 

Selvaggio,  ii.  259. 

Semgallians,  i.  319. 

Semi-Arians,  i.  166  sq. 

Seminaries,  i.  133;  ii.  229. 

Semi-Pelagians,  i.  176  sq. 

Semler,  i.  24;  ii.  297. 

Sendomir,  ii.  216. 

Sensualism,  ii.  292. 

Septimius  Severus,  Emperor, 
i.  56. 

Septuagint,  i.  31. 

Serapeion,  i.  123. 

Sergius,  Pope  (II.),  i.  255; 
(ill.),  i.  259  ;  (IV.),  i. 
263. 


Sergius,  of  Constantinople,  i. 
191,  Monothelite;  Schis- 
nuitic,  i.  298. 

Seripand,  ii.  228. 

Servites,  ii.  62. 

Servus  servorum  Dei,  i.  147. 

Sethites,  i.  93. 

Seton,  ii.  313. 

Severians,  i.  191. 

Severin,  Pope,  i.  147;  St.,  i. 
221. 

Severus  of  Antioch,  i,  185. 

Sej'mour,  ii.  197. 

Shaftesbury,  ii.  292. 

Shiel,  ii.  390. 

Shrewsbury,  ii.  395. 

Sicilian,  law-books,  i.  351; 
monarchy,  ii.  247 ;  Vespers, 
i.  357. 

Sicily,  i.  330,  354. 

Sickingen,  Francis,  ii.  158. 

Sidonius  Apollinaris,  i.  219. 

Siegwart-Miiller,  ii.  378. 

Siemasko,  ii.  386. 

Siena,  Council,  ii.  33  sq. 

Sieves,  ii.  335. 

Sigeburt,  King,  i.  229. 

Sigisnuind,  Emperor,  ii.34sq., 
116  sq.,  216;  King  of  Bur- 
gundy, i.  221. 

Signaculum  sinus,  manuum 
et  oris,  i.  96. 

Silverius,  Pope,  i.  185. 

Simeon  the  Stylite,  i.  180. 

Simonetta,  ii.  228. 

Simon,  Magus,  i.  89;  Meta- 
phrastes,  i.  299;  de  Mont- 
fort,  ii.  101  sq. 

Simony,  i.  277,  323. 

Simplician,  i.  158. 

Simplicins,  Pope.  i.  144,  184. 

Singing-schools,  i.  206. 

Siricius,  Pope,  i.  1.35,  141, 
143,  172. 

Sirmium,  Synods  and  For- 
mulas, i.  166  sq. 

Sisinnius,  Pt.  of  Constantino- 
ple, i.  298. 

Sisters,  of  the  Free  Spirit,  ii. 
99  ;  of  Mercv  and  of  the 
Good  Shepherd,  ii.  239. 

Sixtus,  Pope  (I.),  i.b8;  (II.), 
i.  80;  (III.),  i.  144,  180; 
(V.).  ii.  241. 

Skalholt,  Bishopric,  i.  242. 

Skara.  i.241. 

Shiverv,  i.  129. 

Smith,"  ii.  421. 

Socinus,  Faustus  and  Lajlius, 
ii.  262,  276. 

Socrates,  historian,  i.  20; 
philosopher,  i.  32. 

Stt'urs  grises,  ii.  239. 

Soisson,  singing-school,  i. 
287. 

Solidaires,  ii.  382. 

Somaglia,  ii.  400. 

Somaschans,  Ii.  238. 


Sonderbund  War,  ii.  378. 

Sophia,  St.,  church  at  Cott 
stantinople,  i.  204. 

Sophronius,  i.  161  sq. 

Sorbonne,  ii.  74. 

Sorcery,  ii.  126. 

Soter,  Pope,  i.  78. 

Sozomenus,  i.  20. 

Spalatin,  ii.  156. 

Spalding,  M. .).,  ii.  320  sq. 

Spangenberg.  ii.  271. 

Spanheim,  i.  25. 

Spee,  Frederic,  ii.  127. 

Spener.  ii.  270. 

Spiegel,  ii.  349. 

Spinola,  ii.  286. 

Spire,  Diets,  ii.  165, 166, 169. 

Spiritualists,  ii.  69  sq. 

Spiritual  Sisters,  i.  135. 

Spittler,  i.  24. 

Sponsors,  i.  104. 

Stafford,  ii.  206. 

Stahl,  ii.  414. 

Stancari,  ii.  265. 

Stiindlin,  i.  24. 

Stanislaus,  Bishop,  i.  244. 

Stapleton,  ii.  257. 

Starowierzi,  ii.  291. 

Station  davs,  i.  114. 

Stations,  Way  of  the,  i.  307. 

Staupitz,  ii.  156. 

Stefnir,  i.  242. 

Stenhoven,  ii.  283. 

Stenkil,  i.  241. 

Stephen,  Pope  (I.),  i.  75  sq. 
(II.),  i.  251:  (III.),  i.  292 
(IV.),  i.  2.54:  (V.),  i.  2.56 
(VII.),   i.  257:    (VIII.),  i. 
260;  (IX.),  i.  26.5,  281. 

Stephen,  Cardinal,  i.  281 :  of 
Constantinople, i.  298;  King 
of  Hungarv,  i.  246;  Lang- 
ton.  i.  347 ;  of  Tigerno,  ii.  60. 

Stercorianism,  i.  303. 

Sticharion,  i.  207. 

Stilicho.  i.  124. 

Stock,  Simon,  ii.  62. 

Stolberg,  Frederic  L.,  i.  23; 
ii.  427. 

Strafford,  ii.  208. 

Strauss,  David,  ii.  413. 

Strigel,  Victorinus,  ii.  266. 

Sturm,  i.  236. 

Stylites,  i.  214. 

Suarez,  ii.  257,  278. 

Subdeacons,  i.  72. 

Suestriones,  ii.  99. 

Suevi,  i.  219. 

Suffolk,  i.  198. 

Suidger  of  Bamberg,  i.  264. 

Suitbert,  Bishop,  i.  239. 

Sulpicius  Severus.  i.  20. 

Sunday,  i.  111,309. 

Superstition,  ii.  126. 

Supralapsariaus,  ii.  264. 

Surgant,  ii.  127. 

Surius,  ii.  2-59. 

Surplice-fees,  i.  207. 


470 


GENERAL   INDEX. 


Su?o,  ii.  87. 

Sussex,  i.  229, 

Sutri,  Synod,  i.  264;  Treaty, 

i.  331. 
Swatopluk,  i.  243. 
Swedenborg,  ii.  275. 
Sweiul,  i.  241. 
Swerker,  i.  242,  348. 
Swieten,  Van,  ii.  251. 
Sword-bearers,  i.  319. 
Sydow,  ii.  423. 
Svllabus  ii.  403. 
Sylvester,    Pope   (I.),    i.   80, 

143;  (II.),  i.263. 
Symbol,    Apostolic,    i.    103; 

Athanasian,  i.  194. 
Symbolic  Books,  Protestant, 

"ii.  260. 
Sj-mbolism,  ii.  411. 
Symeon,    Abbot,    ii.   96;   of 

Seleucia,    i.   117;    of   Tre- 

bisond,  ii.  95. 
Symmachus,  Pope,  i.  145, 222. 
Svmmachus,  Senator,  i.  123. 
Syncelli,  i.  132. 
Svncretistic  Controversy,   ii. 

'208. 
Synergistic   Controversy,    ii. 

'266. 
Synesius  of   Cyrene,  i.  155, 

207. 
Svnnada,  Svnod,  i.  105. 
Synod,   Ho'ly,    ii.   290,    425; 

Permanent,  i.  137,  149. 
Syria,  Mahometanism  in,   i. 

-247. 
Syrianus,  i.  107. 
System,  feudal,  i.  267. 


rpABALDESCHI,  ii.  23. 

-I-      Tabernacle,  ii.  123. 

Taborites,  ii.  115  sq. 

Talavera,  i.  321. 

Talleyrand,  ii.  335  sq. 

Talm'ud,  i.  49. 

Tamburini,  i.  255. 

Tanchelm,  ii.  98.- 

Tanner,  Adam,  ii.  121,  257. 

Tanucci,  ii.  305. 

Tarasiiis,  Pt.  of  Constanti- 
nople, i.  293. 

Tatian,  i.  67,  8.3,  94. 

Tauler,  ii.  87. 

Taiisen,  ii.  215. 

Tehtrakwita,  ii.  151. 

Tt-jada,  ii.  328. 

Telesphorus,  Pope,  i.  78. 

Teller,  ii.  298. 

Tellier.  Le,  ii.  191. 

Templars,  ii.  14. 

Temples,  pagan,  destro5'ed, 
i.  123  sq. 

Territorial  system,  ii.  175. 

Tertiaries,  ii.  66  sq. 

Tertullian,  i.  67,  75,  87  sn., 
98. 

Test  Act,  ii.  206. 


Tetzel,  ii.  154. 
Teutonic  Knights,  i.  313. 
Teutonicus,  John,  ii.  54. 
Thaddeus  of  Suessa,  i.  353. 
Thalia,  ii.  163. 
Thankbrand,  i.  242. 
Theatines,  ii.  238. 
Theban  Legion,  i.  59. 
Thecla,  St.,  i.  2.36. 
Theiuer,  i.  22;  ii.  428. 
Tbemistius,  i.  186. 
Theoctistus,  Bp.  of  Cicsarea, 

i.  86. 
Theodelinda,  i.  223. 
Theodo  of  Bavaria,  i.  2-32. 
Theodora,  Empress,    i.    185; 

the  Elder  and  the  Younger, 

i.  258. 
Theodore,  Pope  (I.),  i.  193; 

(II  ),  i.  258. 
Theodore,  Askidas,  i.  188  sq. ; 

of  Canterbury,  i.  229;  the 

Lector,  i.  20 ;  of  Mopsuestia, 

i.  152;  Studita,  i.  293. 
Theodoretof  Cvrus,  i.20, 127, 

154,  179  sq.,  189. 
Theodoric,  i.  145sq.;  (I.),  i. 

222:  (II.),  i.  2.32. 
Theodosians,  i.  191. 
Theodosius,  the  Great,  i.  123 

sq.,  156,  170;  (II.),  i.  130. 

179  sq.;  Monk,  i.  184. 
Theodotus,  the  Broker,  i.  96; 

Cassiteras,  i.  293;  the  Tan- 
ner, i.  96. 
Theodulph,   Bp.  of  Orleans, 

i.  287. 
Theopaschites,  i.  186. 
Theophanes,  i.  207. 
Theophilanthropists,  ii.  337. 
Theophilus,  of  Alexandria,  i. 

154,  187;  Apologist,  i.  67, 

83;  of  Diu,  i.  118. 
Theophylact,  i.  299. 
Therapeutae,  i.  31. 
Theresa,  St.,  ii.  232. 
Theutberga,  i.  276. 
Thiers,  ii.  368  sq. 
Thiersch,  ii.  421. 
Thietgaut  of  Treves,  i.  277. 
Thirty  Years'  V^'&r,  ii.  219  sq. 
Thomasius,  ii.  414. 
Thomas,    of  Aquino,    ii.   68, 

80   sq.,    129;  ii   Becket,    i. 

.342  sq.,  ii.  196;  ii  Kern  pis, 

ii.  6.5,  87;  Moore,  ii.  391; 

of    Strasburg,    ii.    86;    of 

Villanova,  ii.  232. 
Thomas,    St.,    Christians,    i. 

181. 
Thomassin,  ii.  257  sq. 
Thomists,  ii.  82,  125. 
ThiMitrakians.  i.  172. 
Thcinicy  Al)liey.  i.  278. 
Tliorn,  Religious  Conference, 

ii.  268. 
Thrasaniund,  i.  220. 
Three  chapters,  i.  188. 


Thuringia,  i.  234  sq. 

Thyestic  repasts,  i.  53. 

Tia'ra,  ii.  51. 

Tiberius,  i.  54. 

Tillemont,  i.  22. 

Tilly,  ii.  221. 

Timotheus  ^luros,  i.  184. 

Tindal,  ii.  293. 

Tipasa,  miracle,  i.  220. 

Tiridates,  i.  118. 

Tithe  Bill,  ii.  391. 

Titlu-^,  1.  270. 

Titian,  ii.  123  sq. 

Titular  bishops,  i.  272;  ii.  55. 

Titus,  i.  48,  55. 

Tobias  of  York,  i.  230. 

Toland,  ii.  293. 

Toledo,  Synods,  i.  172,  220. 

Toleration   Edict   of    Joseph 

(II.),  ii.  219,  252. 
Toletus,  Francis,  ii.  257. 
Tomacelli,  ii.  25. 
Tonsure,  i.  214,  231. 
Torgau,    Articles,     ii.     166; 

Treaty,  ii.  165. 
Torquafo  Tasso,  ii.  309. 
Torquemada,  ii.  105. 
Tostatus,  Alphonsus,  ii.  88. 
Tournou,  ii.  136. 
Tours,  Cloister-school,  i.  287. 
Tractarians,  ii.  396  sq. 
Tradition,  i.  99  sq. 
Traditionalism,  ii.  409. 
Traditors,  i.  59. 
Traducianism,  i.  88. 
Trajan,  Emperor,  i.  48,  55. 
Translations  of  the  Bible,  ii. 

1.30. 
Transubstantiatiou,  ii.  119. 
Trnppists,  ii.  240. 
Traversari,  ii.  94,  97. 
Treillard,  ii.  335. 
Trent,  Council,  ii.  175, 226  sqq. 
Treuga  Dei,  i.  310. 
Treves,    pilgrimage     to,     ii. 

356,  424. 
Tribur,   Assembly  of  Princes, 

i.  325 ;  Reformatory  Svnod, 

i.  280. 
Tridentine  profession  of  faith, 

ii.  2-30. 
Trinitarians,  i.  162  sq. ;  order, 

ii  64. 
Trinity,  feast,  ii.  125. 
Trithe'ism,  i.  186. 
Trithemius,  John,  ii.  92. 
Triumphns,  Augustus,  ii.  18. 
Trivium,  i.  287. 
Troy,  Synod,  i.  276. 
Trudpeft,  St.,  i.  2.32. 
Trnllan  Svnod,  i.  135,   138; 

(II.),  i.  '194. 
Trygvesen,  Olaf,  i.  242. 
Trypho,  Dialogue,  i.  83. 
Tubirius  of  Lima,  ii.  143. 
Tudeschi,  ii.  .37,  89. 
Tudun.  i.  239. 
Turketul,  Abbey,  i.  278. 


GENERAL  INDEX. 


471 


Turrecremata,  ii.  90,  94. 

TuiTetin»  i.  25. 

Tutilo,  i.  288. 

Tvpus  of  Coustans   (II.), 

"]93. 
Tyrants,  murder  of,  ii.  237. 
Tyre,  Synod,  i.  165. 


U 


BAGHS,  ii.  409. 
Ubertino  of  Casale,  ii. 
18. 
Ubiciuity,  ii.  266. 
Uchanski,  ii.  216. 
Uda,  i.232. 
Udoceus,  St.,  i.  227. 
Uhlieh,  ii.  417. 
UlHla^5,  i.  219. 

Ulric,   of   Augsburg,  i.  280, 
307;     Hutten,    ii,    92;    of 
Wiirtemberg,  ii.  169. 
Unam  sanctain,  Bull,  i.  365. 
Uniformity,  Act  of,  ii.  198. 
Uiii,i;enitus,  Bull,  ii.  281. 
Union,  attempts  at,  between 
Catholics   and   Greeks,   ii. 
93  sq. ;  between  Catholics 
and  Protestants,  ii.  286  sq.; 
among  Protestants,  ii.  286 
sq.,  415  sq. 
Union,  decree  at  Florence,  ii. 

97. 
Unitarians,  ii.  262,  276. 
Universal    German   Library, 

ii.  299. 
Universities,  ii.  73  sq. 
Unni,  i.  241. 

Upsala,  i.  241;  Disputation, 
ii.  213;  so-called  Council, 
ii.  214. 
Urban  (I.),  i.  79;  (II.),  i. 
330,  .341;  (III.),  1.344;  ( v.), 
ii.22;  (VI.),  ii.  23  sq.,  107; 
(Vni.),  ii.  243,  279. 
Ursacius   of   Singidunum,  i. 

166. 
Ursinus  (Ursicius),  i.  143, 162. 
Ursuline  Xuns,  ii.  239. 
Usuard,  i.  307. 
Utah  Territory,  ii.  421. 
Utraquists,  ii."ll4. 
Utrecht,  metropolis,  ii.  384: 
Schism,  ii.  28-T;  Union,  ii. 
194. 

YALENCE,  Synod,  i.  178, 
302.  ' 

Valens,  Emperor,  i.  123;  Bp. 

of  Mursa,  i.  166. 
Valentine,     Gnostic,     i.    92; 

Pope,  i.  255. 
Valentinian  (I.),  i.  123;  (II.), 

i.   123,  171;  (OI.),  i.  179, 

182. 
Valerian,  Emperor,  i.  58. 
Valerius,  Bp.  of  Hippo,  i.  158. 
Valesius,  i.  25. 


Valla,  L.,  ii.  91. 
Valladolid,  ii.  72. 
Vallombrosa,  i.  282,  284. 
Vandals,  i.  220. 
Vannes,     Ct  ngregation,      ii. 

240. 
Varlet,  Dominic,  ii.  284. 
Vasquez,  ii.  257,'  278. 
Vassy,  ii.  186. 
Vatican  Council,  ii.  405  sq. 
Veccus,  ii.  94. 
Vechta,  Conrad,  ii.  114. 
Vega,  Lope  de,  ii.  309. 
Venantius  Fortunatus,  i.  207. 
Venema,  i.  25. 

Venice,  Peace,  i.  339 ;  strug- 
gle with  Rome,  ii.  243. 
Verbiest,  ii.  138. 
Vercelli,  Synod,  i.  304. 
Verona,  Council,  ii.  104. 
Veronica,  image,  i.  210. 
Vespasian,  Emperor,  i.  48,  55. 
A'icari,  Archbishop,  ii.  362  sq. 
^'icarius,  Christi,  ii.  51;  gen- 
eralis,    ii.    55 ;    perpetuus, 
ii.  56. 
Vicelin,  i.  318. 
Victor,   Pope  (L),    i.  76,  79, 
113;    (II.),     i.     265,     281; 
(III.),  i.  330;  (IV.),  i.  3.34. 
Victor,  Emmanuel,  ii.  374  sq., 

402  sq. 
Victorinus,  i.  51. 
Vienna,    Concordat,     ii.    39; 

Congress,  ii.  343. 
Vienna,  Synod,  i.  331;  ii.  14. 
Vieyra,  ii.  144,  259. 
Vigilantius,  i.  212. 
Vigil  ius,   Pope,    i.   147,  185, 

189  sq. 
Vigils,  i.  114. 
Vilmar,  ii.  414. 
Vincent,  of  Beauvais,  ii.  83; 
of  Capua,   i.   166;  Ferrer, 
ii.  26,  29. 
Vinci,  Leonardo  da,  ii.  123. 
Vinea,  Peter  de,  i.  351. 
Vintimilla,  ii.  282. 
Viollet-Ie-Duc,  ii.«427. 
Viret,  ii.  178. 
Virgilius,  Bp.  of  Salzburg,  i. 

243.  - 

Virginity,  \.  115. 
Vischer,  ii.  124. 
Visigoths,  i.  218  s(|. 
Visitation,   Order  of  the,  ii. 

2.39. 
Visitations  of  bishops,  {.  136 ; 

ii.  229. 
Vita  canonica  or  communis, 

i.  272. 
Vitalian,  i.  148,  185,  193. 
Vitus,  i.  320. 
Vivarium,  i.  222. 
Vives,  L.,  ii.  93. 
Volmar,  Melchior,  ii.  182. 
Voltaire,  ii.  295. 
Vulgate,  revised,  ii.  242. 


WALAFRIED  Strabo,  i. 
288. 
Walburgis,  St.,  i.  2-36. 
Waldeck,  Francis,  ii.  171. 
Waldemar  of  Demnark,  i.  318. 
Waldenses,  ii.  99  sq. 
Waldrada,  i.  277. 
Wallenstein,  ii.  221. 
Walter,  of  St.  Victor,  ii.  84; 
von  dcr  Vogelweide,  ii.  130. 
Wamba,  i.  220. 
Wandelbert,  i.  307. 
Ward,  Mary,  ii.  239. 
Warham,  ii.  195. 
Warnefried,  i.  286. 
Warsaw,  Religious  Peace,  iL 

216. 
Warwick,  ii.  197. 
Wasa,  Gustavus,  ii.  213. 
Watson,  Thomas,  ii.  200. 
Watteville,  ii.  271. 
Wazon,  i.  290. 
Weigel,  ii.  270. 
Weishaupt,  i.  302. 
Wejslinger,  ii.  286. 
Weismann,  i.  24. 
Wellesley,  ii.  395. 
Wellington,  ii.  390. 
Wenceslaus  of  Bohemia,    ii. 

Ill  sq. 
Wenceslaw,  i.  243. 
Werkmeister,  ii.  302. 
Werner,  Zacharv,  ii.  354. 
Wertheim  Bible,'  ii.  300. 
Wesel,  John  of,  ii.  132. 
Wesley,   John  and  Charles, 

ii.  272  sq. 
Wessel,  John,  ii.  132. 
Wessenberg,  ii.  343  sq. 
Wessex,  i.'229. 
Westminster  Abbey,  i.  278. 
Westphalia,  Peace,  ii.  222. 
White,  ii.  149. 
Whitefield,  George,  ii.  272. 
Whitfield,  ii.  315. 
Wibald,  i.  -325. 
Wiching,  Bishop,  i.  243. 
Wicho,  Bislrop,  i.  239. 
Widukind,  i.  289. 
Wieland,  ii.  298. 
Wii^and,  ii.  266. 
Wigbert,  i.  233. 
Wilberforce,  ii.  398.      ■ 
Wild.  J.,  ii.  2.59. 
Wilfried,  Bishop,  i.  229.  233 

239. 
Wilhelmina  of  Bohemia,  ii.99. 
Willobad,  B..  i.  239. 
William,    of  Bavaria   (IV.), 
ii.   233;   the  Blest,   i.  284; 
of  Champeanx.   ii.  77;    of 
England  (I.),  i.  281,  324; 
(II.).  i.  .340  sq.;  of  Occam, 
ii.  18. 85, 170 ;  of  Orange,  ii. 
192sq.,  ,380;  of  Paris,  ii.99; 
duPlessis,  i.  363.  ii.  14:  of 
Prussia,  ii.  .360 ;  of  Thierry, 
ii.  78,  80. 


472 


GENERAL  INDEX. 


Willibald,  i.  236. 
Willibrord,  i.  239. 
Wimmer,  Boniface,  ii.  320. 
Winipheling,  ii.  132. 
Winipina,  Conrad,  ii.  156. 
Windesheim,  Canons  regular, 

ii.  65. 
AViiidischmann,  ii.  362. 
Winfried,  i.  233. 
Winno,  i.  319. 
Wiseman,  ii.  397  sq. 
Wittekind,  i.  237. 
Wittenberg,    Concordia,     ii. 

169. 
Wittiza,  i.  220. 
AVitzel  (Wicel),  ii.  220. 
Wladeniir,  i.  246. 
Wladislaw  (IV.),  ii.  216. 
Woellner.  Prussian  Minister, 

ii.  299. 
Wolf,  i.23;  ii.  297. 
Wolfgang,  Bp.  of  Ratisbon, 

i.  246. 
Wolsey,  ii.  194. 
Woolston,  ii.  293. 


Worms,   Concordat,    i.   332; 

Diet,  ii.  159. 
Worship,  i.  114,  199 ;  ii.  307. 
Wouters,  i.  22. 
Wratislaw,  i.  243. 
Wrede,  ii.  346. 
Wulfram,  Bishop,  i.  233,  239. 
Wunibald,  i.  236. 
Wiirzburg,  Assembly,  ii.  356. 
Wyatt,  ii.  198. 
Wycliffe,  ii.  107. 


XAVIER,   St.  Francis,  ii. 
135. 
Xenaias,  i.  185. 
Ximenes,   Cardinal,    i.    200, 
321;  ii.  88,  142. 


YORK,  Bishopric,  i.  228. 
Young,  Brigham,  ii.  421. 
Yxkuell,  i.  318. 


ZACCARIA,  ii.  250. 
Zachary,  Pope^  i.  236, 

251. 
Zachary,  of  Anagni,  i.  296. 
Zapolya,  ii.  217. 
Zelus  domus    Dei,    Bull,   ii. 

222. 
Zeno,   Emperor,   i.  181,   184 

sq. 
Zenobia,  i.  96. 
Zephyrinus,  Pope,  i.  75,  79, 

87,  109. 
Zinzendorf,  ii.  271,  290. 
Ziska,  ii.  115. 
Zoglio,  ii.  254. 
Zosimus,  Pagan,  i.  125 ;  Pope, 

i.  144,  175  sq. 
Ziilpich  (Tolbiacum),  battle, 

i.  223. 
Zurich,      Zwinglianism,     ii. 

176  sqq. 
Zwickau,  Prophets,   ii.   160, 

192. 
Zwinglius,    ii.  176  sq.,   260 

sq. 


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